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Wang R, Zhu L, Li H, Peng X, Zhao S, Su W. Single-Cell transcriptomes of immune cells provide insights into the therapeutic effects of mycophenolate mofetil on autoimmune uveitis. Int Immunopharmacol 2023; 119:110223. [PMID: 37121110 DOI: 10.1016/j.intimp.2023.110223] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/29/2023] [Revised: 04/14/2023] [Accepted: 04/19/2023] [Indexed: 05/02/2023]
Abstract
Mycophenolate mofetil (MMF) is an immunosuppressive agent widely applied in various autoimmune diseases, including autoimmune uveitis, a sight-threatening autoimmune disease mainly affecting the eyes. However, the mechanisms of action are not comprehensively understood. To investigate the potential impact of MMF on uveitis, we generated single-cell RNA sequence data from normal, experimental autoimmune uveitis (EAU) and MMF-treated EAU mice. We observed that some EAU-induced transcriptional changes were reversed by MMF treatment. Transcriptional data indicated that MMF may have a general inhibitory effect on the activation of immune cells during EAU. Each immune cell type showed a different response to MMF treatment. Pseudotime analysis showed that MMF treatment partly reversed the increased differentiation tendency from naïve to effector phenotypes of T and B cells in EAU. The reduced proportion of T-helper (Th)1 and T-helper (Th)17 cells after MMF treatment was confirmed using flow cytometry. MMF treatment downregulated the EAU-associated upregulation of several molecules (such as Cebpd, Pim1, Furin, Bhlhe40, and Hif1a) that promote pathogenic cytokine production by T helper (Th)-1 and Th17 cells. Abnormally enhanced immunoglobulin production, antigen processing, and presentation ability of B cells may also be inhibited by MMF treatment. In addition to T and B cells, MMF treatment countered EAU-induced transcriptional changes in other immune cells to different degrees. Overall, our findings provide novel insights into the mechanisms underlying MMF treatment and indicate that the therapeutic effect of MMF is not driven by a single molecule.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rong Wang
- State Key Laboratory of Ophthalmology, Zhongshan Ophthalmic Center, Sun Yat-sen University, Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Ophthalmology and Visual Science, Guangzhou 510060, Guangdong, China
| | - Lei Zhu
- State Key Laboratory of Ophthalmology, Zhongshan Ophthalmic Center, Sun Yat-sen University, Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Ophthalmology and Visual Science, Guangzhou 510060, Guangdong, China
| | - He Li
- State Key Laboratory of Ophthalmology, Zhongshan Ophthalmic Center, Sun Yat-sen University, Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Ophthalmology and Visual Science, Guangzhou 510060, Guangdong, China
| | - Xuening Peng
- State Key Laboratory of Ophthalmology, Zhongshan Ophthalmic Center, Sun Yat-sen University, Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Ophthalmology and Visual Science, Guangzhou 510060, Guangdong, China
| | - Sichen Zhao
- State Key Laboratory of Ophthalmology, Zhongshan Ophthalmic Center, Sun Yat-sen University, Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Ophthalmology and Visual Science, Guangzhou 510060, Guangdong, China
| | - Wenru Su
- State Key Laboratory of Ophthalmology, Zhongshan Ophthalmic Center, Sun Yat-sen University, Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Ophthalmology and Visual Science, Guangzhou 510060, Guangdong, China.
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2
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Lederer K, Bettini E, Parvathaneni K, Painter MM, Agarwal D, Lundgreen KA, Weirick M, Muralidharan K, Castaño D, Goel RR, Xu X, Drapeau EM, Gouma S, Ort JT, Awofolaju M, Greenplate AR, Le Coz C, Romberg N, Trofe-Clark J, Malat G, Jones L, Rosen M, Weiskopf D, Sette A, Besharatian B, Kaminiski M, Hensley SE, Bates P, Wherry EJ, Naji A, Bhoj V, Locci M. Germinal center responses to SARS-CoV-2 mRNA vaccines in healthy and immunocompromised individuals. Cell 2022; 185:1008-1024.e15. [PMID: 35202565 PMCID: PMC8808747 DOI: 10.1016/j.cell.2022.01.027] [Citation(s) in RCA: 86] [Impact Index Per Article: 43.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/24/2021] [Revised: 12/13/2021] [Accepted: 01/28/2022] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
Abstract
Vaccine-mediated immunity often relies on the generation of protective antibodies and memory B cells, which commonly stem from germinal center (GC) reactions. An in-depth comparison of the GC responses elicited by SARS-CoV-2 mRNA vaccines in healthy and immunocompromised individuals has not yet been performed due to the challenge of directly probing human lymph nodes. Herein, through a fine-needle aspiration-based approach, we profiled the immune responses to SARS-CoV-2 mRNA vaccines in lymph nodes of healthy individuals and kidney transplant recipients (KTXs). We found that, unlike healthy subjects, KTXs presented deeply blunted SARS-CoV-2-specific GC B cell responses coupled with severely hindered T follicular helper cell, SARS-CoV-2 receptor binding domain-specific memory B cell, and neutralizing antibody responses. KTXs also displayed reduced SARS-CoV-2-specific CD4 and CD8 T cell frequencies. Broadly, these data indicate impaired GC-derived immunity in immunocompromised individuals and suggest a GC origin for certain humoral and memory B cell responses following mRNA vaccination.
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Affiliation(s)
- Katlyn Lederer
- Institute for Immunology, Perelman School of Medicine, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA 19104, USA; Department of Microbiology, Perelman School of Medicine, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA 19104, USA
| | - Emily Bettini
- Institute for Immunology, Perelman School of Medicine, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA 19104, USA; Department of Microbiology, Perelman School of Medicine, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA 19104, USA
| | - Kalpana Parvathaneni
- Institute for Immunology, Perelman School of Medicine, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA 19104, USA; Department of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine, Perelman School of Medicine, University of Pennsylvania, PA 19104, USA; Center for Cellular Immunotherapies, Perelman School of Medicine, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA 19104, USA
| | - Mark M Painter
- Institute for Immunology, Perelman School of Medicine, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA 19104, USA; Department of Systems Pharmacology and Translational Therapeutics, Perelman School of Medicine, University of Pennsylvania, PA 19104, USA
| | - Divyansh Agarwal
- Department of Surgery, Massachusetts General Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA 02114, USA
| | - Kendall A Lundgreen
- Department of Microbiology, Perelman School of Medicine, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA 19104, USA
| | - Madison Weirick
- Institute for Immunology, Perelman School of Medicine, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA 19104, USA; Department of Microbiology, Perelman School of Medicine, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA 19104, USA
| | - Kavitha Muralidharan
- Institute for Immunology, Perelman School of Medicine, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA 19104, USA; Department of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine, Perelman School of Medicine, University of Pennsylvania, PA 19104, USA; Center for Cellular Immunotherapies, Perelman School of Medicine, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA 19104, USA
| | - Diana Castaño
- Grupo de Inmunología Celular e Inmunogenética, Facultad de Medicina, Universidad de Antioquia, Medellín, Antioquia 050010, Colombia
| | - Rishi R Goel
- Institute for Immunology, Perelman School of Medicine, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA 19104, USA; Department of Systems Pharmacology and Translational Therapeutics, Perelman School of Medicine, University of Pennsylvania, PA 19104, USA
| | - Xiaoming Xu
- Institute for Immunology, Perelman School of Medicine, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA 19104, USA; Center for Cellular Immunotherapies, Perelman School of Medicine, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA 19104, USA
| | - Elizabeth M Drapeau
- Institute for Immunology, Perelman School of Medicine, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA 19104, USA; Department of Microbiology, Perelman School of Medicine, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA 19104, USA
| | - Sigrid Gouma
- Institute for Immunology, Perelman School of Medicine, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA 19104, USA; Department of Microbiology, Perelman School of Medicine, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA 19104, USA
| | - Jordan T Ort
- Institute for Immunology, Perelman School of Medicine, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA 19104, USA; Department of Microbiology, Perelman School of Medicine, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA 19104, USA
| | - Moses Awofolaju
- Institute for Immunology, Perelman School of Medicine, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA 19104, USA; Department of Microbiology, Perelman School of Medicine, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA 19104, USA
| | - Allison R Greenplate
- Institute for Immunology, Perelman School of Medicine, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA 19104, USA; Department of Systems Pharmacology and Translational Therapeutics, Perelman School of Medicine, University of Pennsylvania, PA 19104, USA
| | - Carole Le Coz
- Institute for Immunology, Perelman School of Medicine, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA 19104, USA; Division of Immunology and Allergy, Children's Hospital of Philadelphia, Philadelphia, PA 19104, USA
| | - Neil Romberg
- Institute for Immunology, Perelman School of Medicine, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA 19104, USA; Division of Immunology and Allergy, Children's Hospital of Philadelphia, Philadelphia, PA 19104, USA
| | - Jennifer Trofe-Clark
- Department of Medicine, Renal Electrolyte and Hypertension Division, Perelman School of Medicine, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA 19104, USA
| | - Gregory Malat
- Department of Medicine, Renal Electrolyte and Hypertension Division, Perelman School of Medicine, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA 19104, USA
| | - Lisa Jones
- Department of Radiology, Division of Medicine, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA 19104, USA
| | - Mark Rosen
- Department of Radiology, Division of Medicine, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA 19104, USA
| | - Daniela Weiskopf
- Center for Infectious Disease and Vaccine Research, La Jolla Institute for Immunology, La Jolla, La Jolla, CA 92037, USA
| | - Alessandro Sette
- Center for Infectious Disease and Vaccine Research, La Jolla Institute for Immunology, La Jolla, La Jolla, CA 92037, USA; Department of Medicine, Division of Infectious Diseases and Global Public Health, University of California, San Diego (UCSD), La Jolla, La Jolla, CA 92093, USA
| | - Behdad Besharatian
- Department of Medicine, Perelman School of Medicine, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA 19104, USA
| | - Mary Kaminiski
- Department of Surgery, Perelman School of Medicine at the University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA 19104, USA
| | - Scott E Hensley
- Institute for Immunology, Perelman School of Medicine, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA 19104, USA; Department of Microbiology, Perelman School of Medicine, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA 19104, USA
| | - Paul Bates
- Department of Microbiology, Perelman School of Medicine, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA 19104, USA
| | - E John Wherry
- Institute for Immunology, Perelman School of Medicine, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA 19104, USA; Department of Systems Pharmacology and Translational Therapeutics, Perelman School of Medicine, University of Pennsylvania, PA 19104, USA
| | - Ali Naji
- Institute for Immunology, Perelman School of Medicine, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA 19104, USA; Department of Surgery, Perelman School of Medicine at the University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA 19104, USA.
| | - Vijay Bhoj
- Institute for Immunology, Perelman School of Medicine, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA 19104, USA; Department of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine, Perelman School of Medicine, University of Pennsylvania, PA 19104, USA; Center for Cellular Immunotherapies, Perelman School of Medicine, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA 19104, USA.
| | - Michela Locci
- Institute for Immunology, Perelman School of Medicine, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA 19104, USA; Department of Microbiology, Perelman School of Medicine, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA 19104, USA.
