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Baltanás FC, García-Navas R, Rodríguez-Ramos P, Calzada N, Cuesta C, Borrajo J, Fuentes-Mateos R, Olarte-San Juan A, Vidaña N, Castellano E, Santos E. Critical requirement of SOS1 for tumor development and microenvironment modulation in KRAS G12D-driven lung adenocarcinoma. Nat Commun 2023; 14:5856. [PMID: 37730692 PMCID: PMC10511506 DOI: 10.1038/s41467-023-41583-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/21/2023] [Accepted: 09/11/2023] [Indexed: 09/22/2023] Open
Abstract
The impact of genetic ablation of SOS1 or SOS2 is evaluated in a murine model of KRASG12D-driven lung adenocarcinoma (LUAD). SOS2 ablation shows some protection during early stages but only SOS1 ablation causes significant, specific long term increase of survival/lifespan of the KRASG12D mice associated to markedly reduced tumor burden and reduced populations of cancer-associated fibroblasts, macrophages and T-lymphocytes in the lung tumor microenvironment (TME). SOS1 ablation also causes specific shrinkage and regression of LUAD tumoral masses and components of the TME in pre-established KRASG12D LUAD tumors. The critical requirement of SOS1 for KRASG12D-driven LUAD is further confirmed by means of intravenous tail injection of KRASG12D tumor cells into SOS1KO/KRASWT mice, or of SOS1-less, KRASG12D tumor cells into wildtype mice. In silico analyses of human lung cancer databases support also the dominant role of SOS1 regarding tumor development and survival in LUAD patients. Our data indicate that SOS1 is critically required for development of KRASG12D-driven LUAD and confirm the validity of this RAS-GEF activator as an actionable therapeutic target in KRAS mutant LUAD.
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Affiliation(s)
- Fernando C Baltanás
- Lab 1. Cancer Research Center, Institute of Cancer Molecular and Cellular Biology, CSIC-University of Salamanca and CIBERONC, 37007, Salamanca, Spain.
- Institute of Biomedicine of Seville (IBiS)/"Virgen del Rocío" University Hospital/CSIC/University of Seville and Department of Medical Physiology and Biophysics, University of Seville, Seville, Spain.
| | - Rósula García-Navas
- Lab 1. Cancer Research Center, Institute of Cancer Molecular and Cellular Biology, CSIC-University of Salamanca and CIBERONC, 37007, Salamanca, Spain
| | - Pablo Rodríguez-Ramos
- Lab 1. Cancer Research Center, Institute of Cancer Molecular and Cellular Biology, CSIC-University of Salamanca and CIBERONC, 37007, Salamanca, Spain
| | - Nuria Calzada
- Lab 1. Cancer Research Center, Institute of Cancer Molecular and Cellular Biology, CSIC-University of Salamanca and CIBERONC, 37007, Salamanca, Spain
| | - Cristina Cuesta
- Lab 5. Cancer Research Center, Institute of Cancer Molecular and Cellular Biology, CSIC-University of Salamanca, 37007, Salamanca, Spain
| | - Javier Borrajo
- Departament of Biomedical Sciences and Diagnostic, University of Salamanca, 37007, Salamanca, Spain
| | - Rocío Fuentes-Mateos
- Lab 1. Cancer Research Center, Institute of Cancer Molecular and Cellular Biology, CSIC-University of Salamanca and CIBERONC, 37007, Salamanca, Spain
| | - Andrea Olarte-San Juan
- Lab 1. Cancer Research Center, Institute of Cancer Molecular and Cellular Biology, CSIC-University of Salamanca and CIBERONC, 37007, Salamanca, Spain
| | - Nerea Vidaña
- Lab 1. Cancer Research Center, Institute of Cancer Molecular and Cellular Biology, CSIC-University of Salamanca and CIBERONC, 37007, Salamanca, Spain
| | - Esther Castellano
- Lab 5. Cancer Research Center, Institute of Cancer Molecular and Cellular Biology, CSIC-University of Salamanca, 37007, Salamanca, Spain
| | - Eugenio Santos
- Lab 1. Cancer Research Center, Institute of Cancer Molecular and Cellular Biology, CSIC-University of Salamanca and CIBERONC, 37007, Salamanca, Spain.
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Jackson M, Ahmari N, Wu J, Rizvi TA, Fugate E, Kim MO, Dombi E, Arnhof H, Boehmelt G, Düchs MJ, Long CJ, Maier U, Trapani F, Hofmann MH, Ratner N. Combining SOS1 and MEK Inhibitors in a Murine Model of Plexiform Neurofibroma Results in Tumor Shrinkage. J Pharmacol Exp Ther 2023; 385:106-116. [PMID: 36849412 PMCID: PMC10108440 DOI: 10.1124/jpet.122.001431] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/01/2022] [Revised: 01/13/2023] [Accepted: 02/13/2023] [Indexed: 03/01/2023] Open
Abstract
Individuals with neurofibromatosis type 1 develop rat sarcoma virus (RAS)-mitogen-activated protein kinase-mitogen-activated and extracellular signal-regulated kinase (RAS-MAPK-MEK)-driven nerve tumors called neurofibromas. Although MEK inhibitors transiently reduce volumes of most plexiform neurofibromas in mouse models and in neurofibromatosis type 1 (NF1) patients, therapies that increase the efficacy of MEK inhibitors are needed. BI-3406 is a small molecule that prevents Son of Sevenless (SOS)1 interaction with Kirsten rat sarcoma viral oncoprotein (KRAS)-GDP, interfering with the RAS-MAPK cascade upstream of MEK. Single agent SOS1 inhibition had no significant effect in the DhhCre;Nf1 fl/fl mouse model of plexiform neurofibroma, but pharmacokinetics (PK)-driven combination of selumetinib with BI-3406 significantly improved tumor parameters. Tumor volumes and neurofibroma cell proliferation, reduced by MEK inhibition, were further reduced by the combination. Neurofibromas are rich in ionized calcium binding adaptor molecule 1 (Iba1)+ macrophages; combination treatment resulted in small and round macrophages, with altered cytokine expression indicative of altered activation. The significant effects of MEK inhibitor plus SOS1 inhibition in this preclinical study suggest potential clinical benefit of dual targeting of the RAS-MAPK pathway in neurofibromas. SIGNIFICANCE STATEMENT: Interfering with the RAS-mitogen-activated protein kinase (RAS-MAPK) cascade upstream of mitogen activated protein kinase kinase (MEK), together with MEK inhibition, augment effects of MEK inhibition on neurofibroma volume and tumor macrophages in a preclinical model system. This study emphasizes the critical role of the RAS-MAPK pathway in controlling tumor cell proliferation and the tumor microenvironment in benign neurofibromas.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mark Jackson
- Division of Experimental Hematology and Cancer Biology, Cancer and Blood Diseases Institute (M.J., N.A., J.W., T.A.R., N.R.) and Department of Radiology (E.F.), Cincinnati Children's Hospital Medical Center, Cincinnati, Ohio; Department of Epidemiology and Biostatistics, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, California (M.-O.K.); Pediatric Oncology Branch, National Cancer Institute, Bethesda, Maryland (E.D.); Boehringer Ingelheim RCV GmbH & Co KG, Vienna, Austria (H.A., G.B., F.T., M.H.H.); Boehringer Ingelheim Pharma GmbH & Co. KG, Biberach an der Riss, Germany (M.J.D., C.J.L., U.M.); and Department of Pediatrics, University of Cincinnati College of Medicine, Cincinnati, Ohio (J.W., N.R.)
| | - Niousha Ahmari
- Division of Experimental Hematology and Cancer Biology, Cancer and Blood Diseases Institute (M.J., N.A., J.W., T.A.R., N.R.) and Department of Radiology (E.F.), Cincinnati Children's Hospital Medical Center, Cincinnati, Ohio; Department of Epidemiology and Biostatistics, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, California (M.-O.K.); Pediatric Oncology Branch, National Cancer Institute, Bethesda, Maryland (E.D.); Boehringer Ingelheim RCV GmbH & Co KG, Vienna, Austria (H.A., G.B., F.T., M.H.H.); Boehringer Ingelheim Pharma GmbH & Co. KG, Biberach an der Riss, Germany (M.J.D., C.J.L., U.M.); and Department of Pediatrics, University of Cincinnati College of Medicine, Cincinnati, Ohio (J.W., N.R.)
| | - Jianqiang Wu
- Division of Experimental Hematology and Cancer Biology, Cancer and Blood Diseases Institute (M.J., N.A., J.W., T.A.R., N.R.) and Department of Radiology (E.F.), Cincinnati Children's Hospital Medical Center, Cincinnati, Ohio; Department of Epidemiology and Biostatistics, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, California (M.-O.K.); Pediatric Oncology Branch, National Cancer Institute, Bethesda, Maryland (E.D.); Boehringer Ingelheim RCV GmbH & Co KG, Vienna, Austria (H.A., G.B., F.T., M.H.H.); Boehringer Ingelheim Pharma GmbH & Co. KG, Biberach an der Riss, Germany (M.J.D., C.J.L., U.M.); and Department of Pediatrics, University of Cincinnati College of Medicine, Cincinnati, Ohio (J.W., N.R.)
