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Dai W, Zhan M, Gao Y, Sun H, Zou Y, Laurent R, Mignani S, Majoral JP, Shen M, Shi X. Brain delivery of fibronectin through bioactive phosphorous dendrimers for Parkinson's disease treatment via cooperative modulation of microglia. Bioact Mater 2024; 38:45-54. [PMID: 38699237 PMCID: PMC11061646 DOI: 10.1016/j.bioactmat.2024.04.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/28/2024] [Revised: 03/31/2024] [Accepted: 04/08/2024] [Indexed: 05/05/2024] Open
Abstract
Effective treatment of Parkinson's disease (PD), a prevalent central neurodegenerative disorder particularly affecting the elderly population, still remains a huge challenge. We present here a novel nanomedicine formulation based on bioactive hydroxyl-terminated phosphorous dendrimers (termed as AK123) complexed with fibronectin (FN) with anti-inflammatory and antioxidative activities. The created optimized AK123/FN nanocomplexes (NCs) with a size of 223 nm display good colloidal stability in aqueous solution and can be specifically taken up by microglia through FN-mediated targeting. We show that the AK123/FN NCs are able to consume excessive reactive oxygen species, promote microglia M2 polarization and inhibit the nuclear factor-kappa B signaling pathway to downregulate inflammatory factors. With the abundant dendrimer surface hydroxyl terminal groups, the developed NCs are able to cross blood-brain barrier (BBB) to exert targeted therapy of a PD mouse model through the AK123-mediated anti-inflammation for M2 polarization of microglia and FN-mediated antioxidant and anti-inflammatory effects, thus reducing the aggregation of α-synuclein and restoring the contents of dopamine and tyrosine hydroxylase to normal levels in vivo. The developed dendrimer/FN NCs combine the advantages of BBB-crossing hydroxyl-terminated bioactive per se phosphorus dendrimers and FN, which is expected to be extended for the treatment of different neurodegenerative diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Waicong Dai
- State Key Laboratory for Modification of Chemical Fibers and Polymer Materials, Shanghai Engineering Research Center of Nano-Biomaterials and Regenerative Medicine, College of Biological Science and Medical Engineering, Donghua University, Shanghai, 201620, PR China
| | - Mengsi Zhan
- State Key Laboratory for Modification of Chemical Fibers and Polymer Materials, Shanghai Engineering Research Center of Nano-Biomaterials and Regenerative Medicine, College of Biological Science and Medical Engineering, Donghua University, Shanghai, 201620, PR China
| | - Yue Gao
- State Key Laboratory for Modification of Chemical Fibers and Polymer Materials, Shanghai Engineering Research Center of Nano-Biomaterials and Regenerative Medicine, College of Biological Science and Medical Engineering, Donghua University, Shanghai, 201620, PR China
| | - Huxiao Sun
- State Key Laboratory for Modification of Chemical Fibers and Polymer Materials, Shanghai Engineering Research Center of Nano-Biomaterials and Regenerative Medicine, College of Biological Science and Medical Engineering, Donghua University, Shanghai, 201620, PR China
| | - Yu Zou
- Laboratoire de Chimie de Coordination du CNRS, 205 Route de Narbonne, CEDEX 4, 31077, Toulouse, France
- Université Toulouse, 118 Route de Narbonne, CEDEX 4, 31077, Toulouse, France
| | - Régis Laurent
- Laboratoire de Chimie de Coordination du CNRS, 205 Route de Narbonne, CEDEX 4, 31077, Toulouse, France
- Université Toulouse, 118 Route de Narbonne, CEDEX 4, 31077, Toulouse, France
| | - Serge Mignani
- CQM-Centro de Química da Madeira, Universidade da Madeira, Campus Universitário da Penteada, 9020-105, Funchal, Portugal
| | - Jean-Pierre Majoral
- Laboratoire de Chimie de Coordination du CNRS, 205 Route de Narbonne, CEDEX 4, 31077, Toulouse, France
- Université Toulouse, 118 Route de Narbonne, CEDEX 4, 31077, Toulouse, France
| | - Mingwu Shen
- State Key Laboratory for Modification of Chemical Fibers and Polymer Materials, Shanghai Engineering Research Center of Nano-Biomaterials and Regenerative Medicine, College of Biological Science and Medical Engineering, Donghua University, Shanghai, 201620, PR China