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Rahimi K, Hassanzadeh K, Khanbabaei H, Haftcheshmeh SM, Ahmadi A, Izadpanah E, Mohammadi A, Sahebkar A. Curcumin: A Dietary Phytochemical for Targeting the Phenotype and Function of Dendritic Cells. Curr Med Chem 2021; 28:1549-1564. [PMID: 32410550 DOI: 10.2174/0929867327666200515101228] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/13/2019] [Revised: 04/05/2020] [Accepted: 04/19/2020] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
Dendritic cells (DCs) are the most powerful antigen-presenting cells which link the innate and adaptive immune responses. Depending on the context, DCs initiate the immune responses or contribute to immune tolerance. Any disturbance in their phenotypes and functions may initiate inflammatory or autoimmune diseases. Hence, dysregulated DCs are the most attractive pharmacological target for the development of new therapies aiming at reducing their immunogenicity and at enhancing their tolerogenicity. Curcumin is the polyphenolic phytochemical component of the spice turmeric with a wide range of pharmacological activities. It acts in several ways as a modulator of DCs and converts them into tolerogenic DCs. Tolerogenic DCs possess anti-inflammatory and immunomodulatory activities that regulate the immune responses in health and disease. Curcumin by blocking maturation markers, cytokines and chemokines expression, and disrupting the antigen-presenting machinery of DCs render them non- or hypo-responsive to immunostimulants. It also reduces the expression of co-stimulatory and adhesion molecules on DCs and prevents them from both migration and antigen presentation but enhances their endocytosis capacity. Hence, curcumin causes DCs-inducing regulatory T cells and dampens CD4+ T helper 1 (Th1), Th2, and Th17 polarization. Inhibition of transcription factors such as NF-κB, AP-1, MAPKs (p38, JNK, ERK) and other intracellular signaling molecules such as JAK/STAT/SOCS provide a plausible explanation for most of these observations. In this review, we summarize the potential effects of curcumin on the phenotypes and functions of DCs as the key players in orchestration, stimulation, and modulation of the immune responses.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kaveh Rahimi
- Cellular and Molecular Research Center, Research Institute for Health Development, Kurdistan University of Medical Sciences, Sanandaj, Iran
| | - Kambiz Hassanzadeh
- Cellular and Molecular Research Center, Research Institute for Health Development, Kurdistan University of Medical Sciences, Sanandaj, Iran
| | - Hashem Khanbabaei
- Medical Physics Department, Faculty of Medicine, Ahvaz Jundishapur University of Medical Sciences, Ahvaz, Iran
| | - Saeed M Haftcheshmeh
- Department of Medical Immunology, Faculty of Medicine, Mashhad University of Medical Sciences, Mashhad 91766-99199, Iran
| | - Abbas Ahmadi
- Cellular and Molecular Research Center, Research Institute for Health Development, Kurdistan University of Medical Sciences, Sanandaj, Iran
| | - Esmael Izadpanah
- Cellular and Molecular Research Center, Research Institute for Health Development, Kurdistan University of Medical Sciences, Sanandaj, Iran
| | - Asadollah Mohammadi
- Cellular and Molecular Research Center, Research Institute for Health Development, Kurdistan University of Medical Sciences, Sanandaj, Iran
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Fisetin Attenuates Lipopolysaccharide-Induced Inflammatory Responses in Macrophage. BIOMED RESEARCH INTERNATIONAL 2021; 2021:5570885. [PMID: 33954178 PMCID: PMC8057890 DOI: 10.1155/2021/5570885] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/27/2021] [Revised: 03/23/2021] [Accepted: 03/31/2021] [Indexed: 12/30/2022]
Abstract
Several studies have reported the efficacy and safety of polyphenols in human health; however, the verification of their efficacy remains insufficient. The aim of this study was to examine whether fisetin, one of flavonoids prevalently present in fruits and vegetables, could suppress lipopolysaccharide- (LPS-) induced inflammatory responses in macrophages. LPS increased proinflammatory mRNA abundance (MCP 1, IL-1β, and iNOS) but were suppressed by fisetin. The increment of nitric oxide by LPS, an oxidative stress factor, was attenuated by fisetin. In addition, LPS-enhanced phosphorylation of mitogen-activated protein kinase (ERK and JNK) was reduced. Finally, fisetin attenuated the expression or activity of uPA, uPAR, MMP-2, and MMP-9, which are known as associated factors of macrophage recruitment or infiltration. In conclusion, fisetin is a promising therapeutic agent for macrophage-related inflammation diseases, like sepsis and atherosclerosis.
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Khanna PP, Khanna D, Cutter G, Foster J, Melnick J, Jaafar S, Biggers S, Rahman AKMF, Kuo HC, Feese M, Kivitz A, King C, Shergy W, Kent J, Peloso PM, Danila MI, Saag KG. Reducing Immunogenicity of Pegloticase With Concomitant Use of Mycophenolate Mofetil in Patients With Refractory Gout: A Phase II, Randomized, Double-Blind, Placebo-Controlled Trial. Arthritis Rheumatol 2021; 73:1523-1532. [PMID: 33750034 DOI: 10.1002/art.41731] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/16/2020] [Revised: 02/18/2021] [Accepted: 03/09/2021] [Indexed: 12/19/2022]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE Pegloticase is used for the treatment of severe gout, but its use is limited by immunogenicity. This study was undertaken to evaluate whether mycophenolate mofetil (MMF) prolongs the efficacy of pegloticase. METHODS Participants were randomized 3:1 to receive 1,000 mg MMF twice daily or placebo for 14 weeks, starting 2 weeks before receiving pegloticase and continuing while receiving intravenous pegloticase 8 mg biweekly for 12 weeks. Participants then received pegloticase alone from week 12 to week 24. The primary end points were the proportion of patients who sustained a serum urate level of ≤6 mg/dl at 12 weeks and the rate of adverse events (AEs). Secondary end points included 24-week durability of serum urate level ≤6 mg/dl. Fisher's exact test and Wilcoxon's 2-sample test were used for analyses, along with Kaplan-Meier estimates and log rank tests. RESULTS A total of 32 participants received ≥1 dose of pegloticase. Participants were predominantly men (88%), with a mean age of 55.2 years, mean gout duration of 13.4 years, and mean baseline serum urate level of 9.2 mg/dl. At 12 weeks, a serum urate level of ≤6 mg/dl was achieved in 19 (86%) of 22 participants in the MMF arm compared to 4 (40%) of 10 in the placebo arm (P = 0.01). At week 24, the serum urate level was ≤6 mg/dl in 68% of MMF-treated patients versus 30% of placebo-treated patients (P = 0.06), and rates of AEs were similar between groups, with more infusion reactions occurring in the placebo arm (30% versus 0%). CONCLUSION Our findings indicate that MMF therapy with pegloticase is well tolerated and shows a clinically meaningful improvement in targeted serum urate level of ≤6 mg/dl at 12 and 24 weeks. This study suggests an innovative approach to pegloticase therapy in gout.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | - Alan Kivitz
- Altoona Center for Clinical Research, Duncansville, Pennsylvania, USA
| | | | | | - Jeff Kent
- Horizon Therapeutics, Lake Forest, Illinois, USA
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Fontova P, Rama I, Llaudó I, Vidal-Alabró A, Cerezo G, Manzano A, Bestard O, Cruzado JM, Torras J, Grinyó JM, Lloberas N. Mycophenolic acid interferes the transcriptional regulation and protein trafficking of maturation surface markers in dendritic cells. Int Immunopharmacol 2021; 91:107025. [PMID: 33360369 DOI: 10.1016/j.intimp.2020.107025] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/18/2020] [Revised: 09/16/2020] [Accepted: 09/16/2020] [Indexed: 10/22/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND The ability of dendritic cells (DCs) to regulate adaptive immunity makes them interesting cells to be used as therapeutic targets modulating alloimmune responses. Mycophenolic acid (MPA) is an immunosuppressor commonly used in transplantation, and its effect on DCs has not been fully investigated. METHODS Monocyte-derived DCs were obtained from healthy volunteers and cultured for 7 days. Cells were treated with MPA on day 2 and matured by lipopolysaccharide (LPS) stimulation. Functionality of mature DC (mDCs) was evaluated by allogeneic mixed lymphocytes reaction. Surface expression of maturation markers (CD40, CD83, CD86, and ICAM-1) was analyzed in both immature DCs (iDCs) and mDCs by flow cytometry. To assess transcriptional regulation and protein subcellular location, RT-PCR and confocal microscopy were used, respectively. RESULTS MPA decreased surface expression of all maturation markers in mDCs and significantly abrogated DCs-induced allogeneic T-cell proliferation after MPA pre-treatment. In iDCs, the reduced surface protein expression after MPA paralleled with mRNA downregulation of their genes. In mDCs, the mRNA levels of ICAM-1, CD40 and CD83 were enhanced in MPA-treated mDCs with an increase in the expression of CD83 and ICAM-1 near the Golgi compared to non-treated mDCs. In contrast, mRNA levels of CD86 were diminished after MPA treatment. CONCLUSIONS The reduced surface markers expression in mDCs exerted by MPA produced a decline in their capacity to activate immune responses. Moreover, the inhibition of guanosine-derived nucleotide biosynthesis by MPA treatment leads to DC maturation interference by two mechanisms depending on the marker, transcriptional downregulation or disrupted intracellular protein trafficking.
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Affiliation(s)
- Pere Fontova
- Nephrology Department, Hospital Universitari de Bellvitge, IDIBELL, Universitat de Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain
| | - Inés Rama
- Nephrology Department, Hospital Universitari de Bellvitge, IDIBELL, Universitat de Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain
| | - Inés Llaudó
- Nephrology Department, Hospital Universitari de Bellvitge, IDIBELL, Universitat de Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain
| | - Anna Vidal-Alabró
- Nephrology Department, Hospital Universitari de Bellvitge, IDIBELL, Universitat de Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain
| | - Gema Cerezo
- Nephrology Department, Hospital Universitari de Bellvitge, IDIBELL, Universitat de Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain
| | - Anna Manzano
- Unitat de Bioquímica, Departament de Ciències Fisiològiques, IDIBELL, Universitat de Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain
| | - Oriol Bestard
- Nephrology Department, Hospital Universitari de Bellvitge, IDIBELL, Universitat de Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain
| | - Josep M Cruzado
- Nephrology Department, Hospital Universitari de Bellvitge, IDIBELL, Universitat de Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain
| | - Joan Torras
- Nephrology Department, Hospital Universitari de Bellvitge, IDIBELL, Universitat de Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain
| | - Josep M Grinyó
- Nephrology Department, Hospital Universitari de Bellvitge, IDIBELL, Universitat de Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain
| | - Núria Lloberas
- Nephrology Department, Hospital Universitari de Bellvitge, IDIBELL, Universitat de Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain.