| | - Tilat A Rizvi
- Division of Experimental Hematology and Cancer Biology, Cancer and Blood Diseases Institute (M.J., N.A., J.W., T.A.R., N.R.) and Department of Radiology (E.F.), Cincinnati Children's Hospital Medical Center, Cincinnati, Ohio; Department of Epidemiology and Biostatistics, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, California (M.-O.K.); Pediatric Oncology Branch, National Cancer Institute, Bethesda, Maryland (E.D.); Boehringer Ingelheim RCV GmbH & Co KG, Vienna, Austria (H.A., G.B., F.T., M.H.H.); Boehringer Ingelheim Pharma GmbH & Co. KG, Biberach an der Riss, Germany (M.J.D., C.J.L., U.M.); and Department of Pediatrics, University of Cincinnati College of Medicine, Cincinnati, Ohio (J.W., N.R.)
| | - Elizabeth Fugate
- Division of Experimental Hematology and Cancer Biology, Cancer and Blood Diseases Institute (M.J., N.A., J.W., T.A.R., N.R.) and Department of Radiology (E.F.), Cincinnati Children's Hospital Medical Center, Cincinnati, Ohio; Department of Epidemiology and Biostatistics, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, California (M.-O.K.); Pediatric Oncology Branch, National Cancer Institute, Bethesda, Maryland (E.D.); Boehringer Ingelheim RCV GmbH & Co KG, Vienna, Austria (H.A., G.B., F.T., M.H.H.); Boehringer Ingelheim Pharma GmbH & Co. KG, Biberach an der Riss, Germany (M.J.D., C.J.L., U.M.); and Department of Pediatrics, University of Cincinnati College of Medicine, Cincinnati, Ohio (J.W., N.R.)
| | - Mi-Ok Kim
- Division of Experimental Hematology and Cancer Biology, Cancer and Blood Diseases Institute (M.J., N.A., J.W., T.A.R., N.R.) and Department of Radiology (E.F.), Cincinnati Children's Hospital Medical Center, Cincinnati, Ohio; Department of Epidemiology and Biostatistics, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, California (M.-O.K.); Pediatric Oncology Branch, National Cancer Institute, Bethesda, Maryland (E.D.); Boehringer Ingelheim RCV GmbH & Co KG, Vienna, Austria (H.A., G.B., F.T., M.H.H.); Boehringer Ingelheim Pharma GmbH & Co. KG, Biberach an der Riss, Germany (M.J.D., C.J.L., U.M.); and Department of Pediatrics, University of Cincinnati College of Medicine, Cincinnati, Ohio (J.W., N.R.)
| | - Eva Dombi
- Division of Experimental Hematology and Cancer Biology, Cancer and Blood Diseases Institute (M.J., N.A., J.W., T.A.R., N.R.) and Department of Radiology (E.F.), Cincinnati Children's Hospital Medical Center, Cincinnati, Ohio; Department of Epidemiology and Biostatistics, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, California (M.-O.K.); Pediatric Oncology Branch, National Cancer Institute, Bethesda, Maryland (E.D.); Boehringer Ingelheim RCV GmbH & Co KG, Vienna, Austria (H.A., G.B., F.T., M.H.H.); Boehringer Ingelheim Pharma GmbH & Co. KG, Biberach an der Riss, Germany (M.J.D., C.J.L., U.M.); and Department of Pediatrics, University of Cincinnati College of Medicine, Cincinnati, Ohio (J.W., N.R.)
| | - Heribert Arnhof
- Division of Experimental Hematology and Cancer Biology, Cancer and Blood Diseases Institute (M.J., N.A., J.W., T.A.R., N.R.) and Department of Radiology (E.F.), Cincinnati Children's Hospital Medical Center, Cincinnati, Ohio; Department of Epidemiology and Biostatistics, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, California (M.-O.K.); Pediatric Oncology Branch, National Cancer Institute, Bethesda, Maryland (E.D.); Boehringer Ingelheim RCV GmbH & Co KG, Vienna, Austria (H.A., G.B., F.T., M.H.H.); Boehringer Ingelheim Pharma GmbH & Co. KG, Biberach an der Riss, Germany (M.J.D., C.J.L., U.M.); and Department of Pediatrics, University of Cincinnati College of Medicine, Cincinnati, Ohio (J.W., N.R.)
| | - Guido Boehmelt
- Division of Experimental Hematology and Cancer Biology, Cancer and Blood Diseases Institute (M.J., N.A., J.W., T.A.R., N.R.) and Department of Radiology (E.F.), Cincinnati Children's Hospital Medical Center, Cincinnati, Ohio; Department of Epidemiology and Biostatistics, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, California (M.-O.K.); Pediatric Oncology Branch, National Cancer Institute, Bethesda, Maryland (E.D.); Boehringer Ingelheim RCV GmbH & Co KG, Vienna, Austria (H.A., G.B., F.T., M.H.H.); Boehringer Ingelheim Pharma GmbH & Co. KG, Biberach an der Riss, Germany (M.J.D., C.J.L., U.M.); and Department of Pediatrics, University of Cincinnati College of Medicine, Cincinnati, Ohio (J.W., N.R.)
| | - Matthias J Düchs
- Division of Experimental Hematology and Cancer Biology, Cancer and Blood Diseases Institute (M.J., N.A., J.W., T.A.R., N.R.) and Department of Radiology (E.F.), Cincinnati Children's Hospital Medical Center, Cincinnati, Ohio; Department of Epidemiology and Biostatistics, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, California (M.-O.K.); Pediatric Oncology Branch, National Cancer Institute, Bethesda, Maryland (E.D.); Boehringer Ingelheim RCV GmbH & Co KG, Vienna, Austria (H.A., G.B., F.T., M.H.H.); Boehringer Ingelheim Pharma GmbH & Co. KG, Biberach an der Riss, Germany (M.J.D., C.J.L., U.M.); and Department of Pediatrics, University of Cincinnati College of Medicine, Cincinnati, Ohio (J.W., N.R.)
| | - Clive J Long
- Division of Experimental Hematology and Cancer Biology, Cancer and Blood Diseases Institute (M.J., N.A., J.W., T.A.R., N.R.) and Department of Radiology (E.F.), Cincinnati Children's Hospital Medical Center, Cincinnati, Ohio; Department of Epidemiology and Biostatistics, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, California (M.-O.K.); Pediatric Oncology Branch, National Cancer Institute, Bethesda, Maryland (E.D.); Boehringer Ingelheim RCV GmbH & Co KG, Vienna, Austria (H.A., G.B., F.T., M.H.H.); Boehringer Ingelheim Pharma GmbH & Co. KG, Biberach an der Riss, Germany (M.J.D., C.J.L., U.M.); and Department of Pediatrics, University of Cincinnati College of Medicine, Cincinnati, Ohio (J.W., N.R.)
| | - Udo Maier
- Division of Experimental Hematology and Cancer Biology, Cancer and Blood Diseases Institute (M.J., N.A., J.W., T.A.R., N.R.) and Department of Radiology (E.F.), Cincinnati Children's Hospital Medical Center, Cincinnati, Ohio; Department of Epidemiology and Biostatistics, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, California (M.-O.K.); Pediatric Oncology Branch, National Cancer Institute, Bethesda, Maryland (E.D.); Boehringer Ingelheim RCV GmbH & Co KG, Vienna, Austria (H.A., G.B., F.T., M.H.H.); Boehringer Ingelheim Pharma GmbH & Co. KG, Biberach an der Riss, Germany (M.J.D., C.J.L., U.M.); and Department of Pediatrics, University of Cincinnati College of Medicine, Cincinnati, Ohio (J.W., N.R.)
| | - Francesca Trapani
- Division of Experimental Hematology and Cancer Biology, Cancer and Blood Diseases Institute (M.J., N.A., J.W., T.A.R., N.R.) and Department of Radiology (E.F.), Cincinnati Children's Hospital Medical Center, Cincinnati, Ohio; Department of Epidemiology and Biostatistics, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, California (M.-O.K.); Pediatric Oncology Branch, National Cancer Institute, Bethesda, Maryland (E.D.); Boehringer Ingelheim RCV GmbH & Co KG, Vienna, Austria (H.A., G.B., F.T., M.H.H.); Boehringer Ingelheim Pharma GmbH & Co. KG, Biberach an der Riss, Germany (M.J.D., C.J.L., U.M.); and Department of Pediatrics, University of Cincinnati College of Medicine, Cincinnati, Ohio (J.W., N.R.)
