Chinese herbal medicine Yougui Pill reduces exogenous glucocorticoid-induced apoptosis in anterior pituitary cells

Lycii radicis cortex inhibits glucocorticoid‑induced bone loss by downregulating Runx2 and BMP‑2 expression

Lycii radicis cortex (LRC) has been used to regulate high blood pressure, body temperature, pain and bone disorders in East Asia. Glucocorticoids (GCs), also known as steroids, are potent immunity regulators widely used in the treatment of inflammatory diseases. However, despite their effectiveness, GC usage is strictly controlled due to severe side‑effects, such as osteoporosis. However, further research is required as to date, at least to the best of our knowledge, there is no appropriate model to overcome secondary osteoporosis as a side‑effect of GC use. Thus, the aim of the present study was to establish an experimental model of osteoporosis induced by GC. Furthermore, the present study aimed to establish the research methodology for medical evaluations of the effectiveness and side‑effects of GCs. A secondary osteoporosis animal model was established, and the animals were divided into two groups as follows: The allergic contact dermatitis (ACD)‑induced group and the non‑ACD‑induced group. In the ACD‑induced group, a GC topical application group was compared with a GC subcutaneous injection group. The results revealed that the presence of ACD affected the induction of GC‑mediated osteoporosis. Therefore, the group exhibiting induced ACD that was treated with a topical application of GC was selected for examining the side‑effects of GCs. The effects of LRC on secondary osteoporosis were confirmed in vivo and in vitro. The results indicated that LRC regulated dexamethasone‑induced osteoblast apoptotic markers, including caspase‑6, caspase‑9, X‑linked inhibitor of apoptosis, apoptosis inhibitor 1 and apoptosis inhibitor 2, and increased the expression of osteoblast differentiation‑related genes, such as Runt‑related transcription factor 2 and bone morphogenetic protein 2 in the MC3T3E‑1 cell line. LRC also significantly reduced GC‑induced osteoporosis and exerted anti‑inflammatory effects in vivo. In addition, LRC inhibited the reduction of calbindin‑D28k in the kidney. Overall, the results of the present study suggest that the use of LRC alleviates GC‑induced secondary osteoporosis.

Fecal metabonomics combined with 16S rRNA gene sequencing to analyze the changes of gut microbiota in rats with kidney-yang deficiency syndrome and the intervention effect of You-gui pill

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

A myriad of evidence have shown that kidney-yang deficiency syndrome (KYDS) is associated with metabolic disorders of the intestinal microbiota, while TCMs can treat KYDS by regulating gut microbiota metabolism. However, the specific interplay between KYDS and intestinal microbiota, and the intrinsic regulation mechanism of You-gui pill (YGP) on KYDS' gut microbiota remains largely unknown so far.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

In the present study, fecal metabonomics combined with 16S rRNA gene sequencing analysis were used to explore the mutual effect between KYDS and intestinal flora, and the intrinsic regulation mechanism of YGP on KYDS's gut microbiota. Rats' feces from control (CON) group, KYDS group and YGP group were collected, and metabolomic analysis was performed using ¹H NMR technique combined with multivariate statistical analysis to obtain differential metabolites. Simultaneously, 16S rRNA gene sequencing analysis based on the Illumina HiSeq sequencing platform and ANOVA analysis were used to analyze the composition of the intestinal microbiota in the stool samples and to screen for the significant altered microbiota at the genus level. After that, MetaboAnalyst database and PICRUSt software were apply to conduct metabolic pathway analysis and functional prediction analysis of the screened differential metabolites and intestinal microbiota, respectively. What's more, Pearson correlation analysis was performed on these differential metabolites and gut microbiota.