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Li Y, Lou Y, Chen Y, Yang J, Li D, Jiang B, Lan J, Wen J, Fu Y, Zhang Y, Tao J, Zhu J. Polysaccharide mycophenolate-based nanoparticles for enhanced immunosuppression and treatment of immune-mediated inflammatory diseases. Am J Cancer Res 2021; 11:3694-3709. [PMID: 33664856 PMCID: PMC7914372 DOI: 10.7150/thno.52891] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/05/2020] [Accepted: 12/22/2020] [Indexed: 11/14/2022] Open
Abstract
Immune-mediated inflammatory diseases (IMIDs) are characterized by immune dysregulation and severe inflammation caused by the aberrant and overactive host immunological response. Mycophenolic acid (MPA)-based immunosuppressive drugs are potential treatments for IMIDs because of their mild side-effect profile; however, their therapeutic effects are limited by the high albumin binding rate, unsatisfactory pharmacokinetics, and undefined cellular uptake selectivity. Methods: Polysaccharide mycophenolate was synthesized by conjugating MPA molecules to dextran (a typical polysaccharide widely used in drug delivery) and encapsulated extra free MPA molecules to fabricate MPA@Dex-MPA nanoparticles (NPs). The efficacy of these NPs for mediating immunosuppression and treatment of IMIDs was evaluated in imiquimod-induced psoriasis-like skin inflammation in Balb/c mice, a representative IMID model. Results: The MPA@Dex-MPA NPs exhibited high MPA loading efficiency, low albumin binding rates, and sustained MPA release, resulting in improved pharmacokinetics in vivo. Compared to free MPA, MPA@Dex-MPA NPs induced more robust therapeutic effects on IMIDs. Mechanistic studies indicated that MPA@Dex-MPA NPs were primarily distributed in dendritic cells (DCs) and significantly suppressed the overactivated DCs in vivo and in vitro. Furthermore, the recovered DCs rehabilitated the IL-23/Th17 axis function and significantly ameliorated imiquimod-induced psoriasis-like skin inflammation. Importantly, MPA@Dex-MPA NPs showed favorable safety and biocompatibility in vivo. Conclusion: Our results indicated the polysaccharide mycophenolate-based NPs to be highly promising for IMID treatment.
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Terry LV, Oo YH. The Next Frontier of Regulatory T Cells: Promising Immunotherapy for Autoimmune Diseases and Organ Transplantations. Front Immunol 2020; 11:565518. [PMID: 33072105 PMCID: PMC7538686 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2020.565518] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/25/2020] [Accepted: 08/17/2020] [Indexed: 12/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Regulatory T cells (Tregs) are crucial in maintaining tolerance. Hence, Treg immunotherapy is an attractive therapeutic option in autoimmune diseases and organ transplantations. Currently, autoimmune diseases do not have a curative treatment and transplant recipients require life-long immunosuppression to prevent graft rejection. There has been significant progress in understanding polyclonal and antigen-specific Treg biology over the last decade. Clinical trials with good manufacturing practice (GMP) Treg cells have demonstrated safety and early efficacy of Treg therapy. GMP Treg cells can also be tracked following infusion. In order to improve efficacy of Tregs immunotherapy, it is necessary that Tregs migrate, survive and function at the specific target tissue. Application of antigen specific Tregs and maintaining cells' suppressive function and survival with low dose interleukin-2 (IL-2) will enhance the efficacy and longevity of infused GMP-grade Tregs. Notably, stability of Tregs in the local tissue can be manipulated by understanding the microenvironment. With the recent advances in GMP-grade Tregs isolation and antigen-specific chimeric antigen receptor (CAR)-Tregs development will allow functionally superior cells to migrate to the target organ. Thus, Tregs immunotherapy may be a promising option for patients with autoimmune diseases and organ transplantations in near future.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lauren V Terry
- Centre for Liver and Gastrointestinal Research, National Institute for Health Research Birmingham Biomedical Research Council, Institute of Immunology and Immunotherapy, University of Birmingham, Birmingham, United Kingdom
| | - Ye Htun Oo
- Centre for Liver and Gastrointestinal Research, National Institute for Health Research Birmingham Biomedical Research Council, Institute of Immunology and Immunotherapy, University of Birmingham, Birmingham, United Kingdom.,European Reference Network (ERN) Centre-Rare Liver, Queen Elizabeth Hospital, Birmingham, United Kingdom.,Liver Transplant Unit, University Hospital of Birmingham National Health Service Foundation Trust, Birmingham, United Kingdom
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Roberts MB, Fishman JA. Immunosuppressive Agents and Infectious Risk in Transplantation: Managing the "Net State of Immunosuppression". Clin Infect Dis 2020; 73:e1302-e1317. [PMID: 32803228 DOI: 10.1093/cid/ciaa1189] [Citation(s) in RCA: 92] [Impact Index Per Article: 23.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/30/2020] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
Successful solid organ transplantation reflects meticulous attention to the details of immunosuppression, balancing risks for graft rejection against risks for infection. The 'net state of immune suppression' is a conceptual framework of all factors contributing to infectious risk. Assays which measure immune function in the immunosuppressed transplant recipient relative to infectious risk and allograft function are lacking. The best measures of integrated immune function may be quantitative viral loads to assess the individual's ability to control latent viral infections. Few studies address adjustment of immunosuppression during active infections. Thus, confronted with infection in solid organ recipients, the management of immunosuppression is based largely on clinical experience. This review examines known measures of immune function and the immunologic effects of common immunosuppressive drugs and available studies reporting modification of drug regimens for specific infections. These data provide a conceptual framework for the management of immunosuppression during infection in organ recipients.
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Affiliation(s)
- Matthew B Roberts
- Transplant Infectious Disease and Compromised Host Program and Transplant Center, Massachusetts General Hospital, Boston MA
| | - Jay A Fishman
- Transplant Infectious Disease and Compromised Host Program and Transplant Center, Massachusetts General Hospital, Boston MA.,Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA
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Tague LK, Scozzi D, Wallendorf M, Gage BF, Krupnick AS, Kreisel D, Byers D, Hachem R, Gelman AE. Lung transplant outcomes are influenced by severity of neutropenia and granulocyte colony-stimulating factor treatment. Am J Transplant 2020; 20:250-261. [PMID: 31452317 PMCID: PMC6940547 DOI: 10.1111/ajt.15581] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/24/2018] [Revised: 08/01/2019] [Accepted: 08/10/2019] [Indexed: 01/25/2023]
Abstract
Although neutropenia is a common complication after lung transplant, its relationship with recipient outcomes remains understudied. We evaluated a retrospective cohort of 228 adult lung transplant recipients between 2008 and 2013 to assess the association of neutropenia and granulocyte colony-stimulating factor (GCSF) treatment with outcomes. Neutropenia was categorized as mild (absolute neutrophil count 1000-1499), moderate (500-999), or severe (<500) and as a time-varying continuous variable. Associations with survival, acute rejection, and chronic lung allograft dysfunction (CLAD) were assessed with the use of Cox proportional hazards regression. GCSF therapy impact on survival, CLAD, and acute rejection development was analyzed by propensity score matching. Of 228 patients, 101 (42.1%) developed neutropenia. Recipients with severe neutropenia had higher mortality rates than those of recipients with no (adjusted hazard ratio [aHR] 2.97, 95% confidence interval [CI] 1.05-8.41, P = .040), mild (aHR 14.508, 95% CI 1.58-13.34, P = .018), or moderate (aHR 3.27, 95% CI 0.89-12.01, P = .074) neutropenia. Surprisingly, GCSF treatment was associated with a higher risk for CLAD in mildly neutropenic patients (aHR 3.49, 95% CI 0.93-13.04, P = .063), although it did decrease death risk in severely neutropenic patients (aHR 0.24, 95% CI 0.07-0.88, P = .031). Taken together, our data point to an important relationship between neutropenia severity and GCSF treatment in lung transplant outcomes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Laneshia K. Tague
- Division of Pulmonary and Critical Care Medicine, Department of Medicine, Washington University, St. Louis, Missouri
| | - Davide Scozzi
- Division of Cardiothoracic Surgery, Department of Surgery, Washington University, St. Louis, Missouri
| | | | - Brian F. Gage
- Division of General Medical Sciences, Washington University, St. Louis, Missouri
| | - Alexander S. Krupnick
- Department of Surgery and Carter Center for Immunology, University of Virginia, Charlottesville, Virginia
| | - Daniel Kreisel
- Division of Cardiothoracic Surgery, Department of Surgery, Washington University, St. Louis, Missouri
| | - Derek Byers
- Division of Pulmonary and Critical Care Medicine, Department of Medicine, Washington University, St. Louis, Missouri
| | - Ramsey Hachem
- Division of Pulmonary and Critical Care Medicine, Department of Medicine, Washington University, St. Louis, Missouri
| | - Andrew E. Gelman
- Division of Cardiothoracic Surgery, Department of Surgery, Washington University, St. Louis, Missouri
- Department of Pathology & Immunology Washington University, St. Louis, Missouri
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11
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Mesenchymal stem cell therapy induces FLT3L and CD1c + dendritic cells in systemic lupus erythematosus patients. Nat Commun 2019; 10:2498. [PMID: 31175312 PMCID: PMC6555800 DOI: 10.1038/s41467-019-10491-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 87] [Impact Index Per Article: 17.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/29/2018] [Accepted: 05/14/2019] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
Allogeneic mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs) exhibit immunoregulatory function in human autoimmune diseases such as systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE), but the underlying mechanisms remain incompletely understood. Here we show that the number of peripheral tolerogenic CD1c+ dendritic cells (DCs) and the levels of serum FLT3L are significantly decreased in SLE patients especially with lupus nephritis, compared to healthy controls. Transplantation of allogeneic umbilical cord-derived MSCs (UC-MSCs) significantly up-regulates peripheral blood CD1c+DCs and serum FLT3L. Mechanistically, UC-MSCs express FLT3L that binds to FLT3 on CD1c+DCs to promote the proliferation and inhibit the apoptosis of tolerogenic CD1c+DCs. Conversely, reduction of FLT3L with small interfering RNA in MSCs abolishes the up-regulation of tolerogenic CD1c+DCs in lupus patients treated with MSCs. Interferon-γ induces FLT3L expression in UC-MSCs through JAK/STAT signaling pathway. Thus, allogeneic MSCs might suppress inflammation in lupus through up-regulating tolerogenic DCs. Promising pilot clinical trials of mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs) therapy of lupus await validation in larger, controlled trials. Here the authors show that MSCs expand CD1c+ dendritic cells in cell culture by producing FLT3L, and that in lupus patients, circulating CD1c+ dendritic cells and FLT3L are increased following MSCs therapy.