| | - Marco H Hofmann
- Division of Experimental Hematology and Cancer Biology, Cancer and Blood Diseases Institute (M.J., N.A., J.W., T.A.R., N.R.) and Department of Radiology (E.F.), Cincinnati Children's Hospital Medical Center, Cincinnati, Ohio; Department of Epidemiology and Biostatistics, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, California (M.-O.K.); Pediatric Oncology Branch, National Cancer Institute, Bethesda, Maryland (E.D.); Boehringer Ingelheim RCV GmbH & Co KG, Vienna, Austria (H.A., G.B., F.T., M.H.H.); Boehringer Ingelheim Pharma GmbH & Co. KG, Biberach an der Riss, Germany (M.J.D., C.J.L., U.M.); and Department of Pediatrics, University of Cincinnati College of Medicine, Cincinnati, Ohio (J.W., N.R.)
| | - Nancy Ratner
- Division of Experimental Hematology and Cancer Biology, Cancer and Blood Diseases Institute (M.J., N.A., J.W., T.A.R., N.R.) and Department of Radiology (E.F.), Cincinnati Children's Hospital Medical Center, Cincinnati, Ohio; Department of Epidemiology and Biostatistics, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, California (M.-O.K.); Pediatric Oncology Branch, National Cancer Institute, Bethesda, Maryland (E.D.); Boehringer Ingelheim RCV GmbH & Co KG, Vienna, Austria (H.A., G.B., F.T., M.H.H.); Boehringer Ingelheim Pharma GmbH & Co. KG, Biberach an der Riss, Germany (M.J.D., C.J.L., U.M.); and Department of Pediatrics, University of Cincinnati College of Medicine, Cincinnati, Ohio (J.W., N.R.)
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Luo S, Du S, Tao M, Cao J, Cheng P. Insights on hematopoietic cell kinase: An oncogenic player in human cancer. Biomed Pharmacother 2023; 160:114339. [PMID: 36736283 DOI: 10.1016/j.biopha.2023.114339] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/29/2022] [Revised: 01/18/2023] [Accepted: 01/27/2023] [Indexed: 02/04/2023] Open
Abstract
Hematopoietic cell kinase (Hck) is a member of the Src family and is expressed in hematopoietic cells. By regulating multiple signaling pathways, HCK can interact with multiple receptors to regulate signaling events involved in cell adhesion, proliferation, migration, invasion, apoptosis, and angiogenesis. However, aberrant expression of Hck in various hematopoietic cells and solid tumors plays a crucial role in tumor-related properties, including cell proliferation and epithelial-mesenchymal transition. In addition, Hck signaling regulates the function of immune cells such as macrophages, contributing to an immunosuppressive tumor microenvironment. The clinical success of various kinase inhibitors targeting the Src kinase family has validated the efficacy of targeting Src, and therapies with highly selective Hck kinase inhibitors are in clinical trials. This article reviews Hck inhibition as an emerging cancer treatment strategy, focusing on the expressions and functions of Hck in tumors and its impact on the tumor microenvironment. It also explores preclinical and clinical pharmacological strategies for Hck targeting to shed light on Hck-targeted tumor therapy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shuyan Luo
- Department of Neurosurgery, The First Hospital of China Medical University, Shenyang, Liaoning 110001, China
| | - Shaonan Du
- Department of Neurosurgery, The First Hospital of China Medical University, Shenyang, Liaoning 110001, China
| | - Mei Tao
- Department of Thyroid and Neck Tumor, Tianjin Medical University Cancer Institute and Hospital, 300060 Tianjin, China
| | - Jingyuan Cao
- Department of Neurosurgery, The First Hospital of China Medical University, Shenyang, Liaoning 110001, China
| | - Peng Cheng
- Department of Neurosurgery, The First Hospital of China Medical University, Shenyang, Liaoning 110001, China.
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Padmanabhan RA, Zyju DP, Subramaniam AG, Nautiyal J, Laloraya M. Son of sevenless 1 (SOS1), the RasGEF, interacts with ERα and STAT3 during embryo implantation. J Mol Endocrinol 2023; 70:e220089. [PMID: 36103132 DOI: 10.1530/jme-22-0089] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/09/2022] [Accepted: 09/14/2022] [Indexed: 01/19/2023]
Abstract
Estrogen accounts for several biological processes in the body; embryo implantation and pregnancy being one of the vital events. This manuscript aims to unearth the nuclear role of Son of sevenless1 (SOS1), its interaction with estrogen receptor alpha (ERα), and signal transducer and activator of transcription 3 (STAT3) in the uterine nucleus during embryo implantation. SOS1, a critical cytoplasmic linker between receptor tyrosine kinase and rat sarcoma virus signaling, translocates into the nucleus via its bipartite nuclear localization signal (NLS) during the 'window of implantation' in pregnant mice. SOS1 associates with chromatin, interacts with histones, and shows intrinsic histone acetyltransferase (HAT) activity specifically acetylating lysine 16 (K16) residue of histone H4. SOS1 is a coactivator of STAT3 and a co-repressor of ERα. SOS1 creates a partial mesenchymal-epithelial transition by acting as a transcriptional modulator. Finally, our phylogenetic tree reveals that the two bipartite NLS surface in reptiles and the second acetyl coenzymeA (CoA) (RDNGPG) important for HAT activity emerges in mammals. Thus, SOS1 has evolved into a moonlighting protein, the special class of multi-tasking proteins, by virtue of its newly identified nuclear functions in addition to its previously known cytoplasmic function.
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Affiliation(s)
- Renjini A Padmanabhan
- Female Reproduction and Metabolic Syndromes Laboratory, Division of Molecular Reproduction, Rajiv Gandhi Centre for Biotechnology, Poojappura, Thiruvananthapuram, Kerala, India
| | - Damodaranpillai P Zyju
- Female Reproduction and Metabolic Syndromes Laboratory, Division of Molecular Reproduction, Rajiv Gandhi Centre for Biotechnology, Poojappura, Thiruvananthapuram, Kerala, India
| | - Anand G Subramaniam
- Female Reproduction and Metabolic Syndromes Laboratory, Division of Molecular Reproduction, Rajiv Gandhi Centre for Biotechnology, Poojappura, Thiruvananthapuram, Kerala, India
| | - Jaya Nautiyal
- Institute of Reproductive and Developmental Biology, Department of Surgery and Cancer, Imperial College, London, UK
| | - Malini Laloraya
- Female Reproduction and Metabolic Syndromes Laboratory, Division of Molecular Reproduction, Rajiv Gandhi Centre for Biotechnology, Poojappura, Thiruvananthapuram, Kerala, India
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Rivier P, Mubalama M, Destaing O. Small GTPases all over invadosomes. Small GTPases 2021; 12:429-439. [PMID: 33487105 PMCID: PMC8583085 DOI: 10.1080/21541248.2021.1877081] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/25/2020] [Revised: 12/30/2020] [Accepted: 01/10/2021] [Indexed: 12/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Cell invasion is associated with numerous patho-physiologic states including cell development and metastatic dissemination. This process couples the activation of cell motility with the capacity to degrade the extracellular matrix, thereby permitting cells to pass through basal membranes. Invasion is sustained by the actions of invadosomes, an ensemble of subcellular structures with high functional homology. Invadosomes are 3D acto-adhesive structures that can also mediate local extracellular matrix degradation through the controlled delivery of proteases. Intracellular RHO GTPases play a central role in the regulation of invadosomes where their complex interplay regulates multiple invadosome functions. This review aims to provide an overview of the synergistic activities of the small GTPases in invadosome biology. This broad-based review also reinforces the importance of the spatiotemporal regulation of small GTPases and the impact of this process on invadosome dynamics.
