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Yu P, Chen W, Jiang L, Jia Y, Xu X, Shen W, Jin N, Du H. Olfactory dysfunction and the role of stem cells in the regeneration of olfactory neurons. Heliyon 2024; 10:e29948. [PMID: 38694081 PMCID: PMC11058886 DOI: 10.1016/j.heliyon.2024.e29948] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/31/2023] [Revised: 04/08/2024] [Accepted: 04/17/2024] [Indexed: 05/03/2024] Open
Abstract
The prevalence of COVID-19 has drawn increasing attention to olfactory dysfunction among researchers. Olfactory dysfunction manifests in various clinical types, influenced by numerous pathogenic factors. Despite this diversity, the underlying pathogenesis remains largely elusive, contributing to a lack of standardized treatment approaches. However, the potential regeneration of olfactory neurons within the nasal cavity presents a promising avenue for addressing olfactory dysfunction effectively. Our review aims to delve into the current research landscape and treatment modalities concerning olfactory dysfunction, emphasizing etiology, pathogenesis, clinical interventions, and the role of stem cells in regenerating olfactory nerves. Through this comprehensive examination, we aim to provide valuable insights into understanding the onset, progression, and treatment of olfactory dysfunction diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Pengju Yu
- Department of Otolaryngology, Traditional Chinese Medicine Hospital of Kunshan, Jiangsu Province, China
| | - Weiguan Chen
- Operating Room, Traditional Chinese Medicine Hospital of Kunshan, Jiangsu Province, China
| | - Ling Jiang
- Operating Room, Traditional Chinese Medicine Hospital of Kunshan, Jiangsu Province, China
| | - Yufeng Jia
- Operating Room, Traditional Chinese Medicine Hospital of Kunshan, Jiangsu Province, China
| | - Xiaoyan Xu
- Operating Room, Traditional Chinese Medicine Hospital of Kunshan, Jiangsu Province, China
| | - Weiye Shen
- Operating Room, Traditional Chinese Medicine Hospital of Kunshan, Jiangsu Province, China
| | - Ni Jin
- Operating Room, Traditional Chinese Medicine Hospital of Kunshan, Jiangsu Province, China
| | - Hongjie Du
- Department of Otolaryngology, Shandong Provincial Hospital Affiliated to Shandong First Medical University, China
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Coyoy-Salgado A, Orozco-Barrios C, Sánchez-Torres S, Olayo MG, Cruz GJ, Morales-Corona J, Olayo R, Diaz-Ruiz A, Ríos C, Alvarez-Mejia L, Mondragón-Lozano R, Morales-Guadarrama A, Alonso-García AL, Fabela-Sánchez O, Salgado-Ceballos H. Gene expression and locomotor recovery in adult rats with spinal cord injury and plasma-synthesized polypyrrole/iodine application combined with a mixed rehabilitation scheme. Front Neurol 2023; 14:1124245. [PMID: 37288064 PMCID: PMC10243140 DOI: 10.3389/fneur.2023.1124245] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/14/2022] [Accepted: 04/14/2023] [Indexed: 06/09/2023] Open
Abstract
Introduction Spinal cord injury (SCI) can cause paralysis, for which effective therapeutic strategies have not been developed yet. The only accepted strategy for patients is rehabilitation (RB), although this does not allow complete recovery of lost functions, which makes it necessary to combine it with strategies such as plasma-synthesized polypyrrole/iodine (PPy/I), a biopolymer with different physicochemical properties than PPy synthesized by conventional methods. After SCI in rats, PPy/I promotes functional recovery. Therefore, the purpose of this study was to increase the beneficial effects of both strategies and identify which genes activate PPy/I when applied alone or in combination with a mixed scheme of RB by swimming and enriched environment (SW/EE) in rats with SCI. Methods Microarray analysis was performed to identify mechanisms of action underlying the effects of PPy/I and PPy/I+SW/EE on motor function recovery as evaluated by the BBB scale. Results Results showed robust upregulation by PPy/I in genes related to the developmental process, biogenesis, synapse, and synaptic vesicle trafficking. In addition, PPy/I+SW/EE increased the expression of genes related to proliferation, biogenesis, cell development, morphogenesis, cell differentiation, neurogenesis, neuron development, and synapse formation processes. Immunofluorescence analysis showed the expression of β-III tubulin in all groups, a decreased expression of caspase-3 in the PPy/I group and GFAP in the PPy/I+SW/EE group (p < 0.05). Better preservation of nerve tissue was observed in PPy/I and PPy/SW/EE groups (p < 0.05). In the BBB scale, the control group scored 1.72 ± 0.41, animals with PPy/I treatment scored 4.23 ± 0.33, and those with PPy/I+SW/EE scored 9.13 ± 0.43 1 month after follow-up. Conclusion Thus, PPy/I+SW/EE could represent a therapeutic alternative for motor function recovery after SCI.