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12
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Giannakopoulos G, Verbaan H, Friis-Liby IL, Sangfelt P, Nyhlin N, Almer S. Mycophenolate mofetil treatment in patients with autoimmune hepatitis failing standard therapy with prednisolone and azathioprine. Dig Liver Dis 2019; 51:253-257. [PMID: 30389427 DOI: 10.1016/j.dld.2018.10.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/20/2017] [Revised: 09/19/2018] [Accepted: 10/03/2018] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Data on rescue treatment of autoimmune hepatitis in patients that fail standard treatment are sparse. AIMS To report our long-term experience with mycophenolate mofetil. METHODS Retrospective study in 22 patients with autoimmune hepatitis who failed azathioprine and prednisolone due to adverse events (n = 14, 64%), lack of remission (n = 5, 23%) or a combination (n = 3, 13%). RESULTS Mycophenolate mofetil was started at a dose of 20 mg/kg/day and increased to a maximum of 3 g/day. Follow-up was 0-6 months in 7 patients; more than 12 months in 15 (68%) and more than 24 months in 10. Normal aminotransferase levels were obtained (n = 3) or maintained (n = 7) in 10 patients (45%) after three to 30 weeks. 12 patients (55%) were withdrawn during the first 6 months, due to adverse events. Three patients were switched to cyclosporine and one underwent liver transplantation. Successful treatment with mycophenolate mofetil continued in 10 patients (45%) for a median of 71 months (range 20-124). Of these, one stopped prednisolone, five have a prednisolone dose <5 mg daily and four patients 5-10 mg. CONCLUSION Approximately one of two patients with autoimmune hepatitis that fail standard treatment benefit from long-term maintenance with mycophenolate mofetil, especially those with previous intolerance to thiopurines, where mycophenolate mofetil is effective in two thirds.
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Affiliation(s)
- Georgios Giannakopoulos
- Division of Gastroenterology, Department of Gastroenterology, Dermatology and Rheumatology, Karolinska University Hospital, Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Hans Verbaan
- Department of Medicine, Skåne University Hospital, Malmö, Sweden
| | | | - Per Sangfelt
- Department of Medicine, Akademiska Hospital, Uppsala, Sweden
| | - Nils Nyhlin
- Department of Medicine, Örebro University Hospital, Örebro, Sweden
| | - Sven Almer
- Division of Gastroenterology, Department of Gastroenterology, Dermatology and Rheumatology, Karolinska University Hospital, Stockholm, Sweden; Department of Medicine, Solna, Karolinska Institutet, Stockholm, Sweden.
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13
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Zeng Q, Yuan XY, Li W, Liu BW, Zhao X, Ren GJ, Wang Y, Dou J, Wang GY. Effects of tacrolimus (FK506) and mycophenolate mofetil (MMF) on regulatory T cells and co-inhibitory receptors in the peripheral blood of human liver allograft patients. Immunopharmacol Immunotoxicol 2019; 41:380-385. [PMID: 30633591 DOI: 10.1080/08923973.2018.1533026] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Qiang Zeng
- Department of Hepatobiliary Surgery, Third Hospital of Hebei Medical University, Shijiazhuang, China
| | - Xiao-Ye Yuan
- Department of Gerontology, Hebei General Hospital, Shijiazhuang, China
| | - Wei Li
- Experimental Center, Third Hospital of Hebei Medical University, Shijiazhuang, China
| | - Bao-Wang Liu
- Department of Hepatobiliary Surgery, Third Hospital of Hebei Medical University, Shijiazhuang, China
| | - Xin Zhao
- Department of Hepatobiliary Surgery, Third Hospital of Hebei Medical University, Shijiazhuang, China
| | - Gui-Jun Ren
- Department of Hepatobiliary Surgery, Third Hospital of Hebei Medical University, Shijiazhuang, China
| | - Yang Wang
- Department of Hepatobiliary Surgery, Third Hospital of Hebei Medical University, Shijiazhuang, China
| | - Jian Dou
- Department of Hepatobiliary Surgery, Third Hospital of Hebei Medical University, Shijiazhuang, China
| | - Gui-Ying Wang
- Department of General Surgery, Fourth Hospital of Hebei Medical University, Shijiazhuang, China
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14
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Costello R, Kissenpfennig A, Martins PN, McDaid J. Development of transplant immunosuppressive agents - considerations in the use of animal models. Expert Opin Drug Discov 2018; 13:1041-1053. [PMID: 30332905 DOI: 10.1080/17460441.2018.1535589] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/28/2022]
Abstract
INTRODUCTION The development of all immunosuppressant agents to date has involved the experimental use of large and small animal models. Over the last half-century, immunosuppressive drugs have extended the lives of transplant patients worldwide. However, the use of animal models in the development of these drugs is not perfect, and this has brought to light a number of issues including idiosyncratic reactions that are found in animal models but not in humans. The 2006 highly publicized case of the 'elephant man' TGN 1412 drug trial highlights the importance of being cogent of the limitations of animal models. Areas covered: This review covers the utility and limitations of the use of animal models for the development of immunosuppressant agents. This includes both large and small animal models, particularly rodent models in the transplant setting. Expert opinion: The use of animal models represents a critical stage in the development of immunosuppressive drugs. Limitations include physiological differences to humans; this is especially true of immunologically naïve lab rodents with small memory cell populations. Toxic drug levels may differ widely between species. Animal models are also costly and raise ethical concerns. However, there is currently no way to recreate the complex environment of the human immune system purely in vitro.
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Affiliation(s)
- Russell Costello
- a Wellcome Wolfson Institute for Experimental Medicine , Queen's University , Belfast , UK
| | - Adrien Kissenpfennig
- a Wellcome Wolfson Institute for Experimental Medicine , Queen's University , Belfast , UK
| | - Paulo N Martins
- b Department of Surgery, Division of Transplantation, UMass Memorial Medical Center , University of Massachusetts , Worchester , MA , USA
| | - James McDaid
- c Department of Transplant Surgery , City Hospital , Belfast , UK
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15
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Affiliation(s)
- Albert J. Czaja
- Professor Emeritus of Medicine, Mayo Clinic College of Medicine, Rochester, MN, USA
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16
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Moreau A, Alliot-Licht B, Cuturi MC, Blancho G. Tolerogenic dendritic cell therapy in organ transplantation. Transpl Int 2016; 30:754-764. [DOI: 10.1111/tri.12889] [Citation(s) in RCA: 38] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/31/2016] [Revised: 09/13/2016] [Accepted: 11/09/2016] [Indexed: 12/22/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Aurélie Moreau
- INSERM UMR1064; Center for Research in Transplantation and Immunology; Nantes France
- CHU de Nantes; Institut de Transplantation Urologie Nephrologie (ITUN); Nantes France
- Université de Nantes; Nantes France
| | - Brigitte Alliot-Licht
- INSERM UMR1064; Center for Research in Transplantation and Immunology; Nantes France
- CHU de Nantes; Institut de Transplantation Urologie Nephrologie (ITUN); Nantes France
- Université de Nantes; Nantes France
| | - Maria-Cristina Cuturi
- INSERM UMR1064; Center for Research in Transplantation and Immunology; Nantes France
- CHU de Nantes; Institut de Transplantation Urologie Nephrologie (ITUN); Nantes France
- Université de Nantes; Nantes France
| | - Gilles Blancho
- INSERM UMR1064; Center for Research in Transplantation and Immunology; Nantes France
- CHU de Nantes; Institut de Transplantation Urologie Nephrologie (ITUN); Nantes France
- Université de Nantes; Nantes France
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17
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Gibson WT, Hayden MR. Mycophenolate mofetil and animal models. Lupus 2016. [DOI: 10.1177/0961203306071675] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/15/2022]
Abstract
Mycophenolate mofetil (MMF), is the morpholinoethyl ester of mycophenolic acid (MPA). Though initially developed as an anti-rejection treatment, MMF is beginning to find application in more common immune-mediated diseases. MMF has been shown to be effective against transplant-associated vascular disease, lupus and other inflammatory diseases via multiple mechanisms in several animal models. MMF treatment blocks the proliferation of T cells and B cells, attenuates the production of autoreactive IgG and IgM, diminishes complement deposition, and reduces the production of multiple proinflammatory cytokines including TNF-α, IFN-γ, IL-2, IL-3, IL-4, IL-5, IL-6 and IL-12. It also increases production of the anti-inflammatory mediator IL-10. In addition, MMF reduces the infiltration of immune cells into sites of inflammation by interfering with the expression of cell-surface molecules critical for this process, including MHC class II, CD40, CD80, CD86, I-A, and ICAM-1. Additional mechanisms involving mannosylation and N-linked glycosylation of cell-surface molecules are only beginning to be investigated. This article will focus on the contribution of animal models of disease as investigational tools in the development of MMF as an immunomodulatory drug. The use of mice, rats, rabbits, monkeys, baboons and interspecific xenografts will be discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- WT Gibson
- Centre for Molecular Medicine and Therapeutics, Child and Family Research Institute, Department of Medical Genetics, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC, Canada
| | - MR Hayden
- Centre for Molecular Medicine and Therapeutics, Child and Family Research Institute, Department of Medical Genetics, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC, Canada
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18
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Van Leuven SI, Kastelein JJP, Hayden MR, Stroes ES. Mycophenolate mofetil as an immunomodulatory silver bullet in atherogenesis? Lupus 2016. [DOI: 10.1177/0961203306071670] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/21/2023]
Abstract
Atherosclerotic vascular disease is a chronic disorder of the vasculature with a substantial impact on society. Although the availability of statins has represented an unparalleled improvement in the treatment of patients with such cardiovascular disease, even more effective measures are required to reverse this disorder with a continuously growing incidence. The classification of atherosclerosis as an inflammatory disorder has prompted the hypothesis that immunomodulation could comprise a novel anti-atherosclerotic strategy. Mycophenolate mofetil (MMF) has various anti-atherogenic effects on major components of the atherosclerotic plaque such as T-lymphocytes, monocytes/macrophages and the endothelium. MMF can inhibit leukocyte recruitment to the subendothelium and the subsequent reduced activation of leukocytes will translate into attenuation of subendothelial crosstalk between T-cells and macrophages. This cascade of events will interrupt the self-perpetuating pro-inflammatory environment within the arterial wall, the hallmark of atherosclerotic vascular disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- SI Van Leuven
- Department of Vascular Medicine, Academic Medical Center, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - JJP Kastelein
- Department of Vascular Medicine, Academic Medical Center, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - MR Hayden
- Centre for Molecular Medicine and Therapeutics, B.C. Children's and Women's Hospital, Department of Medical Genetics, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, Canada
| | - ES Stroes
- Department of Vascular Medicine, Academic Medical Center, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
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19
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Abstract
Immunosuppression strategies that selectively inhibit effector T cells while preserving and even enhancing CD4FOXP3 regulatory T cells (Treg) permit immune self-regulation and may allow minimization of immunosuppression and associated toxicities. Many immunosuppressive drugs were developed before the identity and function of Treg were appreciated. A good understanding of the interactions between Treg and immunosuppressive agents will be valuable to the effective design of more tolerable immunosuppression regimens. This review will discuss preclinical and clinical evidence regarding the influence of current and emerging immunosuppressive drugs on Treg homeostasis, stability, and function as a guideline for the selection and development of Treg-friendly immunosuppressive regimens.