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Affiliation(s)
- Paul Rivier
- Team DYSAD, Dept2, Institute for Advanced Biosciences, Centre de Recherche Université Grenoble Alpes, Inserm U 1209, CNRS UMR 5309, Grenoble, France
| | - Michel Mubalama
- Team DYSAD, Dept2, Institute for Advanced Biosciences, Centre de Recherche Université Grenoble Alpes, Inserm U 1209, CNRS UMR 5309, Grenoble, France
| | - Olivier Destaing
- Team DYSAD, Dept2, Institute for Advanced Biosciences, Centre de Recherche Université Grenoble Alpes, Inserm U 1209, CNRS UMR 5309, Grenoble, France
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Baltanás FC, Mucientes-Valdivieso C, Lorenzo-Martín LF, Fernández-Parejo N, García-Navas R, Segrelles C, Calzada N, Fuentes-Mateos R, Paramio JM, Bustelo XR, Santos E. Functional Specificity of the Members of the Sos Family of Ras-GEF Activators: Novel Role of Sos2 in Control of Epidermal Stem Cell Homeostasis. Cancers (Basel) 2021; 13:cancers13092152. [PMID: 33946974 PMCID: PMC8124217 DOI: 10.3390/cancers13092152] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/04/2021] [Revised: 04/26/2021] [Accepted: 04/27/2021] [Indexed: 12/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Simple Summary The Sos Ras-GEFs are known to participate in a wide range of skin-related diseases including cutaneous cancers, cardio-facio-cutaneous syndromes, or hirsutism. However, the specific functional roles played by the Sos1 and/or Sos2 family members in specific skin compartments remain largely unknown. This report aimed at precisely characterizing the specific functions played by Sos1 and/or Sos2 in keratinocytes, an essential cellular component of the skin. Our data show that Sos1 and Sos2 make overlapping contributions to both keratinocyte proliferation and survival. However, Sos1 seems to have a preferential involvement in regulating the ERK axis, whereas Sos2 seems to control the signaling output from the PI3K axis. We also uncovered an essential role of Sos2 in the control of the population of epidermal stem cells. Abstract Prior reports showed the critical requirement of Sos1 for epithelial carcinogenesis, but the specific functionalities of the homologous Sos1 and Sos2 GEFs in skin homeostasis and tumorigenesis remain unclear. Here, we characterize specific mechanistic roles played by Sos1 or Sos2 in primary mouse keratinocytes (a prevalent skin cell lineage) under different experimental conditions. Functional analyses of actively growing primary keratinocytes of relevant genotypes—WT, Sos1-KO, Sos2-KO, and Sos1/2-DKO—revealed a prevalent role of Sos1 regarding transcriptional regulation and control of RAS activation and mechanistic overlapping of Sos1 and Sos2 regarding cell proliferation and survival, with dominant contribution of Sos1 to the RAS-ERK axis and Sos2 to the RAS-PI3K/AKT axis. Sos1/2-DKO keratinocytes could not grow under 3D culture conditions, but single Sos1-KO and Sos2-KO keratinocytes were able to form pseudoepidermis structures that showed disorganized layer structure, reduced proliferation, and increased apoptosis in comparison with WT 3D cultures. Remarkably, analysis of the skin of both newborn and adult Sos2-KO mice uncovered a significant reduction of the population of stem cells located in hair follicles. These data confirm that Sos1 and Sos2 play specific, cell-autonomous functions in primary keratinocytes and reveal a novel, essential role of Sos2 in control of epidermal stem cell homeostasis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Fernando C. Baltanás
- Mechanisms of Cancer Program, Centro de Investigación del Cáncer (CIC), Instituto de Biología Molecular y Celular del Cáncer (IBMCC), University of Salamanca-CSIC, E-37007 Salamanca, Spain; (C.M.-V.); (L.F.L.-M.); (N.F.-P.); (R.G.-N.); (N.C.); (R.F.-M.); (X.R.B.)
- Mechanisms of Tumor Progression Program, CIBERONC, University of Salamanca-CSIC, E-37007 Salamanca, Spain; (C.S.); (J.M.P.)
- Correspondence: (F.C.B.); (E.S.)
| | - Cynthia Mucientes-Valdivieso
- Mechanisms of Cancer Program, Centro de Investigación del Cáncer (CIC), Instituto de Biología Molecular y Celular del Cáncer (IBMCC), University of Salamanca-CSIC, E-37007 Salamanca, Spain; (C.M.-V.); (L.F.L.-M.); (N.F.-P.); (R.G.-N.); (N.C.); (R.F.-M.); (X.R.B.)
- Mechanisms of Tumor Progression Program, CIBERONC, University of Salamanca-CSIC, E-37007 Salamanca, Spain; (C.S.); (J.M.P.)
| | - L. Francisco Lorenzo-Martín
- Mechanisms of Cancer Program, Centro de Investigación del Cáncer (CIC), Instituto de Biología Molecular y Celular del Cáncer (IBMCC), University of Salamanca-CSIC, E-37007 Salamanca, Spain; (C.M.-V.); (L.F.L.-M.); (N.F.-P.); (R.G.-N.); (N.C.); (R.F.-M.); (X.R.B.)
- Mechanisms of Tumor Progression Program, CIBERONC, University of Salamanca-CSIC, E-37007 Salamanca, Spain; (C.S.); (J.M.P.)
| | - Natalia Fernández-Parejo
- Mechanisms of Cancer Program, Centro de Investigación del Cáncer (CIC), Instituto de Biología Molecular y Celular del Cáncer (IBMCC), University of Salamanca-CSIC, E-37007 Salamanca, Spain; (C.M.-V.); (L.F.L.-M.); (N.F.-P.); (R.G.-N.); (N.C.); (R.F.-M.); (X.R.B.)
- Mechanisms of Tumor Progression Program, CIBERONC, University of Salamanca-CSIC, E-37007 Salamanca, Spain; (C.S.); (J.M.P.)
| | - Rósula García-Navas
- Mechanisms of Cancer Program, Centro de Investigación del Cáncer (CIC), Instituto de Biología Molecular y Celular del Cáncer (IBMCC), University of Salamanca-CSIC, E-37007 Salamanca, Spain; (C.M.-V.); (L.F.L.-M.); (N.F.-P.); (R.G.-N.); (N.C.); (R.F.-M.); (X.R.B.)
- Mechanisms of Tumor Progression Program, CIBERONC, University of Salamanca-CSIC, E-37007 Salamanca, Spain; (C.S.); (J.M.P.)
| | - Carmen Segrelles
- Mechanisms of Tumor Progression Program, CIBERONC, University of Salamanca-CSIC, E-37007 Salamanca, Spain; (C.S.); (J.M.P.)
- Molecular Oncology Division, CIEMAT and Instituto de Investigación Sanitaria Hospital Universitario 12 de Octubre, E-28040 Madrid, Spain
| | - Nuria Calzada
- Mechanisms of Cancer Program, Centro de Investigación del Cáncer (CIC), Instituto de Biología Molecular y Celular del Cáncer (IBMCC), University of Salamanca-CSIC, E-37007 Salamanca, Spain; (C.M.-V.); (L.F.L.-M.); (N.F.-P.); (R.G.-N.); (N.C.); (R.F.-M.); (X.R.B.)
- Mechanisms of Tumor Progression Program, CIBERONC, University of Salamanca-CSIC, E-37007 Salamanca, Spain; (C.S.); (J.M.P.)
| | - Rocío Fuentes-Mateos
- Mechanisms of Cancer Program, Centro de Investigación del Cáncer (CIC), Instituto de Biología Molecular y Celular del Cáncer (IBMCC), University of Salamanca-CSIC, E-37007 Salamanca, Spain; (C.M.-V.); (L.F.L.-M.); (N.F.-P.); (R.G.-N.); (N.C.); (R.F.-M.); (X.R.B.)
- Mechanisms of Tumor Progression Program, CIBERONC, University of Salamanca-CSIC, E-37007 Salamanca, Spain; (C.S.); (J.M.P.)
| | - Jesús M. Paramio
- Mechanisms of Tumor Progression Program, CIBERONC, University of Salamanca-CSIC, E-37007 Salamanca, Spain; (C.S.); (J.M.P.)
- Molecular Oncology Division, CIEMAT and Instituto de Investigación Sanitaria Hospital Universitario 12 de Octubre, E-28040 Madrid, Spain
| | - Xosé R. Bustelo
- Mechanisms of Cancer Program, Centro de Investigación del Cáncer (CIC), Instituto de Biología Molecular y Celular del Cáncer (IBMCC), University of Salamanca-CSIC, E-37007 Salamanca, Spain; (C.M.-V.); (L.F.L.-M.); (N.F.-P.); (R.G.-N.); (N.C.); (R.F.-M.); (X.R.B.)
- Mechanisms of Tumor Progression Program, CIBERONC, University of Salamanca-CSIC, E-37007 Salamanca, Spain; (C.S.); (J.M.P.)
| | - Eugenio Santos
- Mechanisms of Cancer Program, Centro de Investigación del Cáncer (CIC), Instituto de Biología Molecular y Celular del Cáncer (IBMCC), University of Salamanca-CSIC, E-37007 Salamanca, Spain; (C.M.-V.); (L.F.L.-M.); (N.F.-P.); (R.G.-N.); (N.C.); (R.F.-M.); (X.R.B.)
- Mechanisms of Tumor Progression Program, CIBERONC, University of Salamanca-CSIC, E-37007 Salamanca, Spain; (C.S.); (J.M.P.)
- Correspondence: (F.C.B.); (E.S.)