RESULTS

Using fecal metabonomics, KYDS was found to be associated with 21 differential metabolites and seven potential metabolic pathways. These metabolites and metabolic pathways were mainly involved in amino acid metabolism, energy metabolism, methylamine metabolism, bile acid metabolism and urea cycle, and short-chain fatty acid metabolism. Through 16S rRNA gene sequencing analysis, we found that KYDS was related to eleven different intestinal microbiotas. These gut microbiota were mostly involved in amino acid metabolism, energy metabolism, nervous, endocrine, immune and digestive system, lipid metabolism, and carbohydrate metabolism. Combined fecal metabonomics and 16S rRNA gene sequencing analysis, we further discovered that KYDS was primarily linked to three gut microbiotas (i.e. Bacteroides, Desulfovibrio and [Eubacterium]_coprostanoligenes_group) and eleven related metabolites (i.e. deoxycholate, n-butyrate, valine, isoleucine, acetate, taurine, glycine, α-gluconse, β-glucose, glycerol and tryptophan) mediated various metabolic disorders (amino acid metabolism, energy metabolism, especially methylamine metabolism, bile acid metabolism and urea cycle, short-chain fatty acid metabolism. nervous, endocrine, immune and digestive system, lipid metabolism, and carbohydrate metabolism). YGP, however, had the ability to mediate four kinds of microbes (i.e. Ruminiclostridium_9, Ruminococcaceae_UCG-007, Ruminococcaceae_UCG-010, and uncultured_bacterium_f_Bacteroidales_S24-7_group) and ten related metabolites (i.e. deoxycholate, valine, isoleucine, alanine, citrulline, acetate, DMA, TMA, phenylalanine and tryptophan) mediated amino acid metabolism, especially methylamine metabolism, bile acid metabolism and urea cycle, short-chain fatty acid metabolism, endocrine, immune and digestive system, and lipid metabolism, thereby exerting a therapeutic effect on KYDS rats.

CONCLUSION

Overall, our findings have preliminary confirmed that KYDS is closely related to metabolic and microbial dysbiosis, whereas YGP can improve the metabolic disorder of KYDS by acting on intestinal microbiota. Meanwhile, this will lay the foundation for the further KYDS's metagenomic research and the use of intestinal microbiotas as drug targets to treat KYDS.

Mitochondrial Dysfunction Pathway Networks and Mitochondrial Dynamics in the Pathogenesis of Pituitary Adenomas

Mitochondrion is a multi-functional organelle, which is associated with various signaling pathway networks, including energy metabolism, oxidative stress, cell apoptosis, cell cycles, autophagy, and immunity process. Mitochondrial proteins have been discovered to modulate these signaling pathway networks, and multiple biological behaviors to adapt to various internal environments or signaling events of human pathogenesis. Accordingly, mitochondrial dysfunction that alters the bioenergetic and biosynthetic state might contribute to multiple diseases, including cell transformation and tumor. Multiomics studies have revealed that mitochondrial dysfunction, oxidative stress, and cell cycle dysregulation signaling pathways operate in human pituitary adenomas, which suggest mitochondria play critical roles in pituitary adenomas. Some drugs targeting mitochondria are found as a therapeutic strategy for pituitary adenomas, including melatonin, melatonin inhibitors, temozolomide, pyrimethamine, 18 beta-glycyrrhetinic acid, gossypol acetate, Yougui pill, T-2 toxin, grifolic acid, cyclosporine A, dopamine agonists, and paeoniflorin. This article reviews the latest experimental evidence and potential biological roles of mitochondrial dysfunction and mitochondrial dynamics in pituitary adenoma progression, potential molecular mechanisms between mitochondria and pituitary adenoma progression, and current status and perspectives of mitochondria-based biomarkers and targeted drugs for effective management of pituitary adenomas.

Integrated Systems Pharmacology, Urinary Metabonomics, and Quantitative Real-Time PCR Analysis to Uncover Targets and Metabolic Pathways of the You-Gui Pill in Treating Kidney-Yang Deficiency Syndrome