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Affiliation(s)
- Akiko Furukawa
- Department of Surgery, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, CA, United States
| | - Steven A Wisel
- Department of Surgery, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, CA, United States
| | - Qizhi Tang
- Department of Surgery, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, CA, United States
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20
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In Vitro Influence of Mycophenolic Acid on Selected Parameters of Stimulated Peripheral Canine Lymphocytes. PLoS One 2016; 11:e0154429. [PMID: 27138877 PMCID: PMC4854421 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0154429] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/17/2015] [Accepted: 04/13/2016] [Indexed: 01/22/2023] Open
Abstract
Mycophenolic acid (MPA) is an active metabolite of mycophenolate mofetil, a new immunosuppressive drug effective in the treatment of canine autoimmune diseases. The impact of MPA on immunity is ambiguous and its influence on the canine immune system is unknown. The aim of the study was to determine markers of changes in stimulated peripheral canine lymphocytes after treatment with MPA in vitro. Twenty nine healthy dogs were studied. Phenotypic and functional analysis of lymphocytes was performed on peripheral blood mononuclear cells cultured with mitogens and different MPA concentrations– 1 μM (10−3 mol/m3), 10 μM or 100 μM. Apoptotic cells were detected by Annexin V and 7-aminoactinomycin D (7-AAD). The expression of antigens (CD3, CD4, CD8, CD21, CD25, forkhead box P3 [FoxP3] and proliferating cell nuclear antigen [PCNA]) was assessed with monoclonal antibodies. The proliferation indices were analyzed in carboxyfluorescein diacetate succinimidyl ester (CFSE)-labeled cells. All analyses were performed using flow cytometry. The influence of MPA on apoptosis was dependent on the mechanism of cell activation and MPA concentration. MPA caused a decrease in the expression of lymphocyte surface antigens, CD3, CD8 and CD25. Its impact on the expression of CD4 and CD21 was negligible. Its negative influence on the expression of FoxP3 was dependent on cell stimulation. MPA inhibited lymphocyte proliferation. In conclusion, MPA inhibited the activity of stimulated canine lymphocytes by blocking lymphocyte activation and proliferation. The influence of MPA on the development of immune tolerance–expansion of Treg cells and lymphocyte apoptosis–was ambiguous and was dependent on the mechanism of cellular activation. The concentration that MPA reaches in the blood may lead to inhibition of the functions of the canine immune system. The applied panel of markers can be used for evaluation of the effects of immunosuppressive compounds in the dog.
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21
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Sniping the scout: Targeting the key molecules in dendritic cell functions for treatment of autoimmune diseases. Pharmacol Res 2016; 107:27-41. [DOI: 10.1016/j.phrs.2016.02.023] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/05/2016] [Revised: 02/23/2016] [Accepted: 02/23/2016] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
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22
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Thomson AW, Zahorchak AF, Ezzelarab MB, Butterfield LH, Lakkis FG, Metes DM. Prospective Clinical Testing of Regulatory Dendritic Cells in Organ Transplantation. Front Immunol 2016; 7:15. [PMID: 26858719 PMCID: PMC4729892 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2016.00015] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/28/2015] [Accepted: 01/12/2016] [Indexed: 01/03/2023] Open
Abstract
Dendritic cells (DC) are rare, professional antigen-presenting cells with ability to induce or regulate alloimmune responses. Regulatory DC (DCreg) with potential to down-modulate acute and chronic inflammatory conditions that occur in organ transplantation can be generated in vitro under a variety of conditions. Here, we provide a rationale for evaluation of DCreg therapy in clinical organ transplantation with the goal of promoting sustained, donor-specific hyporesponsiveness, while lowering the incidence and severity of rejection and reducing patients’ dependence on anti-rejection drugs. Generation of donor- or recipient-derived DCreg that suppress T cell responses and prolong transplant survival in rodents or non-human primates has been well-described. Recently, good manufacturing practice (GMP)-grade DCreg have been produced at our Institution for prospective use in human organ transplantation. We briefly review experience of regulatory immune therapy in organ transplantation and describe our experience generating and characterizing human monocyte-derived DCreg. We propose a phase I/II safety study in which the influence of donor-derived DCreg combined with conventional immunosuppression on subclinical and clinical rejection and host alloimmune responses will be examined in detail.
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Affiliation(s)
- Angus W Thomson
- Department of Surgery, Starzl Transplantation Institute, University of Pittsburgh School of Medicine, Pittsburgh, PA, USA; Department of Immunology, University of Pittsburgh School of Medicine, Pittsburgh, PA, USA
| | - Alan F Zahorchak
- Department of Surgery, Starzl Transplantation Institute, University of Pittsburgh School of Medicine , Pittsburgh, PA , USA
| | - Mohamed B Ezzelarab
- Department of Surgery, Starzl Transplantation Institute, University of Pittsburgh School of Medicine , Pittsburgh, PA , USA
| | - Lisa H Butterfield
- Department of Immunology, University of Pittsburgh School of Medicine, Pittsburgh, PA, USA; Department of Medicine, University of Pittsburgh School of Medicine, Pittsburgh, PA, USA
| | - Fadi G Lakkis
- Department of Surgery, Starzl Transplantation Institute, University of Pittsburgh School of Medicine, Pittsburgh, PA, USA; Department of Immunology, University of Pittsburgh School of Medicine, Pittsburgh, PA, USA
| | - Diana M Metes
- Department of Surgery, Starzl Transplantation Institute, University of Pittsburgh School of Medicine, Pittsburgh, PA, USA; Department of Immunology, University of Pittsburgh School of Medicine, Pittsburgh, PA, USA
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23
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Montano-Loza AJ, Czaja AJ. Cell mediators of autoimmune hepatitis and their therapeutic implications. Dig Dis Sci 2015; 60:1528-42. [PMID: 25487192 DOI: 10.1007/s10620-014-3473-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/22/2014] [Accepted: 11/27/2014] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
Autoimmune hepatitis is associated with interactive cell populations of the innate and adaptive immune systems, and these populations are amenable to therapeutic manipulation. The goals of this review are to describe the key cell populations implicated in autoimmune hepatitis and to identify investigational opportunities to develop cell-directed therapies for this disease. Studies cited in PubMed from 1972 to 2014 for autoimmune hepatitis, innate and adaptive immune systems, and therapeutic interventions were examined. Dendritic cells can promote immune tolerance to self-antigens, present neo-antigens that enhance the immune response, and expand the regulatory T cell population. Natural killer cells can secrete pro-inflammatory and anti-inflammatory cytokines and modulate the activity of dendritic cells and antigen-specific T lymphocytes. T helper 2 lymphocytes can inhibit the cytotoxic activities of T helper 1 lymphocytes and limit the expansion of T helper 17 lymphocytes. T helper 17 lymphocytes can promote inflammatory activity, and they can also up-regulate genes that protect against oxidative stress and hepatocyte apoptosis. Natural killer T cells can expand the regulatory T cell population; gamma delta lymphocytes can secrete interleukin-10, stimulate hepatic regeneration, and induce the apoptosis of hepatic stellate cells; and antigen-specific regulatory T cells can dampen immune cell proliferation and function. Pharmacological agents, neutralizing antibodies, and especially the adoptive transfer of antigen-specific regulatory T cells that have been freshly generated ex vivo are evolving as management strategies. The cells within the innate and adaptive immune systems are key contributors to the occurrence of autoimmune hepatitis, and they are attractive therapeutic targets.
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Affiliation(s)
- Aldo J Montano-Loza
- Division of Gastroenterology and Liver Unit, University of Alberta Hospital, Edmonton, AB, Canada
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24
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Cheng R, Cooper A, Kench J, Watson G, Bye W, McNeil C, Shackel N. Ipilimumab-induced toxicities and the gastroenterologist. J Gastroenterol Hepatol 2015; 30:657-66. [PMID: 25641691 DOI: 10.1111/jgh.12888] [Citation(s) in RCA: 64] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 12/29/2014] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
Ipilimumab has been shown to improve overall survival in patients with advanced melanoma. Ipilimumab acts through immune-modulation, and is recognized to cause potentially severe immune-related adverse events (irAEs) including dermatitis, colitis, thyroiditis, hypophysitis, and hepatitis. The acceptance of ipilimumab as a treatment for metastatic melanoma means patients will continue to be treated with this agent and gastroenterologists will be increasingly called upon to assist in managing severe autoimmune-related hepatitis and colitis. To date, the recommendations for managing irAEs secondary to ipilimumab have been steroids at a moderate dose of prednisolone (1 mg/kg) as well as immunosuppressive agents such as mycophenolate mofetil (MMF) for steroid-refractory hepatitis and infliximab in the management of corticosteroid-refractory colitis. However, the dosing and the duration of immunosuppressive therapy have not been systematically studied in the setting of treating ipilimumab-induced irAEs. Therefore, additional immune-modifying agents and/or a change in dosing may be required to manage severe irAEs unresponsive to existing treatment recommendations. We describe a treatment paradigm illustrated by a series of five patients who experienced irAEs. In three cases of metastatic melanoma, ipilimumab-induced hepatitis was successfully treated with high-dose parenteral pulsed methylprednisolone. In two other melanoma patients with ipilimumab-induced colitis, one patient had satisfactory resolution of his colitis with high-dose corticosteroid therapy alone and the other patient required infliximab infusion. We have reviewed the current literature and management algorithms for ipilimumab-induced irAEs. Treatment options and the rationale for their use are discussed, including the use of pulsed high-dose steroids, MMF, azathioprine and calcineurin inhibitors.
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Affiliation(s)
- Robert Cheng
- A.W. Morrow Gastroenterology and Liver Centre, Royal Prince Alfred Hospital, Camperdown, New South Wales, Australia
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25
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Abstract
Regulatory myeloid cells (RMC) are emerging as novel targets for immunosuppressive (IS) agents and hold considerable promise as cellular therapeutic agents. Herein, we discuss the ability of regulatory macrophages, regulatory dendritic cells, and myeloid-derived suppressor cells to regulate alloimmunity, their potential as cellular therapeutic agents, and the IS agents that target their function. We consider protocols for the generation of RMC and the selection of donor- or recipient-derived cells for adoptive cell therapy. Additionally, the issues of cell trafficking and antigen (Ag) specificity after RMC transfer are discussed. Improved understanding of the immunobiology of these cells has increased the possibility of moving RMC into the clinic to reduce the burden of current IS agents and to promote Ag-specific tolerance. In the second half of this review, we discuss the influence of established and experimental IS agents on myeloid cell populations. IS agents believed historically to act primarily on T cell activation and proliferation are emerging as important regulators of RMC function. Better insights into the influence of IS agents on RMC will enhance our ability to develop cell therapy protocols to promote the function of these cells. Moreover, novel IS agents may be designed to target RMC in situ to promote Ag-specific immune regulation in transplantation and to usher in a new era of immune modulation exploiting cells of myeloid origin.