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7
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Fuentes-Calvo I, Martinez-Salgado C. Sos1 Modulates Extracellular Matrix Synthesis, Proliferation, and Migration in Fibroblasts. Front Physiol 2021; 12:645044. [PMID: 33889087 PMCID: PMC8055938 DOI: 10.3389/fphys.2021.645044] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/23/2020] [Accepted: 03/05/2021] [Indexed: 01/06/2023] Open
Abstract
Non-reversible fibrosis is common in various diseases such as chronic renal failure, liver cirrhosis, chronic pancreatitis, pulmonary fibrosis, rheumatoid arthritis and atherosclerosis. Transforming growth factor beta 1 (TGF-β1) is involved in virtually all types of fibrosis. We previously described the involvement of Ras GTPase isoforms in the regulation of TGF-β1-induced fibrosis. The guanine nucleotide exchange factor Son of Sevenless (Sos) is the main Ras activator, but the role of the ubiquitously expressed Sos1 in the development of fibrosis has not been studied. For this purpose, we isolated and cultured Sos1 knock-out (KO) mouse embryonic fibroblasts, the main extracellular matrix proteins (ECM)-producing cells, and we analyzed ECM synthesis, cell proliferation and migration in the absence of Sos1, as well as the role of the main Sos1-Ras effectors, Erk1/2 and Akt, in these processes. The absence of Sos1 increases collagen I expression (through the PI3K-Akt signaling pathway), total collagen proteins, and slightly increases fibronectin expression; Sos1 regulates fibroblast proliferation through both PI3K-Akt and Raf-Erk pathways, and Sos1-PI3K-Akt signaling regulates fibroblast migration. These study shows that Sos1 regulates ECM synthesis and migration (through Ras-PI3K-Akt) and proliferation (through Ras-PI3K-Akt and Ras-Raf-Erk) in fibroblasts, and describe for the first time the role of the Sos1-Ras signaling axis in the regulation of cellular processes involved in the development of fibrosis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Isabel Fuentes-Calvo
- Institute of Biomedical Research of Salamanca (IBSAL), Salamanca, Spain
- Translational Research on Renal and Cardiovascular Diseases (TRECARD)-REDINREN (ISCIII), Department of Physiology and Pharmacology, University of Salamanca, Salamanca, Spain
| | - Carlos Martinez-Salgado
- Institute of Biomedical Research of Salamanca (IBSAL), Salamanca, Spain
- Translational Research on Renal and Cardiovascular Diseases (TRECARD)-REDINREN (ISCIII), Department of Physiology and Pharmacology, University of Salamanca, Salamanca, Spain
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8
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Baltanás FC, Zarich N, Rojas-Cabañeros JM, Santos E. SOS GEFs in health and disease. Biochim Biophys Acta Rev Cancer 2020; 1874:188445. [PMID: 33035641 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbcan.2020.188445] [Citation(s) in RCA: 40] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/30/2020] [Revised: 10/01/2020] [Accepted: 10/01/2020] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
SOS1 and SOS2 are the most universal and widely expressed family of guanine exchange factors (GEFs) capable or activating RAS or RAC1 proteins in metazoan cells. SOS proteins contain a sequence of modular domains that are responsible for different intramolecular and intermolecular interactions modulating mechanisms of self-inhibition, allosteric activation and intracellular homeostasis. Despite their homology, analyses of SOS1/2-KO mice demonstrate functional prevalence of SOS1 over SOS2 in cellular processes including proliferation, migration, inflammation or maintenance of intracellular redox homeostasis, although some functional redundancy cannot be excluded, particularly at the organismal level. Specific SOS1 gain-of-function mutations have been identified in inherited RASopathies and various sporadic human cancers. SOS1 depletion reduces tumorigenesis mediated by RAS or RAC1 in mouse models and is associated with increased intracellular oxidative stress and mitochondrial dysfunction. Since WT RAS is essential for development of RAS-mutant tumors, the SOS GEFs may be considered as relevant biomarkers or therapy targets in RAS-dependent cancers. Inhibitors blocking SOS expression, intrinsic GEF activity, or productive SOS protein-protein interactions with cellular regulators and/or RAS/RAC targets have been recently developed and shown preclinical and clinical effectiveness blocking aberrant RAS signaling in RAS-driven and RTK-driven tumors.
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Affiliation(s)
- Fernando C Baltanás
- Centro de Investigación del Cáncer - IBMCC (CSIC-USAL) and CIBERONC, Universidad de Salamanca, 37007 Salamanca, Spain
| | - Natasha Zarich
- Unidad Funcional de Investigación de Enfermedades Crónicas (UFIEC) and CIBERONC, Instituto de Salud Carlos III, 28220, Majadahonda, Madrid, Spain
| | - Jose M Rojas-Cabañeros
- Unidad Funcional de Investigación de Enfermedades Crónicas (UFIEC) and CIBERONC, Instituto de Salud Carlos III, 28220, Majadahonda, Madrid, Spain
| | - Eugenio Santos
- Centro de Investigación del Cáncer - IBMCC (CSIC-USAL) and CIBERONC, Universidad de Salamanca, 37007 Salamanca, Spain.
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9
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Jo Y, Kim HM, Lee J, Lee C, Hugonnet H, Park Y, Liu X, Chang YT, Kim H, Kim P. Fluid–Matrix Interface Triggers a Heterogeneous Activation of Macrophages. ACS APPLIED BIO MATERIALS 2020; 3:4294-4301. [DOI: 10.1021/acsabm.0c00345] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Youngmin Jo
- Department of Bio and Brain Engineering, Korea Advanced Institute of Science and Technology, Daejeon 34141, South Korea
| | - Hyo Min Kim
- Department of Bio and Brain Engineering, Korea Advanced Institute of Science and Technology, Daejeon 34141, South Korea
| | - Jongbeom Lee
- Department of Bio and Brain Engineering, Korea Advanced Institute of Science and Technology, Daejeon 34141, South Korea
| | - Chungha Lee
- Department of Physics, Korea Advanced Institute of Science and Technology, Daejeon 34141, South Korea
- Institute for Health Science and Technology, Korea Advanced Institute of Science and Technology, Daejeon 34141, South Korea
| | - Hervé Hugonnet
- Department of Physics, Korea Advanced Institute of Science and Technology, Daejeon 34141, South Korea
- Institute for Health Science and Technology, Korea Advanced Institute of Science and Technology, Daejeon 34141, South Korea
| | - YongKeun Park
- Department of Physics, Korea Advanced Institute of Science and Technology, Daejeon 34141, South Korea
- Institute for Health Science and Technology, Korea Advanced Institute of Science and Technology, Daejeon 34141, South Korea
- Tomocube, Inc., Daejeon 34051, Republic of Korea
| | - Xiao Liu
- Center for Self-assembly and Complexity, Institute for Basic Science (IBS), South Korea & Department of Chemistry, Pohang University of Science and Technology, Pohang 37673, South Korea
| | - Young-Tae Chang
- Center for Self-assembly and Complexity, Institute for Basic Science (IBS), South Korea & Department of Chemistry, Pohang University of Science and Technology, Pohang 37673, South Korea
| | - Hyoungsoo Kim
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, Korea Advanced Institute of Science and Technology, Daejeon 34141, South Korea
| | - Pilnam Kim
- Department of Bio and Brain Engineering, Korea Advanced Institute of Science and Technology, Daejeon 34141, South Korea
- Institute for Health Science and Technology, Korea Advanced Institute of Science and Technology, Daejeon 34141, South Korea
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10
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Rodríguez ME, Rizzi M, Caeiro LD, Masip YE, Perrone A, Sánchez DO, Búa J, Tekiel V. Transmigration of Trypanosoma cruzi trypomastigotes through 3D cultures resembling a physiological environment. Cell Microbiol 2020; 22:e13207. [PMID: 32270902 DOI: 10.1111/cmi.13207] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/23/2019] [Revised: 03/05/2020] [Accepted: 03/29/2020] [Indexed: 12/24/2022]
Abstract
To disseminate and colonise tissues in the mammalian host, Trypanosoma cruzi trypomastogotes should cross several biological barriers. How this process occurs or its impact in the outcome of the disease is largely speculative. We examined the in vitro transmigration of trypomastigotes through three-dimensional cultures (spheroids) to understand the tissular dissemination of different T. cruzi strains. Virulent strains were highly invasive: trypomastigotes deeply transmigrate up to 50 μm inside spheroids and were evenly distributed at the spheroid surface. Parasites inside spheroids were systematically observed in the space between cells suggesting a paracellular route of transmigration. On the contrary, poorly virulent strains presented a weak migratory capacity and remained in the external layers of spheroids with a patch-like distribution pattern. The invasiveness-understood as the ability to transmigrate deep into spheroids-was not a transferable feature between strains, neither by soluble or secreted factors nor by co-cultivation of trypomastigotes from invasive and non-invasive strains. Besides, we demonstrated that T. cruzi isolates from children that were born congenitally infected presented a highly migrant phenotype while an isolate from an infected mother (that never transmitted the infection to any of her children) presented significantly less migration. In brief, we demonstrated that in a 3D microenvironment each strain presents a characteristic migration pattern that can be associated to their in vivo behaviour. Altogether, data presented here repositionate spheroids as a valuable tool to study host-pathogen interactions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Matías Exequiel Rodríguez
- Instituto de Investigaciones Biotecnológicas "Dr. R. Ugalde" (IIBIO) Universidad Nacional de San Martín (UNSAM)-CONICET, Buenos Aires, Argentina
| | - Mariana Rizzi
- Instituto de Investigaciones Biotecnológicas "Dr. R. Ugalde" (IIBIO) Universidad Nacional de San Martín (UNSAM)-CONICET, Buenos Aires, Argentina
| | - Lucas D Caeiro