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Affiliation(s)
- Angélica Coyoy-Salgado
- Researchers for Mexico CONACyT-Instituto Mexicano del Seguro Social, Medical Research Unit in Neurological Diseases, Specialty Hospital, National Medical Center Siglo XXI, Mexico City, Mexico
- Research Center of the Proyecto CAMINA A.C., Mexico City, Mexico
| | - Carlos Orozco-Barrios
- Researchers for Mexico CONACyT-Instituto Mexicano del Seguro Social, Medical Research Unit in Neurological Diseases, Specialty Hospital, National Medical Center Siglo XXI, Mexico City, Mexico
- Research Center of the Proyecto CAMINA A.C., Mexico City, Mexico
| | - Stephanie Sánchez-Torres
- Research Center of the Proyecto CAMINA A.C., Mexico City, Mexico
- Instituto Mexicano del Seguro Social, Medical Research Unit in Neurological Diseases, Specialty Hospital, National Medical Center Siglo XXI, Mexico City, Mexico
| | - María Guadalupe Olayo
- Instituto Nacional de Investigaciones Nucleares, Department of Physics, Axapusco, Mexico
| | - Guillermo Jesus Cruz
- Instituto Nacional de Investigaciones Nucleares, Department of Physics, Axapusco, Mexico
| | - Juan Morales-Corona
- Department of Physics, Universidad Autónoma Metropolitana Iztapalapa, Mexico City, Mexico
| | - Roberto Olayo
- Department of Physics, Universidad Autónoma Metropolitana Iztapalapa, Mexico City, Mexico
| | - Araceli Diaz-Ruiz
- Instituto Nacional de Neurología y Neurocirugía Manuel Velasco Suárez S.S.A., Department of Neurochemistry, Mexico City, Mexico
| | - Camilo Ríos
- Instituto Nacional de Neurología y Neurocirugía Manuel Velasco Suárez S.S.A., Department of Neurochemistry, Mexico City, Mexico
| | - Laura Alvarez-Mejia
- Research Center of the Proyecto CAMINA A.C., Mexico City, Mexico
- Instituto Mexicano del Seguro Social, Medical Research Unit in Neurological Diseases, Specialty Hospital, National Medical Center Siglo XXI, Mexico City, Mexico
| | - Rodrigo Mondragón-Lozano
- Researchers for Mexico CONACyT-Instituto Mexicano del Seguro Social, Medical Research Unit in Neurological Diseases, Specialty Hospital, National Medical Center Siglo XXI, Mexico City, Mexico
- Research Center of the Proyecto CAMINA A.C., Mexico City, Mexico
| | - Axayacatl Morales-Guadarrama
- Electrical Engineering Department, Universidad Autónoma Metropolitana Iztapalapa, Mexico City, Mexico
- National Center for Research in Imaging and Medical Instrumentation, Universidad Autónoma Metropolitana Iztapalapa, Mexico City, Mexico
| | | | - Omar Fabela-Sánchez
- Researchers for Mexico CONACyT-Centro de Investigación en Química Aplicada, Department of Chemistry Macromolecules and Nanomaterials, Saltillo, Mexico
| | - Hermelinda Salgado-Ceballos
- Research Center of the Proyecto CAMINA A.C., Mexico City, Mexico
- Instituto Mexicano del Seguro Social, Medical Research Unit in Neurological Diseases, Specialty Hospital, National Medical Center Siglo XXI, Mexico City, Mexico
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Kiaie N, Gorabi AM, Loveless R, Teng Y, Jamialahmadi T, Sahebkar A. The regenerative potential of glial progenitor cells and reactive astrocytes in CNS injuries. Neurosci Biobehav Rev 2022; 140:104794. [PMID: 35902044 DOI: 10.1016/j.neubiorev.2022.104794] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/18/2022] [Revised: 07/20/2022] [Accepted: 07/21/2022] [Indexed: 10/16/2022]
Abstract