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Affiliation(s)
- Brian R. Rosborough
- Thomas E. Starzl Transplantation Institute, Department of Surgery, University of Pittsburgh School of Medicine, Pittsburgh, PA
- Department of Immunology, University of Pittsburgh School of Medicine, Pittsburgh, PA
| | - Dàlia Raïch-Regué
- Thomas E. Starzl Transplantation Institute, Department of Surgery, University of Pittsburgh School of Medicine, Pittsburgh, PA
| | - Heth R. Turnquist
- Thomas E. Starzl Transplantation Institute, Department of Surgery, University of Pittsburgh School of Medicine, Pittsburgh, PA
- Department of Immunology, University of Pittsburgh School of Medicine, Pittsburgh, PA
| | - Angus W. Thomson
- Thomas E. Starzl Transplantation Institute, Department of Surgery, University of Pittsburgh School of Medicine, Pittsburgh, PA
- Department of Immunology, University of Pittsburgh School of Medicine, Pittsburgh, PA
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26
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Tolerogenic dendritic cells and induction of T suppressor cells in transplant recipients. Methods Mol Biol 2014; 1034:359-71. [PMID: 23775751 DOI: 10.1007/978-1-62703-493-7_23] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/20/2023]
Abstract
Tolerogenic antigen presenting cells (APC), primarily dendritic cells (DC), are essential to the induction and maintenance of immunologic tolerance in clinical transplantation. They induce the differentiation of CD8+ T suppressor (Ts) and CD4+ T regulatory (Treg) or anergic cells, which prevent transplant rejection maintaining a state of quiescence. Tolerogenic APC express high levels of inhibitory receptors such as Immunoglobulin-like transcript (ILT)3 and 4 which inhibit the effector function of T cells that recognize HLA-peptide complexes on APC. Here, we describe the methods for detection of tolerogenic APC induced by allospecific Ts/Treg cells.
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Dendritic cell-based approaches for therapeutic immune regulation in solid-organ transplantation. J Transplant 2013; 2013:761429. [PMID: 24307940 PMCID: PMC3824554 DOI: 10.1155/2013/761429] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/31/2013] [Accepted: 09/16/2013] [Indexed: 12/18/2022] Open
Abstract
To avoid immune rejection, allograft recipients require drug-based immunosuppression, which has significant toxicity. An emerging approach is adoptive transfer of immunoregulatory cells. While mature dendritic cells (DCs) present donor antigen to the immune system, triggering rejection, regulatory DCs interact with regulatory T cells to promote immune tolerance. Intravenous injection of immature DCs of either donor or host origin at the time of transplantation have prolonged allograft survival in solid-organ transplant models. DCs can be treated with pharmacological agents before injection, which may attenuate their maturation in vivo. Recent data suggest that injected immunosuppressive DCs may inhibit allograft rejection, not by themselves, but through conventional DCs of the host. Genetically engineered DCs have also been tested. Two clinical trials in type-1 diabetes and rheumatoid arthritis have been carried out, and other trials, including one trial in kidney transplantation, are in progress or are imminent.
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Ezzelarab M, Zahorchak A, Lu L, Morelli A, Chalasani G, Demetris A, Lakkis F, Wijkstrom M, Murase N, Humar A, Shapiro R, Cooper D, Thomson A. Regulatory dendritic cell infusion prolongs kidney allograft survival in nonhuman primates. Am J Transplant 2013; 13:1989-2005. [PMID: 23758811 PMCID: PMC4070451 DOI: 10.1111/ajt.12310] [Citation(s) in RCA: 104] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/14/2013] [Revised: 04/03/2013] [Accepted: 04/16/2013] [Indexed: 01/25/2023]
Abstract
We examined the influence of regulatory dendritic cells (DCreg), generated from cytokine-mobilized donor blood monocytes in vitamin D3 and IL-10, on renal allograft survival in a clinically relevant rhesus macaque model. DCreg expressed low MHC class II and costimulatory molecules, but comparatively high levels of programmed death ligand-1 (B7-H1), and were resistant to pro-inflammatory cytokine-induced maturation. They were infused intravenously (3.5-10 × 10(6) /kg), together with the B7-CD28 costimulation blocking agent CTLA4Ig, 7 days before renal transplantation. CTLA4Ig was given for up to 8 weeks and rapamycin, started on Day -2, was maintained with tapering of blood levels until full withdrawal at 6 months. Median graft survival time was 39.5 days in control monkeys (no DC infusion; n = 6) and 113.5 days (p < 0.05) in DCreg-treated animals (n = 6). No adverse events were associated with DCreg infusion, and there was no evidence of induction of host sensitization based on circulating donor-specific alloantibody levels. Immunologic monitoring also revealed regulation of donor-reactive memory CD95(+) T cells and reduced memory/regulatory T cell ratios in DCreg-treated monkeys compared with controls. Termination allograft histology showed moderate combined T cell- and Ab-mediated rejection in both groups. These findings justify further preclinical evaluation of DCreg therapy and their therapeutic potential in organ transplantation.
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Affiliation(s)
- M. Ezzelarab
- Starzl Transplantation Institute, Department of Surgery, University of Pittsburgh School of Medicine
| | - A.F. Zahorchak
- Starzl Transplantation Institute, Department of Surgery, University of Pittsburgh School of Medicine
| | - L. Lu
- Starzl Transplantation Institute, Department of Surgery, University of Pittsburgh School of Medicine
| | - A.E. Morelli
- Starzl Transplantation Institute, Department of Surgery, University of Pittsburgh School of Medicine,Department of Immunology, University of Pittsburgh School of Medicine, Pittsburgh, PA
| | - G. Chalasani
- Starzl Transplantation Institute, Department of Surgery, University of Pittsburgh School of Medicine,Department of Medicine, University of Pittsburgh School of Medicine, Pittsburgh, PA
| | - A.J. Demetris
- Starzl Transplantation Institute, Department of Surgery, University of Pittsburgh School of Medicine,Department of Pathology, University of Pittsburgh School of Medicine, Pittsburgh, PA
| | - F.G. Lakkis
- Starzl Transplantation Institute, Department of Surgery, University of Pittsburgh School of Medicine,Department of Immunology, University of Pittsburgh School of Medicine, Pittsburgh, PA
| | - M. Wijkstrom
- Starzl Transplantation Institute, Department of Surgery, University of Pittsburgh School of Medicine
| | - N. Murase
- Starzl Transplantation Institute, Department of Surgery, University of Pittsburgh School of Medicine
| | - A. Humar
- Starzl Transplantation Institute, Department of Surgery, University of Pittsburgh School of Medicine
| | - R. Shapiro
- Starzl Transplantation Institute, Department of Surgery, University of Pittsburgh School of Medicine
| | - D.K.C. Cooper
- Starzl Transplantation Institute, Department of Surgery, University of Pittsburgh School of Medicine
| | - A.W. Thomson
- Starzl Transplantation Institute, Department of Surgery, University of Pittsburgh School of Medicine,Department of Immunology, University of Pittsburgh School of Medicine, Pittsburgh, PA,Corresponding author: Angus W. Thomson, PhD DSc, University of Pittsburgh School of Medicine, 200 Lothrop Street, W1540 BST, Pittsburgh, PA 15261, Phone: (412) 624-6392,
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Abstract
Treatment of immune-mediated disease in dogs and cats continues to evolve as new therapies are introduced or adapted from human medicine. Glucocorticoids remain the first-line therapy for many of the immune-mediated or inflammatory diseases of cats and dogs. The focus of this article is to provide an update on some of the common immunosuppressive therapies used in small animal veterinary medicine. The goals of therapy are to induce disease remission through the inhibition of inflammation and the modulation of lymphocyte function.
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Affiliation(s)
- Katrina R Viviano
- Department of Medical Sciences, School of Veterinary Medicine, University of Wisconsin, Madison, WI, USA.
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Eickenberg S, Mickholz E, Jung E, Nofer JR, Pavenstadt HJ, Jacobi AM. Mycophenolic acid counteracts B cell proliferation and plasmablast formation in patients with systemic lupus erythematosus. Arthritis Res Ther 2013; 14:R110. [PMID: 22571761 PMCID: PMC4060361 DOI: 10.1186/ar3835] [Citation(s) in RCA: 51] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/26/2011] [Accepted: 05/09/2012] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Introduction Clinical trials revealed a high efficacy of mycophenolate mofetil (MMF) in inducing and maintaining remission in patients with class III-V-lupus nephritis. Also extrarenal manifestations respond to MMF treatment. However, few attempts have been undertaken to delineate its mechanism of action in systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE) a disease characterized by enhanced B cell activation. Methods Clinical and paraclinical parameters of 107 patients with SLE were recorded consecutively and analyzed retrospectively. Patients were divided into treatment groups (MMF: n = 39, azathioprine (AZA) n = 30 and controls without immunosuppressive therapy n = 38). To further delineate the effect of mycophenolic acid (MPA) on naive and memory B cells in vitro assays were performed. Results Although patients taking AZA flared more frequently than patients on MMF or controls, the analysis of clinical parameters did not reveal significant differences. However, profound differences in paraclinical parameters were found. B cell frequencies and numbers were significantly higher in patients taking MMF compared to those on AZA but lower numbers and frequencies of plasmablasts were detected compared to AZA-treated patients or controls. Notably, MMF treatment was associated with a significantly higher frequency and number of transitional B cells as well as naive B cells compared to AZA treatment. Differences in T cell subsets were not significant. MPA abrogated in vitro proliferation of purified B cells completely but had only moderate impact on B cell survival. Conclusions The thorough inhibition of B cell activation and plasma cell formation by MMF might explain the favorable outcomes of previous clinical trials in patients with SLE, since enhanced B cell proliferation is a hallmark of this disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sebastian Eickenberg
- Rheumatology and Clinical Immunology Unit of the Department of Internal Medicine D, University Hospital Münster, Albert Schweitzer Str. 33, 48149 Münster, Germany.
