Nuclear translocation of MEK1 triggers a complex T cell response through the corepressor silencing mediator of retinoid and thyroid hormone receptor

The sequence [EKRKI(E/R)(K/L/R/S/T)] is a nuclear localization signal for importin 7 binding (NLS7)

BACKGROUND

Nuclear translocation of large proteins is mediated through specific protein carriers, collectively named karyopherins (importins, exportins and adaptor proteins). Cargo proteins are recognized by importins through specific motifs, known as nuclear localization signals (NLS). However, only the NLS recognized by importin α and transportin (M9 NLS) have been identified so far METHODS: An unsupervised in silico approach was used, followed by experimental validation.

RESULTS

We identified the sequence EKRKI(E/R)(K/L/R/S/T) as an NLS signal for importin 7 recognition. This sequence was validated in the breast cancer cell line T47D, which expresses importin 7. Finally, we verified that importin 7-mediated nuclear protein transport is affected by cargo protein phosphorylation.

CONCLUSIONS

The NLS sequence for importin 7 was identified and we propose this approach as an identification method of novel specific NLS sequences for β-karyopherin family members.

GENERAL SIGNIFICANCE

Elucidating the complex relationships of the nuclear transporters and their cargo proteins may help in laying the foundation for the development of novel therapeutics, targeting specific importins, with an immediate translational impact.

MEK1 regulates pulmonary macrophage inflammatory responses and resolution of acute lung injury

The MEK1/2-ERK1/2 pathway has been implicated in regulating the inflammatory response to lung injury and infection, and pharmacologic MEK1/2 inhibitor compounds are reported to reduce detrimental inflammation in multiple animal models of disease, in part through modulation of leukocyte responses. However, the specific contribution of myeloid MEK1 in regulating acute lung injury (ALI) and its resolution remain unknown. Here, the role of myeloid Mek1 was investigated in a murine model of LPS-induced ALI (LPS-ALI) by genetic deletion using the Cre-floxed system (LysMCre × Mekfl), and human alveolar macrophages from healthy volunteers and patients with acute respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS) were obtained to assess activation of the MEK1/2-ERK1/2 pathway. Myeloid Mek1 deletion results in a failure to resolve LPS-ALI, and alveolar macrophages lacking MEK1 had increased activation of MEK2 and the downstream target ERK1/2 on day 4 of LPS-ALI. The clinical significance of these findings is supported by increased activation of the MEK1/2-ERK1/2 pathway in alveolar macrophages from patients with ARDS compared with alveolar macrophages from healthy volunteers. This study reveals a critical role for myeloid MEK1 in promoting resolution of LPS-ALI and controlling the duration of macrophage proinflammatory responses.

Steroid resistance of airway type 2 innate lymphoid cells from patients with severe asthma: The role of thymic stromal lymphopoietin

BACKGROUND

Type 2 innate lymphoid cells (ILC2s) represent an important type 2 immune cell. Glucocorticoid regulation of human ILC2s is largely unknown.

OBJECTIVE

We sought to assess steroid resistance of human blood and airway ILC2s from asthmatic patients and to examine its mechanism of induction.

METHODS

We studied human blood and lung ILC2s from asthmatic patients and control subjects using flow cytometry and ELISA.

RESULTS

Dexamethasone inhibited (P = .04) chemoattractant receptor-homologous molecule expressed on T_H2 lymphocytes and type 2 cytokine expression by blood ILC2s stimulated with IL-25 and IL-33. However, it did not do so when ILC2s were stimulated with IL-7 and thymic stromal lymphopoietin (TSLP), 2 ligands of IL-7 receptor α. Unlike blood ILC2s, bronchoalveolar lavage (BAL) fluid ILC2s from asthmatic patients were resistant to dexamethasone. BAL fluid from asthmatic patients had increased TSLP but not IL-7 levels. BAL fluid TSLP levels correlated (r = 0.74) with steroid resistance of ILC2s. TSLP was synergistically induced in epithelial cells by IL-13 and human rhinovirus. Mechanistically, dexamethasone upregulated ILC2 expression of IL-7 receptor α, which augmented and sustained signal transducer and activator of transcription (STAT) 5 signaling by TSLP. TSLP induced mitogen-activated protein kinase kinase (MEK), c-Fos, inhibitor of DNA binding 3, phosphorylated signal transducer and activator of transcription (pSTAT) 3, and pSTAT5, molecules linked to steroid resistance. Dexamethasone inhibited c-Fos, inhibitor of DNA binding 3, and pSTAT3 but not pSTAT5 and MEK. The MEK inhibitor trametinib, the Janus kinase-STAT inhibitor tofacitinib, and the STAT5 inhibitor pimozide reversed steroid resistance of BAL ILC2s.