Kidney-yang deficiency syndrome (KYDS) is a metabolic disease caused by a neuro-endocrine disorder. The You-gui pill (YGP) is a classic traditional Chinese medicine (TCM) formula for the treatment of KYDS and has been widely used to warm and recuperate KYDS clinically for hundreds of years in China. However, it is unknown whetherthe corresponding targets and metabolic pathways can also be found via using metabonomics based on one platform (e.g., 1H NMR) to study different biological samples of KYDS. At the same time, relevant reports on further molecular verification (e.g., RT-qPCR analysis) of these targets associated with biomarkers and metabolic pathways have not yet, to our knowledge, been seen in KYDS's research. In the present study, a comprehensive strategy integrating systems pharmacology and 1H NMR-based urinary metabonomics analysis was proposed to identify the target proteins and metabolic pathways that YGP acts on KYDS. Thereafter, further validation of target proteins in kidney tissue was performed through quantitative real-time PCR analysis (RT-qPCR). Furthermore, biochemical parameters and histopathological analysis were studied. As a result, seven target proteins (L-serine dehydratase; phosphoenolpyruvate carboxykinase; spermidine synthase; tyrosyl-tRNA synthetase, glutamine synthetase; 3-hydroxyacyl-CoA dehydrogenase; glycine amidinotransferase) in YGP were discovered to play a therapeutic role in KYDS via affecting eight metabolic pathways (glycine, serine and threonine metabolism; butanoate metabolism; TCA cycle, etc.). Importantly, three target proteins (i.e., 3-hydroxyacyl-CoA dehydrogenase; glutamine synthetase; and glycine amidinotransferase) and two metabolic pathways (butanoate metabolism and dicarboxylate metabolism) related to KYDS, to our knowledge, had been newly discovered in our study. The mechanism of action mainly involved energy metabolism, oxidative stress, ammonia metabolism, amino acid metabolism, and fatty acid metabolism. In short, our study demonstrated that targets and metabolic pathways for the treatment of KYDS by YGP can be effectively found via combining with systems pharmacology and urinary metabonomics. In addition to this, common and specific targets and metabolic pathways of KYDS treated by YGP can be found effectively by integration with the analysis of different biological samples (e.g., serum, urine, feces, and tissue). It is; therefore, important that this laid the foundation for deeper mechanism research and drug-targeted therapy of KYDS in future.

Simultaneous high-performance liquid chromatography with tandem mass spectrometry quantification of six bioactive components in rat plasma after oral administration of Yougui pill

Yougui pills are a classic Chinese medicine that shows significant effects on nerve regeneration and neuroprotection in modern pharmacological studies. With a complex formula, Yougui pills have faced significant challenges in the fields of bioanalysis and pharmacokinetics in animals and human studies. In the present study, a specific and accurate high-performance liquid chromatography with tandem mass spectrometry method was developed and validated for the quantitative determination of the six bioactive components in rat plasma after oral administration of Yougui pills. Chromatographic separation was performed on a C18 column with a gradient elution system. Samples were analysed using positive ion mode with multiple reaction monitoring mode. The assay showed good linearity for all six bioactive components in the dynamic range of 0.50 to 50 ng/mL with acceptable intra- and inter-batch accuracy and precision. The lower limits of quantification were 0.50 ng/mL for all six bioactive components. The method was successfully applied to rat pharmacokinetics after oral administration of Yougui pills. All six bioactive components were detected in rat plasma, including songorine, benzoylhypaconitine, benzoylmesaconitine, neoline, karacoline, and sweroside, while some other target compounds were not detected, such as rhmannioside A, loganin, and cornuside I. After oral administration of Yougui pills at a dose of 2500 mg/kg, all six bioactive components were rapidly absorbed, resulting in t_max values less than 1 h and relative lower C_max values. The t_1/2 values for songorine, benzoylhypaconitine, benzoylmesaconitine, neoline, karacoline, and sweroside were calculated to be 2.62 ± 0.67, 2.11 ± 0.45, 1.94 ± 0.35, 1.88 ± 0.31, 2.07 ± 0.44, and 1.59 ± 0.30 h, which indicated that Yougui pills should be taken in multiple oral doses over a relatively short period.