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Look M, Stern E, Wang QA, DiPlacido LD, Kashgarian M, Craft J, Fahmy TM. Nanogel-based delivery of mycophenolic acid ameliorates systemic lupus erythematosus in mice. J Clin Invest 2013; 123:1741-9. [PMID: 23454752 DOI: 10.1172/jci65907] [Citation(s) in RCA: 83] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/19/2012] [Accepted: 01/03/2013] [Indexed: 02/02/2023] Open
Abstract
The ability to selectively inactivate immune cells with immunosuppressants is a much sought-after modality for the treatment of systemic lupus erythematosus and autoimmunity in general. Here, we designed and tested a novel nanogel drug delivery vehicle for the immunosuppressant mycophenolic acid (MPA). Treatment with MPA-loaded nanogels increased the median survival time (MST) of lupus-prone NZB/W F1 mice by 3 months with prophylactic use (MST was 50 weeks versus 38 weeks without treatment), and by 2 months when administered after the development of severe renal damage (MST after proteinuria onset was 12.5 weeks versus 4 weeks without treatment). Equivalent and greater doses of MPA administered in buffer were not efficacious. Nanogels had enhanced biodistribution to organs and association with immune cells. CD4-targeted nanogels yielded similar therapeutic results compared with nontargeted formulations, with protection from glomerulonephritis and decreases in IFN-γ-positive CD4 T cells. DCs that internalized nanogels helped mediate immunosuppression, as they had reduced production of inflammatory cytokines such as IFN-γ and IL-12. Our results demonstrate efficacy of nanogel-based lupus therapy and implicate a mechanism by which immunosuppression is enhanced, in part, by the targeting of antigen-presenting cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- Michael Look
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Yale University, New Haven, Connecticut, USA
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Giannoukakis N, Trucco M. Dendritic cell therapy for Type 1 diabetes suppression. Immunotherapy 2013; 4:1063-74. [PMID: 23148758 DOI: 10.2217/imt.12.76] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/11/2023] Open
Abstract
While dendritic cell-based therapy is a clinical reality for human malignancies, until now, some conceptual concerns have served to delay its consideration to treat human autoimmune diseases, even in light of almost two decades' worth of overwhelmingly supportive preclinical animal studies. This article provides an overview of the development of dendritic cell-based therapy for Type 1 diabetes mellitus, given that this is the best-studied autoimmune disorder and that there is a good understanding of the underlying immunology. This article also highlights data from the authors' pioneering Phase I clinical trial with tolerogenic dendritic cells, which hopes to motivate the clinical translation of other dendritic cell-based approaches, to one or more carefully selected Type 1 diabetic patient populations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nick Giannoukakis
- Department of Pathology, University of Pittsburgh School of Medicine, Children's Hospital of Pittsburgh, Rangos Research Center, 4401 Penn Avenue, Pittsburgh, PA 15224, USA
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Dai FZ, Yang J, Chen XB, Xu MQ. Zinc finger protein A20 inhibits maturation of dendritic cells resident in rat liver allograft. J Surg Res 2013; 183:885-93. [PMID: 23481562 DOI: 10.1016/j.jss.2013.01.062] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/01/2012] [Revised: 01/20/2013] [Accepted: 01/30/2013] [Indexed: 02/05/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND In organ transplant field, although viewed traditionally as instigators of organ allograft rejection, donor-derived interstitial dendritic cells (DCs), including those resident in liver, or host DCs have also been implicated in transplant tolerance in experimental models. This functional dichotomy of DC is governed by various factors, the most important of which appears to be their stage of maturation. This study was designed to examine the effect of zinc finger protein A20 on maturation of DCs resident in rat liver allograft. MATERIALS AND METHODS Allogeneic (Dark Agouti [DA] rat to Lewis rat) liver transplantation was performed. Adenovirus carrying the full length of A20 was introduced into liver allografts by ex vivo perfusion via the portal vein during preservation (group A20), physiological saline (group PS), and empty Ad vector rAdEasy (group rAdEasy) that served as controls. Acute liver allograft rejection was assessed, and DCs resident in liver allografts were isolated on day 7 after transplantation. Nuclear factor kappa B (NF-κB)-binding activities, surface expression of costimulatory molecules (CD40, CD80, and CD86), expression of interleukin (IL) 12 messenger RNA (mRNA), and allocostimulatory capacity of DCs were measured with electrophoretic mobility shift assay, flow cytometry, reverse transcription-polymerase chain reaction, and mixed lymphocyte reaction (MLR), respectively. RESULTS Ex vivo transfer of A20 adenovirus by portal vein infusion resulted in overexpression of A20 protein in liver allograft after transplantation. On day 7 after transplantation, histologic examination revealed a mild rejection in group A20 but a more severe rejection in group PS and group rAdEasy. DCs from group A20 liver allografts exhibited features of immature DC with detectable but very low level of NF-κB activity, IL-12 mRNA expression, and surface expression of costimulatory molecules (CD40, CD80, and CD86), whereas DCs from group rAdEasy and group PS liver allograft displayed features of mature DC with high level of NF-κB activity, IL-12 mRNA expression, and surface expression of costimulatory molecules (CD40, CD80, and CD86). DCs from group PS and group rAdEasy liver allograft were potent inducers of DNA synthesis and interferon γ production in MLR, and DCs from group A20 liver allografts induced only minimal levels of cell proliferation and interferon γ production in MLR. CONCLUSIONS These data suggest that A20 overexpression could effectively inhibit maturation of DCs resident in liver allograft and consequently suppress acute liver allograft rejection.
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Affiliation(s)
- Fu-Zhen Dai
- Liver Transplantation Division, Department of Liver and Vascular Surgery, West China Hospital, Sichuan University, Chengdu, China
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Downing HJ, Pirmohamed M, Beresford MW, Smyth RL. Paediatric use of mycophenolate mofetil. Br J Clin Pharmacol 2013; 75:45-59. [PMID: 22519685 PMCID: PMC3555046 DOI: 10.1111/j.1365-2125.2012.04305.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/10/2012] [Accepted: 04/16/2012] [Indexed: 01/14/2023] Open
Abstract
A number of medications do not have a licence, or label, for use in the paediatric age group nor for the specific indication for which they are being used in children. Over recent years, mycophenolate mofetil has increasingly been used off-label (i.e. off-licence) in adults for a number of indications, including autoimmune conditions; progressively, this wider use has been extended to children. This review summarizes current use of mycophenolate mofetil (MMF) in children, looking at how MMF works, the pharmacokinetics, the clinical conditions for which it is used, the advantages it has when compared with other immunosuppressants and the unresolved issues remaining with use in children. The review aims to focus on off-label use in children so as to identify areas that require further research and investigation. The overall commercial value of MMF is limited because it has now come off patent in adults. Given the increasing knowledge of the pharmacodynamics, pharmacokinetics and pharmacogenomics demonstrating the clinical benefits of MMF, new, formal, investigator-led studies, including trials focusing on the use of MMF in children, would be of immense value.
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Affiliation(s)
- Heather J Downing
- Department of Women's and Children's Health, Institute of Translational Medicine, The University of Liverpool, Alder Hey Children's NHS Foundation TrustEaton Road, Liverpool L12 2AP, UK
| | - Munir Pirmohamed
- Department of Pharmacology and Therapeutics, The University of LiverpoolAshton Street, Liverpool L69 3GE, UK
| | - Michael W Beresford
- Department of Women's and Children's Health, Institute of Translational Medicine, The University of Liverpool, Alder Hey Children's NHS Foundation TrustEaton Road, Liverpool L12 2AP, UK
| | - Rosalind L Smyth
- Department of Women's and Children's Health, Institute of Translational Medicine, The University of Liverpool, Alder Hey Children's NHS Foundation TrustEaton Road, Liverpool L12 2AP, UK
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Hoffmann J, Böhm M, Abele-Ohl S, Ramsperger-Gleixner M, Spriewald BM, Zinser E, Steinkasserer A, Weyand M, Ensminger SM. Reduction of Transplant Arteriosclerosis After Treatment With Mycophenolate Mofetil and Ganciclovir in a Mouse Aortic Allograft Model. EXP CLIN TRANSPLANT 2012; 10:592-600. [DOI: 10.6002/ect.2012.0044] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/05/2022]
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Amodio G, Gregori S. Human tolerogenic DC-10: perspectives for clinical applications. Transplant Res 2012; 1:14. [PMID: 23369527 PMCID: PMC3560992 DOI: 10.1186/2047-1440-1-14] [Citation(s) in RCA: 50] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/16/2012] [Accepted: 08/04/2012] [Indexed: 12/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Dendritic cells (DCs) are critically involved in inducing either immunity or tolerance. During the last decades efforts have been devoted to the development of ad hoc methods to manipulate DCs in vitro to enhance or stabilize their tolerogenic properties. Addition of IL-10 during monocyte-derived DC differentiation allows the induction of DC-10, a subset of human tolerogenic DCs characterized by high IL-10/IL-12 ratio and co-expression of high levels of the tolerogenic molecules HLA-G and immunoglobulin-like transcript 4. DC-10 are potent inducers of adaptive type 1 regulatory T cells, well known to promote and maintain peripheral tolerance. In this review we provide an in-depth comparison of the phenotype and mechanisms of suppression mediated by DC-10 and other known regulatory antigen-presenting cells currently under clinical development. We discuss the clinical therapeutic application of DC-10 as inducers of type 1 regulatory T cells for tailoring regulatory T-cell-based cell therapy, and the use of DC-10 as adoptive cell therapy for promoting and restoring tolerance in T-cell-mediated diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Giada Amodio
- San Raffaele Telethon Institute for Gene Therapy (OSR-TIGET), Division of Regenerative Medicine, Stem Cells and Gene Therapy, San Raffaele Scientific Institute, Via Olgettina, 58, 20132, Milan, Italy.
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37
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Moreau A, Varey E, Bouchet-Delbos L, Cuturi MC. Cell therapy using tolerogenic dendritic cells in transplantation. Transplant Res 2012; 1:13. [PMID: 23369513 PMCID: PMC3560975 DOI: 10.1186/2047-1440-1-13] [Citation(s) in RCA: 48] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/02/2012] [Accepted: 08/04/2012] [Indexed: 01/01/2023] Open
Abstract
Organ transplantation is the main alternative to the loss of vital organ function from various diseases. However, to avoid graft rejection, transplant patients are treated with immunosuppressive drugs that have adverse side effects. A new emerging approach to reduce the administration of immunosuppressive drugs is to co-treat patients with cell therapy using regulatory cells. In our laboratory, as part of a European project, we plan to test the safety of tolerogenic dendritic cell (TolDC) therapy in kidney transplant patients. In this mini-review, we provide a brief summary of the major protocols used to derive human TolDC, and then focus on the granulocyte macrophage-TolDC generated by our own team. Proof of safety of TolDC therapy in the clinic has already been demonstrated in patients with diabetes. However, in transplantation, DC therapy will be associated with the administration of immunosuppressive drugs, and interactions between drugs and DC are possible. Finally, we will discuss the issue of DC origin, as we believe that administration of autologous TolDC is more appropriate, as demonstrated by our experiments in animal models.
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Affiliation(s)
- Aurélie Moreau
- INSERM, U1064, ITUN, CHU HôtelDieu, 30 Boulevard Jean Monnet, NANTES, France.