| | - Xiangyang Shi
- State Key Laboratory for Modification of Chemical Fibers and Polymer Materials, Shanghai Engineering Research Center of Nano-Biomaterials and Regenerative Medicine, College of Biological Science and Medical Engineering, Donghua University, Shanghai, 201620, PR China
- CQM-Centro de Química da Madeira, Universidade da Madeira, Campus Universitário da Penteada, 9020-105, Funchal, Portugal
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Pramanik S, Devi M H, Chakrabarty S, Paylar B, Pradhan A, Thaker M, Ayyadhury S, Manavalan A, Olsson PE, Pramanik G, Heese K. Microglia signaling in health and disease - Implications in sex-specific brain development and plasticity. Neurosci Biobehav Rev 2024; 165:105834. [PMID: 39084583 DOI: 10.1016/j.neubiorev.2024.105834] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/05/2024] [Revised: 07/21/2024] [Accepted: 07/27/2024] [Indexed: 08/02/2024]
Abstract
Microglia, the intrinsic neuroimmune cells residing in the central nervous system (CNS), exert a pivotal influence on brain development, homeostasis, and functionality, encompassing critical roles during both aging and pathological states. Recent advancements in comprehending brain plasticity and functions have spotlighted conspicuous variances between male and female brains, notably in neurogenesis, neuronal myelination, axon fasciculation, and synaptogenesis. Nevertheless, the precise impact of microglia on sex-specific brain cell plasticity, sculpting diverse neural network architectures and circuits, remains largely unexplored. This article seeks to unravel the present understanding of microglial involvement in brain development, plasticity, and function, with a specific emphasis on microglial signaling in brain sex polymorphism. Commencing with an overview of microglia in the CNS and their associated signaling cascades, we subsequently probe recent revelations regarding molecular signaling by microglia in sex-dependent brain developmental plasticity, functions, and diseases. Notably, C-X3-C motif chemokine receptor 1 (CX3CR1), triggering receptors expressed on myeloid cells 2 (TREM2), calcium (Ca2+), and apolipoprotein E (APOE) emerge as molecular candidates significantly contributing to sex-dependent brain development and plasticity. In conclusion, we address burgeoning inquiries surrounding microglia's pivotal role in the functional diversity of developing and aging brains, contemplating their potential implications for gender-tailored therapeutic strategies in neurodegenerative diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Subrata Pramanik
- Jyoti and Bhupat Mehta School of Health Sciences and Technology, Indian Institute of Technology Guwahati, Guwahati 781039, Assam, India.
| | - Harini Devi M
- Jyoti and Bhupat Mehta School of Health Sciences and Technology, Indian Institute of Technology Guwahati, Guwahati 781039, Assam, India
| | - Saswata Chakrabarty
- Jyoti and Bhupat Mehta School of Health Sciences and Technology, Indian Institute of Technology Guwahati, Guwahati 781039, Assam, India
| | - Berkay Paylar
- Biology, The Life Science Center, School of Science and Technology, Örebro University, Örebro 70182, Sweden
| | - Ajay Pradhan
- Biology, The Life Science Center, School of Science and Technology, Örebro University, Örebro 70182, Sweden
| | - Manisha Thaker
- Eurofins Lancaster Laboratories, Inc., 2425 New Holland Pike, Lancaster, PA 17601, USA
| | - Shamini Ayyadhury
- The Donnelly Centre, University of Toronto, Toronto, Ontario M5S 3E1, Canada
| | - Arulmani Manavalan
- Department of Cariology, Saveetha Dental College and Hospitals, Saveetha Institute of Medical and Technical Sciences, Chennai, Tamil Nadu 600077, India
| | - Per-Erik Olsson
- Biology, The Life Science Center, School of Science and Technology, Örebro University, Örebro 70182, Sweden
| | - Gopal Pramanik
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences and Technology, Birla Institute of Technology, Mesra, Ranchi, Jharkhand 835215, India.
| | - Klaus Heese
- Graduate School of Biomedical Science and Engineering, Hanyang University, 222 Wangsimni-ro, Seongdong-gu, Seoul 133791, the Republic of Korea.