- Instituto de Investigaciones Biotecnológicas "Dr. R. Ugalde" (IIBIO) Universidad Nacional de San Martín (UNSAM)-CONICET, Buenos Aires, Argentina
| | - Yamil E Masip
- Instituto de Investigaciones Biotecnológicas "Dr. R. Ugalde" (IIBIO) Universidad Nacional de San Martín (UNSAM)-CONICET, Buenos Aires, Argentina
| | - Alina Perrone
- Instituto Nacional de Parasitología "Dr Mario Fatala Chaben", ANLIS-Carlos G. Malbrán, Buenos Aires, Argentina
| | - Daniel O Sánchez
- Instituto de Investigaciones Biotecnológicas "Dr. R. Ugalde" (IIBIO) Universidad Nacional de San Martín (UNSAM)-CONICET, Buenos Aires, Argentina
| | - Jacqueline Búa
- Instituto Nacional de Parasitología "Dr Mario Fatala Chaben", ANLIS-Carlos G. Malbrán, Buenos Aires, Argentina
| | - Valeria Tekiel
- Instituto de Investigaciones Biotecnológicas "Dr. R. Ugalde" (IIBIO) Universidad Nacional de San Martín (UNSAM)-CONICET, Buenos Aires, Argentina
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11
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Higashi N, Irimura T, Nakajima M. Heparanase is Involved in Leukocyte Migration. ADVANCES IN EXPERIMENTAL MEDICINE AND BIOLOGY 2020; 1221:435-444. [PMID: 32274720 DOI: 10.1007/978-3-030-34521-1_16] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/13/2023]
Abstract
Leukocyte migration is essential for exerting self-defense mechanisms. During the extravasation process, leukocytes transmigrate through the endothelial lining and the subendothelial basement membrane. Accumulating evidence supports the involvement of heparanase in this process. Altered cellular distribution resulting in relocalization of heparanase to the leading edge of migration is a key event to rapidly turn on the function of the enzyme during migration. This review presents current research investigating the cellular machinery that builds up a functional subcellular structure for leukocyte attachment to and degradation of the extracellular matrix. Recent advances in the understanding of the roles of heparanase in inflammatory diseases and pharmacological approaches to control heparanase-mediated actions during inflammation are also discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nobuaki Higashi
- Department of Biochemistry, Hoshi University School of Pharmacy, Tokyo, Japan.
| | - Tatsuro Irimura
- Division of Glycobiologics, Intractable Disease Research Center, Juntendo University School of Medicine, Tokyo, Japan
- Graduate School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, The University of Tokyo, Tokyo, Japan
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12
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Pan YJ, Wan J, Wang CB. MiR-326: Promising Biomarker for Cancer. Cancer Manag Res 2019; 11:10411-10418. [PMID: 31849530 PMCID: PMC6912009 DOI: 10.2147/cmar.s223875] [Citation(s) in RCA: 39] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/19/2019] [Accepted: 12/02/2019] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
MicroRNAs (miRNAs) are small non-coding and highly conserved RNAs that act in biological processes including cell proliferation, invasion, apoptosis, metabolism, signal transduction, and tumorigenesis. The previously identified miRNA-326 (miR-326) has been reported to participate in cellular apoptosis, tumor growth, cell invasion, embryonic development, immunomodulation, chemotherapy resistance, and oncogenesis. This review presents a detailed overview of what is known about the effects of miR-326 on cell invasion, metastasis, drug resistance, proliferation, apoptosis, and its involvement in signaling pathways.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yao-Jie Pan
- Department of Oncology, The Affiliated Yancheng Hospital of Medicine School of Southeast University, The Third People’s Hospital of Yancheng, Yancheng224001, People’s Republic of China
| | - Jian Wan
- Department of General Surgery, Center for Difficult and Complicated Abdominal Surgery, Shanghai Tenth People’s Hospital, Tongji University School of Medicine, Shanghai200092, People’s Republic of China
| | - Chun-Bin Wang
- Department of Oncology, The Affiliated Yancheng Hospital of Medicine School of Southeast University, The Third People’s Hospital of Yancheng, Yancheng224001, People’s Republic of China
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13
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Expression profiles of circRNAs and the potential diagnostic value of serum circMARK3 in human acute Stanford type A aortic dissection. PLoS One 2019; 14:e0219013. [PMID: 31251793 PMCID: PMC6599129 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0219013] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/10/2019] [Accepted: 06/13/2019] [Indexed: 01/06/2023] Open
Abstract
CircRNAs are involved in a variety of human diseases, however, the expression profiles and the potential diagnostic value of circRNAs in human acute Stanford type A aortic dissection (AAAD) remains largely unknown. In this study, high-throughput RNA sequencing (RNA-Seq) was used to investigate the differentially expressed circRNAs, microRNAs (miRs) and mRNAs in human AAAD tissues (n = 10) compared with normal aortic tissues (n = 10). The results of RNA-Seq revealed that 506 circRNAs were significantly dysregulated (P<0.05, false discovery rate, FDR<0.05, fold change>2). The subsequent weighted gene correlation network analysis and the following co-expression network analysis revealed that tyrosine-protein kinase Fgr might play important roles in the occurrence and development of AAAD. According to the circRNA-miRNA-mRNA network, we found that the upstream regulatory molecule of Fgr is circMARK3. Finally, a receiver operating characteristic (ROC) curve was used to evaluate the diagnostic value of the serum circMARK3 as biomarkers for AAAD (cutoff value = 1.497, area under the curve = 0.9344, P < 0.0001, sensitivity = 90.0%, specificity = 86.7%). These results provided a preliminary landscape of circRNAs expression profiles and indicated that circMARK3 was a potential biomarker for AAAD diagnosis.
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14
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Chignola R, Sega M, Molesini B, Baruzzi A, Stella S, Milotti E. Collective radioresistance of T47D breast carcinoma cells is mediated by a Syncytin-1 homologous protein. PLoS One 2019; 14:e0206713. [PMID: 30699112 PMCID: PMC6353071 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0206713] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/15/2018] [Accepted: 01/17/2019] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
It is generally accepted that radiotherapy must target clonogenic cells, i.e., those cells in a tumour that have self-renewing potential. Focussing on isolated clonogenic cells, however, may lead to an underestimate or even to an outright neglect of the importance of biological mechanisms that regulate tumour cell sensitivity to radiation. We develop a new statistical and experimental approach to quantify the effects of radiation on cell populations as a whole. In our experiments, we change the proximity relationships of the cells by culturing them in wells with different shapes, and we find that the radiosensitivity of T47D human breast carcinoma cells in tight clusters is different from that of isolated cells. Molecular analyses show that T47D cells express a Syncytin-1 homologous protein (SyHP). We observe that SyHP translocates to the external surface of the plasma membrane of cells killed by radiation treatment. The data support the fundamental role of SyHP in the formation of intercellular cytoplasmic bridges and in the enhanced radioresistance of surviving cells. We conclude that complex and unexpected biological mechanisms of tumour radioresistance take place at the cell population level. These mechanisms may significantly bias our estimates of the radiosensitivity of breast carcinomas in vivo and thereby affect treatment plans, and they call for further investigations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Roberto Chignola
- Department of Biotechnology, University of Verona, Strada Le Grazie 15, Verona, Italy
| | - Michela Sega
- Department of Biotechnology, University of Verona, Strada Le Grazie 15, Verona, Italy
| | - Barbara Molesini
- Department of Biotechnology, University of Verona, Strada Le Grazie 15, Verona, Italy
| | - Anna Baruzzi
- Department of Medicine, University of Verona, Piazzale L. Scuro 10, Verona, Italy
| | - Sabrina Stella
- Department of Physics, University of Trieste, Via Valerio 2, Trieste, Italy
| | - Edoardo Milotti
- Department of Physics, University of Trieste, Via Valerio 2, Trieste, Italy
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15
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Rodríguez ME, Rizzi M, Caeiro L, Masip Y, Sánchez DO, Tekiel V. Transmigration of Trypanosoma cruzi Trypomastigotes through 3D Spheroids Mimicking Host Tissues. Methods Mol Biol 2019; 1955:165-177. [PMID: 30868526 DOI: 10.1007/978-1-4939-9148-8_12] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Abstract
While cellular invasion by T. cruzi trypomastigotes and intracellular amastigote replication are well-characterized events that have been described by using 2D monolayer cultures, other relevant parasite-host interactions, like the dynamics of tissue invasiveness, cannot be captured using monolayer cultures. Spheroids constitute a valuable three-dimensional (3D) culture system because they mimic the microarchitecture of tissues and provide an environment similar to the encountered in natural infections, which includes the presence of extracellular matrix as well as 3D cell-cell interactions. In this work, we describe a protocol for studying transmigration of T. cruzi trypomastigotes into 3D spheroids. In the experimental setup, cells and parasites are labelled with two fluorescent dyes, allowing their visualization by confocal microscopy. We also describe the general procedure and setting of the confocal microscope and downstream applications for acquisition and reconstruction of 3D images. This model was employed to analyze the transmigration of trypomastigotes from the highly virulent and pantropic RA T. cruzi strain. Of course, other aspects encountered by T. cruzi in the mammalian host environment can be studied with this methodology.