CONCLUSIONS

Dexamethasone inhibited type 2 cytokine production by blood ILC2s. IL-7 and TSLP abrogated this inhibition and induced steroid resistance of ILC2s in a MEK- and STAT5-dependent manner. BAL fluid ILC2s from asthmatic patients with increased TSLP levels were steroid resistant, which was reversed by clinically available inhibitors of MEK and STAT5.

Multiple exportins influence thyroid hormone receptor localization

The thyroid hormone receptor (TR) undergoes nucleocytoplasmic shuttling and regulates target genes involved in metabolism and development. Previously, we showed that TR follows a CRM1/calreticulin-mediated nuclear export pathway. However, two lines of evidence suggest TR also follows another pathway: export is only partially blocked by leptomycin B (LMB), a CRM1-specific inhibitor; and we identified nuclear export signals in TR that are LMB-resistant. To determine whether other exportins are involved in TR shuttling, we used RNA interference and fluorescence recovery after photobleaching shuttling assays in transfected cells. Knockdown of exportins 4, 5, and 7 altered TR shuttling dynamics, and when exportins 5 and 7 were overexpressed, TR distribution shifted toward the cytosol. To further assess the effects of exportin overexpression, we examined transactivation of a TR-responsive reporter gene. Our data indicate that multiple exportins influence TR localization, highlighting a fine balance of nuclear import, retention, and export that modulates TR function.

Increased frequency of dual-positive TH2/TH17 cells in bronchoalveolar lavage fluid characterizes a population of patients with severe asthma

BACKGROUND

TH2 cells can further differentiate into dual-positive TH2/TH17 cells. The presence of dual-positive TH2/TH17 cells in the airways and their effect on asthma severity are unknown.

OBJECTIVE

We sought to study dual-positive TH2/TH17 cells in bronchoalveolar lavage (BAL) fluid from asthmatic patients, examine their response to glucocorticoids, and define their relevance for disease severity.

METHODS

Bronchoscopy and lavage were performed in 52 asthmatic patients and 25 disease control subjects. TH2 and TH2/TH17 cells were analyzed by using multicolor flow cytometry and confocal immunofluorescence microscopy. Cytokines were assayed by means of ELISA.

RESULTS

Dual-positive TH2/TH17 cells were present at a higher frequency in BAL fluid from asthmatic patients compared with numbers seen in disease control subjects. High-level IL-4 production was typically accompanied by high-level IL-17 production and coexpression of GATA3 and retinoic acid receptor-related orphan receptor γt. Increased presence of TH2/TH17 cells was associated with increased IL-17 production in lavage fluid. TH2/TH17 cell counts and IL-17 production correlated with PC20 for methacholine, eosinophil counts, and FEV1. TH2/TH17 cells, unlike TH2 cells, were resistant to dexamethasone-induced cell death. They expressed higher levels of mitogen-activated protein-extracellular signal-regulated kinase kinase 1, a molecule that induces glucocorticoid resistance. On the basis of the dominance of BAL fluid TH2 or TH2/TH17 cells, we identified 3 subgroups of asthma: TH2(predominant), TH2/TH17(predominant), and TH2/TH17(low). The TH2/TH17(predominant) subgroup manifested the most severe form of asthma, whereas the TH2/TH17(low) subgroup had the mildest asthma.

CONCLUSION

Asthma is associated with a higher frequency of dual-positive TH2/TH17 cells in BAL fluid. The TH2/TH17(predominant) subgroup of asthmatic patients manifested glucocorticoid resistance in vitro. They also had the greatest airway obstruction and hyperreactivity compared with the TH2(predominant) and TH2/TH17(low) subgroups.