Cell therapeutic approaches focusing on the regeneration of damaged tissue have been a popular topic among researchers in recent years. In particular, self-repair scarring from the central nervous system (CNS) can significantly complicate the treatment of an injured patient. In CNS regeneration schemes, either glial progenitor cells or reactive glial cells have key roles to play. In this review, the contribution and underlying mechanisms of these progenitor/reactive glial cells during CNS regeneration are discussed, as well as their role in CNS-related diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nasim Kiaie
- Research Center for Advanced Technologies in Cardiovascular Medicine, Tehran Heart Center, Tehran University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran
| | - Armita Mahdavi Gorabi
- Department of Tissue Engineering and Applied Cell Science, School of Advanced Technologies in Medicine, Shahid Beheshti University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran
| | - Reid Loveless
- Department of Oral Biology and Diagnostic Sciences, Dental College of Georgia, Augusta University, Augusta, GA 30912, USA
| | - Yong Teng
- Department of Hematology and Medical Oncology, Winship Cancer Institute, Emory University School of Medicine, Atlanta, GA, USA
| | - Tannaz Jamialahmadi
- Applied Biomedical Research Center, Mashhad University of Medical Sciences, Mashhad, Iran; Department of Nutrition, Faculty of Medicine, Mashhad University of Medical Sciences, Mashhad, Iran
| | - Amirhossein Sahebkar
- Applied Biomedical Research Center, Mashhad University of Medical Sciences, Mashhad, Iran; Biotechnology Research Center, Pharmaceutical Technology Institute, Mashhad University of Medical Sciences, Mashhad, Iran; Department of Biotechnology, School of Pharmacy, Mashhad University of Medical Sciences, Mashhad, Iran.
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Basu S, Choudhury IN, Nazareth L, Chacko A, Shelper T, Vial ML, Ekberg JAK, St John JA. In vitro modulation of Schwann cell behavior by VEGF and PDGF in an inflammatory environment. Sci Rep 2022; 12:662. [PMID: 35027585 PMCID: PMC8758747 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-021-04222-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/21/2021] [Accepted: 12/17/2021] [Indexed: 01/19/2023] Open
Abstract
Peripheral glial cell transplantation with Schwann cells (SCs) is a promising approach for treating spinal cord injury (SCI). However, improvements are needed and one avenue to enhance regenerative functional outcomes is to combine growth factors with cell transplantation. Vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) and platelet-derived growth factor (PDGF) are neuroprotective, and a combination of these factors has improved outcomes in rat SCI models. Thus, transplantation of SCs combined with VEGF and PDGF may further improve regenerative outcomes. First, however, we must understand how the two factors modulate SCs. In this in vitro study, we show that an inflammatory environment decreased the rate of SC-mediated phagocytosis of myelin debris but the addition of VEGF and PDGF (alone and combined) improved phagocytosis. Cytokine expression by SCs in the inflammatory environment revealed that addition of PDGF led to significantly lower level of pro-inflammatory cytokine, TNF-α, but IL-6 and anti-inflammatory cytokines (TGF-β and IL-10), remained unaltered. Further, PDGF was able to decrease the expression of myelination associated gene Oct6 in the presence of inflammatory environment. Overall, these results suggest that the use of VEGF and/or PDGF combined with SC transplantation may be beneficial in SCI therapy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Souptik Basu
- Clem Jones Centre for Neurobiology and Stem Cell Research, Griffith University, Nathan, QLD, Australia.,Menzies Health Institute Queensland, Griffith University, Southport, QLD, Australia