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Affiliation(s)
- Matías Exequiel Rodríguez
- Instituto de Investigaciones Biotecnológicas "Dr R. Ugalde", IIBIO, Universidad Nacional de San Martín (UNSAM) - CONICET, Pcia de Buenos Aires, Argentina
| | - Mariana Rizzi
- Instituto de Investigaciones Biotecnológicas "Dr R. Ugalde", IIBIO, Universidad Nacional de San Martín (UNSAM) - CONICET, Pcia de Buenos Aires, Argentina
| | - Lucas Caeiro
- Instituto de Investigaciones Biotecnológicas "Dr R. Ugalde", IIBIO, Universidad Nacional de San Martín (UNSAM) - CONICET, Pcia de Buenos Aires, Argentina
| | - Yamil Masip
- Instituto de Investigaciones Biotecnológicas "Dr R. Ugalde", IIBIO, Universidad Nacional de San Martín (UNSAM) - CONICET, Pcia de Buenos Aires, Argentina
| | - Daniel O Sánchez
- Instituto de Investigaciones Biotecnológicas "Dr R. Ugalde", IIBIO, Universidad Nacional de San Martín (UNSAM) - CONICET, Pcia de Buenos Aires, Argentina
| | - Valeria Tekiel
- Instituto de Investigaciones Biotecnológicas "Dr R. Ugalde", IIBIO, Universidad Nacional de San Martín (UNSAM) - CONICET, Pcia de Buenos Aires, Argentina.
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16
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Cabron AS, El Azzouzi K, Boss M, Arnold P, Schwarz J, Rosas M, Dobert JP, Pavlenko E, Schumacher N, Renné T, Taylor PR, Linder S, Rose-John S, Zunke F. Structural and Functional Analyses of the Shedding Protease ADAM17 in HoxB8-Immortalized Macrophages and Dendritic-like Cells. JOURNAL OF IMMUNOLOGY (BALTIMORE, MD. : 1950) 2018; 201:3106-3118. [PMID: 30355783 PMCID: PMC6215251 DOI: 10.4049/jimmunol.1701556] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/13/2017] [Accepted: 09/16/2018] [Indexed: 01/19/2023]
Abstract
A disintegrin and metalloproteinase (ADAM) 17 has been implicated in many shedding processes. Major substrates of ADAM17 are TNF-α, IL-6R, and ligands of the epidermal growth factor receptor. The essential role of the protease is emphasized by the fact that ADAM17 deficiency is lethal in mice. To study ADAM17 function in vivo, we generated viable hypomorphic ADAM17 mice called ADAM17ex/ex mice. Recent studies indicated regulation of proteolytic ADAM17 activity by cellular processes such as cytoplasmic phosphorylation and removal of the prodomain by furin cleavage. Maturation and thus activation of ADAM17 is not fully understood. So far, studies of ADAM17 maturation have been mainly limited to mouse embryonic fibroblasts or transfected cell lines relying on nonphysiologic stimuli such as phorbol esters, thus making interpretation of the results difficult in a physiologic context. In this article, we present a robust cell system to study ADAM17 maturation and function in primary cells of the immune system. To this end, HoxB8 conditionally immortalized macrophage precursor cell lines were derived from bone marrow of wild-type and hypomorphic ADAM17ex/ex mice, which are devoid of measurable ADAM17 activity. ADAM17 mutants were stably expressed in macrophage precursor cells, differentiated to macrophages under different growth factor conditions (M-CSF versus GM-CSF), and analyzed for cellular localization, proteolytic activity, and podosome disassembly. Our study reveals maturation and activity of ADAM17 in a more physiological-immune cell system. We show that this cell system can be further exploited for genetic modifications of ADAM17 and for studying its function in immune cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anne-Sophie Cabron
- Institute of Biochemistry, Christian-Albrechts-University of Kiel, 24118 Kiel, Germany
| | - Karim El Azzouzi
- Institute for Medical Microbiology, Virology and Hygiene, University Medical Center Eppendorf, 20246 Hamburg, Germany
| | - Melanie Boss
- Institute of Biochemistry, Christian-Albrechts-University of Kiel, 24118 Kiel, Germany
| | - Philipp Arnold
- Institute of Anatomy, Christian-Albrechts-University of Kiel, 24118 Kiel, Germany
| | - Jeanette Schwarz
- Institute of Biochemistry, Christian-Albrechts-University of Kiel, 24118 Kiel, Germany
| | - Marcela Rosas
- Division of Infection and Immunity, Systems Immunity Research Institute, Cardiff University School of Medicine, Cardiff CF10 3AT, United Kingdom
| | - Jan Philipp Dobert
- Institute of Biochemistry, Christian-Albrechts-University of Kiel, 24118 Kiel, Germany
| | - Egor Pavlenko
- Institute of Biochemistry, Christian-Albrechts-University of Kiel, 24118 Kiel, Germany
| | - Neele Schumacher
- Institute of Biochemistry, Christian-Albrechts-University of Kiel, 24118 Kiel, Germany
| | - Thomas Renné
- Department of Molecular Medicine and Surgery, Karolinska Institutet and University Hospital, Solna, SE-171 76 Stockholm, Sweden; and
- Institute of Clinical Chemistry and Laboratory Medicine, University Medical Center Hamburg-Eppendorf, 20246 Hamburg, Germany
| | - Philip R Taylor
- Division of Infection and Immunity, Systems Immunity Research Institute, Cardiff University School of Medicine, Cardiff CF10 3AT, United Kingdom
| | - Stefan Linder
- Institute for Medical Microbiology, Virology and Hygiene, University Medical Center Eppendorf, 20246 Hamburg, Germany
| | - Stefan Rose-John
- Institute of Biochemistry, Christian-Albrechts-University of Kiel, 24118 Kiel, Germany;
| | - Friederike Zunke
- Institute of Biochemistry, Christian-Albrechts-University of Kiel, 24118 Kiel, Germany;
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17
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Tripathi R, Liu Z, Plattner R. EnABLing Tumor Growth and Progression: Recent progress in unraveling the functions of ABL kinases in solid tumor cells. CURRENT PHARMACOLOGY REPORTS 2018; 4:367-379. [PMID: 30746323 PMCID: PMC6368175 DOI: 10.1007/s40495-018-0149-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/19/2023]
Abstract
PURPOSE OF REVIEW The goal of this review is to summarize our current knowledge regarding how ABL family kinases are activated in solid tumors and impact on solid tumor development/progression, with a focus on recent advances in the field. RECENT FINDINGS Although ABL kinases are known drivers of human leukemia, emerging data also implicates the kinases in a large number of solid tumor types where they promote diverse processes such as proliferation, survival, cytoskeletal reorganization, cellular polarity, EMT (epithelial-mesenchymal-transition), metabolic reprogramming, migration, invasion and metastasis via unique signaling pathways. ABL1 and ABL2 appear to have overlapping but also unique roles in driving these processes. In some tumor types, the kinases may act to integrate pro- and anti-proliferative and -invasive signals, and also may serve as a switch during EMT/MET (mesenchymal-epithelial) transitions. CONCLUSIONS Most data indicate that targeting ABL kinases may be effective for reducing tumor growth and preventing metastasis; however, ABL kinases also may have a tumor suppressive role in some tumor types and in some cellular contexts. Understanding the functions of ABL kinases in solid tumors is critical for developing successful clinical trials aimed at targeting ABL kinases for the treatment of solid tumors.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rakshamani Tripathi
- Department of Pharmacology and Nutritional Sciences, University of Kentucky School of Medicine, Lexington, Kentucky 40536
| | - Zulong Liu
- Department of Pharmacology and Nutritional Sciences, University of Kentucky School of Medicine, Lexington, Kentucky 40536
| | - Rina Plattner
- Department of Pharmacology and Nutritional Sciences, University of Kentucky School of Medicine, Lexington, Kentucky 40536
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18
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Differential Role of the RasGEFs Sos1 and Sos2 in Mouse Skin Homeostasis and Carcinogenesis. Mol Cell Biol 2018; 38:MCB.00049-18. [PMID: 29844066 DOI: 10.1128/mcb.00049-18] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/26/2018] [Accepted: 05/21/2018] [Indexed: 12/24/2022] Open
Abstract
Using Sos1 knockout (Sos1-KO), Sos2-KO, and Sos1/2 double-knockout (Sos1/2-DKO) mice, we assessed the functional role of Sos1 and Sos2 in skin homeostasis under physiological and/or pathological conditions. Sos1 depletion resulted in significant alterations of skin homeostasis, including reduced keratinocyte proliferation, altered hair follicle and blood vessel integrity in dermis, and reduced adipose tissue in hypodermis. These defects worsened significantly when both Sos1 and Sos2 were absent. Simultaneous Sos1/2 disruption led to severe impairment of the ability to repair skin wounds, as well as to almost complete ablation of the neutrophil-mediated inflammatory response in the injury site. Furthermore, Sos1 disruption delayed the onset of tumor initiation, decreased tumor growth, and prevented malignant progression of papillomas in a DMBA (7,12-dimethylbenz[α]anthracene)/TPA (12-O-tetradecanoylphorbol-13-acetate)-induced skin carcinogenesis model. Finally, Sos1 depletion in preexisting chemically induced papillomas resulted also in decreased tumor growth, probably linked to significantly reduced underlying keratinocyte proliferation. Our data unveil novel, distinctive mechanistic roles of Sos 1 and Sos2 in physiological control of skin homeostasis and wound repair, as well as in pathological development of chemically induced skin tumors. These observations underscore the essential role of Sos proteins in cellular proliferation and migration and support the consideration of these RasGEFs as potential biomarkers/therapy targets in Ras-driven epidermal tumors.