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Lu W, Wen J. H 2S-RhoA/ROCK Pathway and Glial Cells in Axonal Remyelination After Ischemic Stroke. Mol Neurobiol 2023; 60:5493-5504. [PMID: 37322287 DOI: 10.1007/s12035-023-03422-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/05/2022] [Accepted: 06/03/2023] [Indexed: 06/17/2023]
Abstract
Ischemic stroke is one of the main reasons of disability and death. Stroke-induced functional deficits are mainly due to the secondary degeneration of the white matter characterized by axonal demyelination and injury of axon-glial integrity. Enhancement of the axonal regeneration and remyelination could promote the neural functional recovery. However, cerebral ischemia-induced activation of RhoA/Rho kinase (ROCK) pathway plays a crucial and harmful role in the process of axonal recovery and regeneration. Inhibition of this pathway could promote the axonal regeneration and remyelination. In addition, hydrogen sulfide (H2S) has the significant neuroprotective role during the recovery of ischemic stroke via inhibiting the inflammatory response and oxidative stress, regulating astrocyte function, promoting the differentiation of endogenous oligodendrocyte precursor cells (OPCs) to mature oligodendrocyte. Among all of these effects, promoting the formation of mature oligodendrocyte is a crucial part of axonal regeneration and remyelination. Furthermore, numerous studies have uncovered the crosstalk between astrocytes and oligodendrocyte, microglial cells and oligodendrocyte in the axonal remyelination following ischemic stroke. The purpose of this review was to discuss the relationship among H2S, RhoA/ROCK pathway, astrocytes, and microglial cells in the axonal remyelination following ischemic stroke to reveal new strategies for preventing and treating this devastating disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Weizhuo Lu
- Medical Branch, Hefei Technology College, Hefei, China
| | - Jiyue Wen
- Department of Pharmacology, School of Basic Medical Sciences, Anhui Medical University, Hefei, China.
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Moya-Gómez A, Font LP, Burlacu A, Alpizar YA, Cardonne MM, Brône B, Bronckaers A. Extremely Low-Frequency Electromagnetic Stimulation (ELF-EMS) Improves Neurological Outcome and Reduces Microglial Reactivity in a Rodent Model of Global Transient Stroke. Int J Mol Sci 2023; 24:11117. [PMID: 37446295 DOI: 10.3390/ijms241311117] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/01/2023] [Revised: 06/28/2023] [Accepted: 06/30/2023] [Indexed: 07/15/2023] Open
Abstract
Extremely low-frequency electromagnetic stimulation (ELF-EMS) was demonstrated to be significantly beneficial in rodent models of permanent stroke. The mechanism involved enhanced cerebrovascular perfusion and endothelial cell nitric oxide production. However, the possible effect on the neuroinflammatory response and its efficacy in reperfusion stroke models remains unclear. To evaluate ELF-EMS effectiveness and possible immunomodulatory response, we studied neurological outcome, behavior, neuronal survival, and glial reactivity in a rodent model of global transient stroke treated with 13.5 mT/60 Hz. Next, we studied microglial cells migration and, in organotypic hippocampal brain slices, we assessed neuronal survival and microglia reactivity. ELF-EMS improved the neurological score and behavior in the ischemia-reperfusion model. It also improved neuronal survival and decreased glia reactivity in the hippocampus, with microglia showing the first signs of treatment effect. In vitro ELF-EMS decreased (Lipopolysaccharide) LPS and ATP-induced microglia migration in both scratch and transwell assay. Additionally, in hippocampal brain slices, reduced microglial reactivity, improved neuronal survival, and modulation of inflammation-related markers was observed. Our study is the first to show that an EMF treatment has a direct impact on microglial migration. Furthermore, ELF-EMS has beneficial effects in an ischemia/reperfusion model, which indicates that this treatment has clinical potential as a new treatment against ischemic stroke.