| | - Indra N Choudhury
- Clem Jones Centre for Neurobiology and Stem Cell Research, Griffith University, Nathan, QLD, Australia.,Menzies Health Institute Queensland, Griffith University, Southport, QLD, Australia
| | - Lynn Nazareth
- Clem Jones Centre for Neurobiology and Stem Cell Research, Griffith University, Nathan, QLD, Australia.,Menzies Health Institute Queensland, Griffith University, Southport, QLD, Australia
| | - Anu Chacko
- Clem Jones Centre for Neurobiology and Stem Cell Research, Griffith University, Nathan, QLD, Australia.,Menzies Health Institute Queensland, Griffith University, Southport, QLD, Australia
| | - Todd Shelper
- Clem Jones Centre for Neurobiology and Stem Cell Research, Griffith University, Nathan, QLD, Australia.,Menzies Health Institute Queensland, Griffith University, Southport, QLD, Australia
| | - Marie-Laure Vial
- Clem Jones Centre for Neurobiology and Stem Cell Research, Griffith University, Nathan, QLD, Australia.,Menzies Health Institute Queensland, Griffith University, Southport, QLD, Australia
| | - Jenny A K Ekberg
- Clem Jones Centre for Neurobiology and Stem Cell Research, Griffith University, Nathan, QLD, Australia.,Menzies Health Institute Queensland, Griffith University, Southport, QLD, Australia.,Griffith Institute for Drug Discovery, Griffith University, Nathan, QLD, Australia
| | - James A St John
- Clem Jones Centre for Neurobiology and Stem Cell Research, Griffith University, Nathan, QLD, Australia. .,Menzies Health Institute Queensland, Griffith University, Southport, QLD, Australia. .,Griffith Institute for Drug Discovery, Griffith University, Nathan, QLD, Australia.
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Yuan Y, Geng B, Xu X, Zhao H, Bai J, Dou Z, Jia S, Yu X, Luo W. Dual VEGF/PDGF knockdown suppresses vasculogenic mimicry formation in choroidal melanoma cells via the Wnt5a/β-catenin/AKT signaling pathway. Acta Histochem 2022; 124:151842. [PMID: 34995928 DOI: 10.1016/j.acthis.2021.151842] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/08/2021] [Revised: 12/27/2021] [Accepted: 12/29/2021] [Indexed: 12/23/2022]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE This study aimed to explore the effects of knocking down both vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) and platelet derived growth factor (PDGF) on vasculogenic mimicry (VM) formation in choroidal melanoma (CM) cells. METHODS Cell counting Kit (CCK)-8, monoclonal formation, wound healing, transwell and flow cytometry assays were used to observe the cell effects in CM cell line, ocular choroidal melanoma-1 cells (OCM-1) with respect to proliferation, migration, invasion and apoptosis. Three-dimensional (3D) cultures were also used to characterize VM tube structural effects in OCM-1 cells and western blotting was used to characterize protein expression changes in VM-related markers. RESULTS Dual VEGF/PDGF knockdown suppressed cell proliferation, migration and invasion, but promoted cell apoptosis. It also reduced VM tube structures in OCM-1 cells. VM associated markers including, VE-cadherin, EphA2 and MT1-MMP were also down-regulated in OCM-1 cells. Similarly, Wnt5a, β-catenin and phosphorylated-AKT levels were also down-regulated. Western blotting and 3D cultures further demonstrated that combined Wnt5a silencing with dual VEGF/PDGF knockdown significantly decreased VE-cadherin and EphA2 levels and reduced VM tube structures in OCM-1 cells. CONCLUSIONS Dual VEGF/PDGF knockdown suppressed cell growth and metastasis in OCM-1 cells, and blocked the Wnt5a/β-catenin/AKT signaling pathway thereby inhibiting VM formation.