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19
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Liu H, Cheng Y, Yang J, Wang W, Fang S, Zhang W, Han B, Zhou Z, Yao H, Chao J, Liao H. BBC3 in macrophages promoted pulmonary fibrosis development through inducing autophagy during silicosis. Cell Death Dis 2017; 8:e2657. [PMID: 28277537 PMCID: PMC5386570 DOI: 10.1038/cddis.2017.78] [Citation(s) in RCA: 46] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/17/2016] [Revised: 02/01/2017] [Accepted: 02/07/2017] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
Abstract
Following inhalation into the lungs, silica particles are engulfed by alveolar macrophages, which triggers endogenous or exogenous apoptosis signaling pathways. As an inducer of apoptosis, the role of BBC3/PUMA (BCL2-binding component 3) in macrophages during silicosis remains unknown. Here, we exposed U937 cell-derived macrophages (UDMs) to SiO2in vitro to explore the function of BBC3 in SiO2-induced disease. We found that SiO2 induced increased BBC3 expression, as well as macrophage activation and apoptosis. Knockdown of Bbc3 with specific siRNA significantly mitigated the SiO2-induced effects. In addition, our results clearly showed increased levels of autophagy in macrophages exposed to SiO2. However, inhibition of BBC3 decreased the occurrence of autophagy. Furthermore, we observed that the blockade of autophagy with 3-MA, an autophagy inhibitor, inhibited SiO2-induced macrophage activation and apoptosis. In contrast, rapamycin, an autophagy inducer, further enhanced the effects induced by SiO2. The conditioned medium from macrophages exposed to SiO2 promoted the proliferation and migration of fibroblasts, and the inhibition of BBC3/autophagy reduced the effects of the conditioned medium on fibroblasts. In the mouse model of silicosis, Bbc3 knockout mice clearly exhibited decreased levels of autophagy and fibrosis progression. These results suggest that downregulation of BBC3 expression may become a novel therapeutic strategy for the treatment of silicosis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Haijun Liu
- Neurobiology Laboratory, New Drug Screening Centre, China Pharmaceutical University, Nanjing, China.,Department of Physiology, School of Medicine, Southeast University, Nanjing, China
| | - Yusi Cheng
- Department of Physiology, School of Medicine, Southeast University, Nanjing, China
| | - Jian Yang
- Department of Physiology, School of Medicine, Southeast University, Nanjing, China
| | - Wei Wang
- Nine Department of Respiratory Medicine, Nanjing Chest Hospital, Nanjing, China
| | - Shencun Fang
- Nine Department of Respiratory Medicine, Nanjing Chest Hospital, Nanjing, China
| | - Wei Zhang
- Department of Physiology, School of Medicine, Southeast University, Nanjing, China
| | - Bing Han
- Department of Pharmacology, School of Medicine, Southeast University, Nanjing, China
| | - Zewei Zhou
- Department of Physiology, School of Medicine, Southeast University, Nanjing, China.,Department of Pharmacology, School of Medicine, Southeast University, Nanjing, China
| | - Honghong Yao
- Department of Pharmacology, School of Medicine, Southeast University, Nanjing, China.,Key Laboratory of Developmental Genes and Human Disease, Southeast University, Nanjing, China
| | - Jie Chao
- Department of Physiology, School of Medicine, Southeast University, Nanjing, China.,Key Laboratory of Developmental Genes and Human Disease, Southeast University, Nanjing, China.,Department of Respiration, Zhongda Hospital, School of Medicine, Southeast University, Nanjing, China
| | - Hong Liao
- Neurobiology Laboratory, New Drug Screening Centre, China Pharmaceutical University, Nanjing, China
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20
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Marzotto M, Bonafini C, Olioso D, Baruzzi A, Bettinetti L, Di Leva F, Galbiati E, Bellavite P. Arnica montana Stimulates Extracellular Matrix Gene Expression in a Macrophage Cell Line Differentiated to Wound-Healing Phenotype. PLoS One 2016; 11:e0166340. [PMID: 27832158 PMCID: PMC5104438 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0166340] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/05/2016] [Accepted: 08/26/2016] [Indexed: 12/31/2022] Open
Abstract
Arnica montana (Arnica m.) is used for its purported anti-inflammatory and tissue healing actions after trauma, bruises, or tissue injuries, but its cellular and molecular mechanisms are largely unknown. This work tested Arnica m. effects on gene expression using an in vitro model of macrophages polarized towards a "wound-healing" phenotype. The monocyte-macrophage human THP-1 cell line was cultured and differentiated with phorbol-myristate acetate and Interleukin-4, then exposed for 24h to Arnica m. centesimal (c) dilutions 2c, 3c, 5c, 9c, 15c or Control. Total RNA was isolated and cDNA libraries were sequenced with a NextSeq500 sequencer. Genes with significantly positive (up-regulated) or negative (down-regulated) fold changes were defined as differentially expressed genes (DEGs). A total of 20 DEGs were identified in Arnica m. 2c treated cells. Of these, 7 genes were up-regulated and 13 were down-regulated. The most significantly up-regulated function concerned 4 genes with a conserved site of epidermal growth factor-like region (p<0.001) and three genes of proteinaceous extracellular matrix, including heparin sulphate proteoglycan 2 (HSPG2), fibrillin 2 (FBN2), and fibronectin (FN1) (p<0.01). Protein assay confirmed a statistically significant increase of fibronectin production (p<0.05). The down-regulated transcripts derived from mitochondrial genes coding for some components of electron transport chain. The same groups of genes were also regulated by increasing dilutions of Arnica m. (3c, 5c, 9c, 15c), although with a lower effect size. We further tested the healing potential of Arnica m. 2c in a scratch model of wound closure based on the motility of bone marrow-derived macrophages and found evidence of an accelerating effect on cell migration in this system. The results of this work, taken together, provide new insights into the action of Arnica m. in tissue healing and repair, and identify extracellular matrix regulation by macrophages as a therapeutic target.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marta Marzotto
- Department of Medicine, University of Verona, Strada Le Grazie 8, 37134, Verona, Italy
| | - Clara Bonafini
- Department of Medicine, University of Verona, Strada Le Grazie 8, 37134, Verona, Italy
| | - Debora Olioso
- Department of Medicine, University of Verona, Strada Le Grazie 8, 37134, Verona, Italy
| | - Anna Baruzzi
- Department of Medicine, University of Verona, Strada Le Grazie 8, 37134, Verona, Italy
| | - Laura Bettinetti
- Department of Biotechnology, University of Verona, Strada Le Grazie 15, 37134, Verona, Italy
| | - Francesca Di Leva
- Department of Biotechnology, University of Verona, Strada Le Grazie 15, 37134, Verona, Italy
| | - Elisabetta Galbiati
- Department of Biotechnology and Bioscience, University of Milano-Bicocca, Piazza della Scienza 3, 20126, Milano, Italy
| | - Paolo Bellavite
- Department of Medicine, University of Verona, Strada Le Grazie 8, 37134, Verona, Italy
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