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38
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Nakamura RK, Tompkins E, Bianco D. Therapeutic options for immune-mediated thrombocytopenia. J Vet Emerg Crit Care (San Antonio) 2012; 22:59-72. [DOI: 10.1111/j.1476-4431.2011.00705.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/10/2011] [Accepted: 11/25/2011] [Indexed: 01/15/2023]
Affiliation(s)
| | | | - Domenico Bianco
- Internal Medicine Department; Veterinary Specialists of the Valley; Woodland Hills; CA; 91364
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Park SJ, Pai KS, Shin JI. Development of Thrombotic Microangiopathy in a Patient With Granulomatosis With Polyangiitis. Am J Kidney Dis 2011; 58:1038; author reply 1038-9. [DOI: 10.1053/j.ajkd.2011.09.015] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/27/2011] [Accepted: 09/26/2011] [Indexed: 11/11/2022]
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40
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Norby SM, Thomas JG, Sethi S. In Reply to ‘Development of Thrombotic Microangiopathy in a Patient With Granulomatosis With Polyangiitis’. Am J Kidney Dis 2011. [DOI: 10.1053/j.ajkd.2011.09.016] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/11/2022]
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Uto T, Nishi Y, Toyama M, Yoshinaga K, Baba M. Inhibitory effect of cepharanthine on dendritic cell activation and function. Int Immunopharmacol 2011; 11:1932-8. [DOI: 10.1016/j.intimp.2011.08.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/01/2011] [Revised: 07/25/2011] [Accepted: 08/03/2011] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
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Abstract
Acute and chronic graft-versus-host disease (GVHD) are potentially lethal complications after stem cell transplantation (SCT). Steroids are the appropriate first-line treatment for both. However, if patients do not adequately benefit from steroid therapy, mortality is high and standardized treatment algorithms are lacking. This is mainly because of limited data from prospective, randomized clinical trials. In addition, most of the available treatment options only induce clinical benefits in a limited proportion of patients. Thus, there is an urgent clinical need to develop more potent immunosuppressive treatment strategies for patients suffering from acute or chronic steroid-refractory GVHD while maintaining the graft versus tumor effect to avoid a potential rise in relapse-related mortality. The increasing knowledge about host- as well as donor-derived variables favoring GVHD development and the increasing armamentarium of immune-modulatory agents entering preclinical and clinical research will probably allow more effective treatment of GVHD in the future. This review describes novel developments in the treatment of steroid-refractory GVHD, with a special focus on the rationale behind promising pharmacologic compounds or up-coming cellular therapies.
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The TLR7/8 ligand resiquimod targets monocyte-derived dendritic cell differentiation via TLR8 and augments functional dendritic cell generation. Cell Immunol 2011; 271:401-12. [PMID: 21889130 DOI: 10.1016/j.cellimm.2011.08.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 34] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/04/2011] [Revised: 08/09/2011] [Accepted: 08/15/2011] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
Abstract
Imidazoquinolone compounds, such as resiquimod are Toll-like receptor (TLR) 7/8 ligands representing novel immune response modifiers undergoing clinical testing. Resiquimod has been reported to modulate conventional human monocyte-derived DC (moDC) differentiation, but the role of TLR7 and TLR8 is unclear. We directly dissected the TLR7- and TLR8-dependency by employing selective TLR7 ligands and resiquimod-coculture experiments with inhibitory oligonucleotides (iODN) suppressing TLR7, TLR7+8 or TLR7+8+9. Selective TLR7 ligands did not affect conventional moDC differentiation as analyzed by CD14/CD1a expression. iODN experiments confirmed that resiquimod's effects during DC differentiation were antagonized only with TLR8 iODNs. Direct comparison of resiquimod DC with TLR7- and control-DC revealed significantly higher T-cell costimulatory molecule and MHC class II expression. Resiquimod DC promoted significantly stronger allogeneic T-cell proliferation and stronger naïve CD4(+) T-cell proliferation. These results indicate the relevance of TLR8 for human monocyte-derived DC differentiation and maturation and may be relevant for clinical trials employing resiquimod.
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Current state of type 1 diabetes immunotherapy: incremental advances, huge leaps, or more of the same? Clin Dev Immunol 2011; 2011:432016. [PMID: 21785616 PMCID: PMC3139873 DOI: 10.1155/2011/432016] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/17/2011] [Accepted: 04/28/2011] [Indexed: 01/09/2023]
Abstract
Thus far, none of the preclinically successful and promising immunomodulatory agents for type 1 diabetes mellitus (T1DM) has conferred stable, long-term insulin independence to diabetic patients. The majority of these immunomodulators are humanised antibodies that target immune cells or cytokines. These as well as fusion proteins and inhibitor proteins all share varying adverse event occurrence and severity. Other approaches have included intact putative autoantigens or autoantigen peptides. Considerable logistical outlays have been deployed to develop and to translate humanised antibodies targeting immune cells, cytokines, and cytokine receptors to the clinic. Very recent phase III trials with the leading agent, a humanised anti-CD3 antibody, call into question whether further development of these biologics represents a step forward or more of the same. Combination therapies of one or more of these humanised antibodies are also being considered, and they face identical, if not more serious, impediments and safety issues. This paper will highlight the preclinical successes and the excitement generated by phase II trials while offering alternative possibilities and new translational avenues that can be explored given the very recent disappointment in leading agents in more advanced clinical trials.
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45
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Harnessing dendritic cells to improve allogeneic hematopoietic cell transplantation outcome. Semin Immunol 2011; 23:50-7. [DOI: 10.1016/j.smim.2011.01.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/22/2010] [Accepted: 01/05/2011] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
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46
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Perren F, Fankhauser L, Thiévent B, Pache JC, Delavelle J, Rochat T, Landis T, Chizzolini C. Late adult onset of Langerhans cell histiocytosis mimicking glioblastoma multiforme. J Neurol Sci 2011; 301:96-9. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jns.2010.11.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/04/2010] [Revised: 11/04/2010] [Accepted: 11/09/2010] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
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47
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Whitley NT, Day MJ. Immunomodulatory drugs and their application to the management of canine immune-mediated disease. J Small Anim Pract 2011; 52:70-85. [DOI: 10.1111/j.1748-5827.2011.01024.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 87] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
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48
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Failli A, Legitimo A, Mazzoni A, Urbani L, Scatena F, Mosca F, Consolini R. The Combination of Immunosuppressive Drugs with 8-Methoxypsoralen and Ultraviolet a Light Modulates the Myeloid-Derived Dendritic Cell Function. Int J Immunopathol Pharmacol 2011; 24:89-99. [DOI: 10.1177/039463201102400111] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/10/2023] Open
Abstract
The functional properties of myeloid dendritic cells (DCs) differ, depending on microenvironmental factors as well as on their stage of maturation. The main approaches for the selective enhancement of the tolerogenic properties of DCs include the induction of a pharmacological arrest of the DCs maturation and the genetical engineering of DCs expressing immunosuppressive molecules. Several immunosuppressive/anti-inflammatory agents have been discovered that potentially inhibit DC maturation and immunogenicity. Photopheresis (ECP) is an immunomodulatory therapy in which leucocytes are exposed to 8-methoxypsoralen (8-MOP) and ultraviolet (UV) A radiation (PUVA). The combination of ECP with immunosuppressive agents has demonstrated efficacy in the management of transplanted patients by reducing either the incidence of organ rejection or the pharmacological toxicity. In particular, we have observed in hepatitis C virus (HCV)-positive patients that the same combination has reduced the immunosuppressive burden and improved sustainability and efficacy of pre-emptive antiviral therapy after liver transplantation. Therefore, in our work we investigated the in vitro effects of PUVA, combined with immunosuppressive drugs (IDs), on both in vitro human DC generation and maturation, in order to contribute to understanding the immunological mechanisms underlying this pharmacological combination. Monocyte PUVA-treatment was performed by using an in vitro experimental protocol that we previously described. PUVA-treated or -untreated highly purified CD14+ cells were incubated with the association of the immunosuppressive drugs, used in the management of liver transplantation, at two different concentrations, in the presence of IL-4 and GM-CSF. The treatment with IDs at the highest concentration (corresponding to that used in clinical practice), alone or in association with PUVA, induced an immunosuppressive effect, by impairing both DC generation and maturation. Neither immunosuppressive drugs at the lowest concentration nor their combination with PUVA affected myeloid DC generation, but modified DC functions, strengthening the induction of a tolerogenic pattern. As this ID concentration was arbitrarily chosen, further experiments could highlight whether lower concentrations than those used in clinical practice would elicit the same effect on DCs and potentially improve their functional properties. This work describes an original experimental approach exploring the in vitro mechanism of action of the combined procedure of PUVA with immunosuppressive drugs, used in liver transplantation, on DCs generation and function. Our results contribute to the knowledge of the mechanisms of action of this combined procedure on DCs, suggesting useful therapeutic implications for the in vivo therapy.
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Affiliation(s)
- A. Failli
- Department of Reproductive Medicine and Pediatrics, Laboratory of Immunology, University of Pisa
| | - A. Legitimo
- Department of Reproductive Medicine and Pediatrics, Laboratory of Immunology, University of Pisa
| | - A. Mazzoni
- Blood Unit, Azienda Ospedaliero-Universitaria Pisana, Cisanello Hospital, Pisa
| | - L. Urbani
- Department of Liver Transplantation, General Surgery and Liver Transplantation Unit, Azienda Ospedaliero-Universitaria Pisana, Cisanello Hospital, Pisa
| | - F. Scatena
- Blood Unit, Azienda Ospedaliero-Universitaria Pisana, Cisanello Hospital, Pisa
| | - F. Mosca
- Department of Oncology, Transplants and New Technologies in Medicine, Azienda Ospedaliero-Universitaria Pisana, Cisanello Hospital Pisa, Italy
| | - R. Consolini
- Department of Reproductive Medicine and Pediatrics, Laboratory of Immunology, University of Pisa
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Švajger U, Obermajer N, Jeras M. Novel Findings in Drug-Induced Dendritic Cell Tolerogenicity. Int Rev Immunol 2010; 29:574-607. [DOI: 10.3109/08830185.2010.522280] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/13/2023]
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50
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Liu SH, Lin CH, Hung SK, Chou JH, Chi CW, Fu SL. Fisetin inhibits lipopolysaccharide-induced macrophage activation and dendritic cell maturation. JOURNAL OF AGRICULTURAL AND FOOD CHEMISTRY 2010; 58:10831-10839. [PMID: 20923145 DOI: 10.1021/jf1017093] [Citation(s) in RCA: 34] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/30/2023]
Abstract
Macrophages and dendritic cells are required for initiating innate immunity and adaptive immunity. Aberrant activation of macrophages and dendritic cells can cause detrimental immune responses; thus, agents effectively modulating their functions are of great clinical value. We herein investigated whether fisetin, a flavonoid prevalently present in fruits and vegetables, could inhibit macrophage activation and dendritic cell maturation. Fisetin suppressed LPS-induced NF-κB activation, expression of pro-inflammatory proteins (TNF-α and iNOS), MMP-9 activity, and phagocytic activity in macrophages. Furthermore, upon LPS-induced dendritic cell maturation, fisetin at nontoxic concentrations suppressed the expression of costimulatory molecules (CD80 and CD86), the production of cytokines (IL-12, IL-6, and TNF-α), and the endocytic activity of dendritic cells. Fisetin treatment significantly attenuated migration of dendritic cells into spleens and dendritic cell-mediated T cell activation in LPS-treated mice. Collectively, our data reveal that fisetin inhibits macrophage activation and impairs functional maturation of dendritic cells.
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