Exploring the biomarkers and therapeutic mechanism of kidney-yang deficiency syndrome treated by You-gui pill using systems pharmacology and serum metabonomics

In this study, systems pharmacology was used to predict the molecular targets of You-gui pill (YGP) and explore the therapeutic mechanism of Kidney-Yang Deficiency Syndrome (KYDS) treated with YGP. On the basis of this, serum samples from control group, KYDS model group and YGP group rats were studied using ¹H NMR to verify the results of systems pharmacology from the level of metabonomics. Simultaneously, ¹H NMR spectra of serum samples were obtained and statistically assessed using pattern recognition analysis. Biochemical analyses of serums were performed via radioimmunoassays. Furthermore, histopathological studies were conducted on the pituitary, adrenal, and thyroid glands, and testicles of the control, KYDS and YGP rats. Using systems pharmacology to analyze the active components of YGP, 61 active compounds were finally found. These compounds were likely to have an effect on 3177 target proteins and involve 234 pathways. Using metabonomics to analyze serum from KYDS rats treated with YGP, 22 endogenous biomarkers were found. These biomarkers were mainly involved in 10 metabolic pathways. Combining systems pharmacology and metabonomics, we found that the regulation of KYDS was primarily associated with 19 active compounds of 5 Chinese herbal medicines in YGP. These active compounds mainly had an effect on 8 target proteins, including phosphoenolpyruvate carboxykinase, betaine-homocysteine s-methyltransferase 1, alcohol dehydrogenase 1C, etc. These target proteins were primarily involved in 6 overlapping pathways, namely aminoacyl-tRNA biosynthesis, glycolysis/gluconeogenesis, glycine, serine and threonine metabolism, valine, leucine and isoleucine biosynthesis, arginine and proline metabolism, and pyruvate metabolism. In addition, there were 4 non-overlapping pathways, respectively alanine, aspartate and glutamate metabolism, d-glutamine and d-glutamate metabolism, ubiquinone and other terpenoid-quinone biosynthesis, and galactose metabolism. In summary, the therapeutic effects of YGP on KYDS were mainly associated with neuroendocrine regulation, energy metabolism, amino acid metabolism, inflammatory responses, apoptosis, oxidative stress and intestinal flora metabolism. What's more, we also found that YGP possessed the potential to protect liver and kidney function. Our study demonstrated that systems pharmacology and metabonomics methods were novel strategies for the exploration of the mechanisms of KYDS and TCM formulas.

In this study, systems pharmacology was used to predict the molecular targets of You-gui pills (YGP) and explore the therapeutic mechanism of Kidney-Yang Deficiency Syndrome (KYDS) treated with YGP.

11β-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenases-2 decreases the apoptosis of MC3T3/MLO-Y4 cells induced by glucocorticoids

The aim of the present study was to confirm the role of 11β-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenases type 2(11β-HSD-2) in steroid induced osteonecrosis of the femoral head(SANFH). We cultured mouse bone-like cells (MLO-Y4) and mouse osteoblast-like cells (MC3T3-E1). After overexpressed 11β-HSD-2 successfully, we induced cell apoptosis by dexamethasone (DXM). The level of cell apoptosis, the expression of Bcl-2 in MLO-Y4 cells and the expression of Fas and caspase8 in MC3T3-E1 cells were detected. Then, we constructed 11β-HSD-2 siRNA plasmid and represented it on MLO-Y4/MC3T3-E1 Cells, to down-regulate the 11β-HSD-2 expression. After that, we used dexamethasone to induce cell apoptosis. The level of cell apoptosis, the expression of Bcl-2 in MLO-Y4 cells and the expression of Fas and caspase8 in MC3T3-E1 cells were detected again. In the overexpression model of cells, we found that the amount of cell apoptosis, the expression of Fas and caspase8 in MC3T3-E1 cells are lower than that of control groups. The amount of cell apoptosis, the expression of Fas and caspase8 in MC3T3-E1 cells were more than before when we reduced the expression of 11β-HSD-2. In our study, we concluded that 11β-HSD-2 plays an important role in the development of bone or osteoblast cell apoptosis, and the decreased expression of 11β-HSD-2 may aggravate steroid induced bone/osteoblast cell apoptosis.