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陈 银, 俞 晨, 钱 晓, 高 下. [Research progress in the treatment of sensorineural olfactory dysfunction]. LIN CHUANG ER BI YAN HOU TOU JING WAI KE ZA ZHI = JOURNAL OF CLINICAL OTORHINOLARYNGOLOGY, HEAD, AND NECK SURGERY 2021; 35:365-370. [PMID: 33794640 PMCID: PMC10128435 DOI: 10.13201/j.issn.2096-7993.2021.04.019] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/25/2020] [Indexed: 11/12/2022]
Abstract
Sensorineural olfactory dysfunction refers to the reduction or distortion of sensory intensity due to insufficient reception or processing of stimulation by olfactory receptors, olfactory sensory neurons or central nervous system. As olfactory dysfunction can affect patients' physical and mental health and even safety of life and the etiology of sensorineural olfactory dysfunction is complicated, it has great clinical significance for understanding the development of olfactory dysfunction's treatment. This article summarizes the current promising treatment for sensorineural olfactory dysfunction, including drug therapy, cell therapy, gene therapy and olfactory training.
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Affiliation(s)
- 银 陈
- 南京医科大学鼓楼临床医学院耳鼻咽喉头颈外科(南京,210008)
| | - 晨杰 俞
- 南京医科大学鼓楼临床医学院耳鼻咽喉头颈外科(南京,210008)
- 南京大学医学院附属鼓楼医院耳鼻咽喉头颈外科 江苏省医学重点学科
- 南京鼓楼医院耳鼻咽喉研究所
| | - 晓云 钱
- 南京医科大学鼓楼临床医学院耳鼻咽喉头颈外科(南京,210008)
- 南京大学医学院附属鼓楼医院耳鼻咽喉头颈外科 江苏省医学重点学科
- 南京鼓楼医院耳鼻咽喉研究所
| | - 下 高
- 南京医科大学鼓楼临床医学院耳鼻咽喉头颈外科(南京,210008)
- 南京大学医学院附属鼓楼医院耳鼻咽喉头颈外科 江苏省医学重点学科
- 南京鼓楼医院耳鼻咽喉研究所
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Calvo PM, de la Cruz RR, Pastor AM. A Single Intraventricular Injection of VEGF Leads to Long-Term Neurotrophic Effects in Axotomized Motoneurons. eNeuro 2020; 7:ENEURO.0467-19.2020. [PMID: 32371476 PMCID: PMC7266142 DOI: 10.1523/eneuro.0467-19.2020] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/11/2019] [Revised: 02/21/2020] [Accepted: 03/23/2020] [Indexed: 12/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) has been recently demonstrated to induce neuroprotective and synaptotrophic effects on lesioned neurons. Hitherto, the administration of VEGF in different animal models of lesion or disease has been conducted following a chronic protocol of administration. We questioned whether a single dose of VEGF, administered intraventricularly, could induce long-term neurotrophic effects on injured motoneurons. For this purpose, we performed in cats the axotomy of abducens motoneurons and the injection of VEGF into the fourth ventricle in the same surgical session and investigated the discharge characteristics of axotomized and treated motoneurons by single-unit extracellular recordings in the chronic alert preparation. We found that injured motoneurons treated with a single VEGF application discharged with normal characteristics, showing neuronal eye position (EP) and velocity sensitivities similar to control, thereby preventing the axotomy-induced alterations. These effects were present for a prolonged period of time (50 d) after VEGF administration. By confocal immunofluorescence we also showed that the synaptic stripping that ensues lesion was not present, rather motoneurons showed a normal synaptic coverage. Moreover, we demonstrated that VEGF did not lead to any angiogenic response pointing to a direct action of the factor on neurons. In summary, a single dose of VEFG administered just after motoneuron axotomy is able to prevent for a long time the axotomy-induced firing and synaptic alterations without any associated vascular sprouting. We consider that these data are of great relevance due to the potentiality of VEGF as a therapeutic agent in neuronal lesions and diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Paula M Calvo
- Departamento de Fisiología, Facultad de Biología, Universidad de Sevilla, Sevilla 41012, Spain
| | - Rosa R de la Cruz
- Departamento de Fisiología, Facultad de Biología, Universidad de Sevilla, Sevilla 41012, Spain
| | - Angel M Pastor
- Departamento de Fisiología, Facultad de Biología, Universidad de Sevilla, Sevilla 41012, Spain
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Walkden H, Delbaz A, Nazareth L, Batzloff M, Shelper T, Beacham IR, Chacko A, Shah M, Beagley KW, Tello Velasquez J, St John JA, Ekberg JAK. Burkholderia pseudomallei invades the olfactory nerve and bulb after epithelial injury in mice and causes the formation of multinucleated giant glial cells in vitro. PLoS Negl Trop Dis 2020; 14:e0008017. [PMID: 31978058 PMCID: PMC7002012 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pntd.0008017] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/18/2019] [Revised: 02/05/2020] [Accepted: 12/27/2019] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
The infectious disease melioidosis is caused by the bacterium Burkholderia pseudomallei. Melioidosis is characterised by high mortality and morbidity and can involve the central nervous system (CNS). We have previously discovered that B. pseudomallei can infect the CNS via the olfactory and trigeminal nerves in mice. We have shown that the nerve path is dependent on mouse strain, with outbred mice showing resistance to olfactory nerve infection. Damage to the nasal epithelium by environmental factors is common, and we hypothesised that injury to the olfactory epithelium may increase the vulnerability of the olfactory nerve to microbial insult. We therefore investigated this, using outbred mice that were intranasally inoculated with B. pseudomallei, with or without methimazole-induced injury to the olfactory neuroepithelium. Methimazole-mediated injury resulted in increased B. pseudomallei invasion of the olfactory epithelium, and only in pre-injured animals were bacteria found in the olfactory nerve and bulb. In vitro assays demonstrated that B. pseudomallei readily infected glial cells isolated from the olfactory and trigeminal nerves (olfactory ensheathing cells and trigeminal Schwann cells, respectively). Bacteria were degraded by some cells but persisted in other cells, which led to the formation of multinucleated giant cells (MNGCs), with olfactory ensheathing cells less likely to form MNGCs than Schwann cells. Double Cap mutant bacteria, lacking the protein BimA, did not form MNGCs. These data suggest that injuries to the olfactory epithelium expose the primary olfactory nervous system to bacterial invasion, which can then result in CNS infection with potential pathogenic consequences for the glial cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- Heidi Walkden
- Menzies Health Institute Queensland, Griffith University, Southport, Australia
- Clem Jones Centre for Neurobiology and Stem Cell Research, Griffith University, Nathan, Australia
| | - Ali Delbaz
- Menzies Health Institute Queensland, Griffith University, Southport, Australia
- Clem Jones Centre for Neurobiology and Stem Cell Research, Griffith University, Nathan, Australia
| | - Lynn Nazareth
- Menzies Health Institute Queensland, Griffith University, Southport, Australia
- Clem Jones Centre for Neurobiology and Stem Cell Research, Griffith University, Nathan, Australia
| | - Michael Batzloff
- Institute for Glycomics, Griffith University, Southport, Australia
| | - Todd Shelper
- Menzies Health Institute Queensland, Griffith University, Southport, Australia
- Clem Jones Centre for Neurobiology and Stem Cell Research, Griffith University, Nathan, Australia
| | - Ifor R. Beacham
- Institute for Glycomics, Griffith University, Southport, Australia
| | - Anu Chacko
- Menzies Health Institute Queensland, Griffith University, Southport, Australia
- Clem Jones Centre for Neurobiology and Stem Cell Research, Griffith University, Nathan, Australia
| | - Megha Shah
- Menzies Health Institute Queensland, Griffith University, Southport, Australia
- Clem Jones Centre for Neurobiology and Stem Cell Research, Griffith University, Nathan, Australia
| | - Kenneth W. Beagley
- Institute for Health and Biomedical Innovation, School of Biomedical Sciences, Queensland University of Technology, Brisbane, Australia
| | | | - James A. St John
- Menzies Health Institute Queensland, Griffith University, Southport, Australia
- Clem Jones Centre for Neurobiology and Stem Cell Research, Griffith University, Nathan, Australia
- Griffith Institute for Drug Discovery, Griffith University, Nathan, Australia
| | - Jenny A. K. Ekberg
- Menzies Health Institute Queensland, Griffith University, Southport, Australia
- Clem Jones Centre for Neurobiology and Stem Cell Research, Griffith University, Nathan, Australia
- Griffith Institute for Drug Discovery, Griffith University, Nathan, Australia
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