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Affiliation(s)
- Amanda Moya-Gómez
- BIOMED, UHasselt, Agoralaan, 3590 Diepenbeek, Belgium
- Biomedical Engineering Department, Facultad de Ingeniería Informática, Telecomunicaciones y Biomédica, Universidad de Oriente, Santiago de Cuba 90 400, Cuba
| | - Lena Pérez Font
- Centro Nacional de Electromagnetismo Aplicado, Universidad de Oriente, Santiago de Cuba 90 400, Cuba
| | | | | | - Miriam Marañón Cardonne
- Biomedical Engineering Department, Facultad de Ingeniería Informática, Telecomunicaciones y Biomédica, Universidad de Oriente, Santiago de Cuba 90 400, Cuba
| | - Bert Brône
- BIOMED, UHasselt, Agoralaan, 3590 Diepenbeek, Belgium
| | - Annelies Bronckaers
- Biomedical Engineering Department, Facultad de Ingeniería Informática, Telecomunicaciones y Biomédica, Universidad de Oriente, Santiago de Cuba 90 400, Cuba
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Vratarić M, Šenk V, Bursać B, Gligorovska L, Ignjatović D, Kovačević S, Veličković N, Djordjevic A. Fructose diet ameliorate effects of macrophage migration inhibitory factor deficiency on prefrontal cortex inflammation, neural plasticity, and behavior in male mice. Biofactors 2023; 49:90-107. [PMID: 34767656 DOI: 10.1002/biof.1802] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/28/2021] [Accepted: 10/26/2021] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
Macrophage migration inhibitory factor (MIF) is a pro-inflammatory cytokine that represents a link between diet-induced inflammation and insulin resistance. Our aim was to examine whether fructose diet affects inflammation and insulin signaling in the prefrontal cortex (PFC) of Mif knockout mice (MIF-KO), and their possible link to neural plasticity and behavior. We analyzed nuclear factor κB (NF-κB) and glucocorticoid signaling, expression of F4/80, IL-1β, TNF-α, TLR-4, MyD88, arginase 1 (Arg-1), mannose receptor (Mrc-1), and leukemia inhibitory factor (Lif) to assess inflammation in the PFC of C57/BL6J and MIF-KO mice consuming 20% fructose solution for 9 weeks. Insulin receptor (IR), IRS-1 serine phosphorylations (307 and 1101) and activity of PKCα, Akt, GSK-3β and AMPKα were used to analyze insulin signaling. Brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) and insulin-like growth factor 1 (IGF-1) mRNA levels, together with synapthophysin and PSD-95 protein level and calcium calmodulin-dependent kinase 2 (CaMKII) activity, were used as plasticity markers. Behavior was examined in elevated plus maze, light dark box and novel object recognition test. The results showed concomitant increase of Tnf-α, Tlr-4, MyD88 and M2 microglia markers (Arg-1, Mrc-1, Lif) in the PFC of MIF-KO, paralleled with unchanged glucocorticoid and insulin signaling. Increase of BDNF and IGF-1 was paralleled with increased CaMKII activity, decreased PSD-95 protein level, anxiogenic behavior, and impaired memory in MIF-KO mice. Fructose feeding restored these parameters in the PFC to the control level and mitigated behavioral changes, suggesting that ameliorating effects of fructose on neuroinflammation and behavior depend on the presence of MIF.
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Affiliation(s)
- Miloš Vratarić
- Department of Biochemistry, Institute for Biological Research "Siniša Stanković"- National Institute of Republic of Serbia, University of Belgrade, Belgrade, Serbia
| | - Vladimir Šenk
- Department of Biochemistry, Institute for Biological Research "Siniša Stanković"- National Institute of Republic of Serbia, University of Belgrade, Belgrade, Serbia
| | - Biljana Bursać
- Department of Biochemistry, Institute for Biological Research "Siniša Stanković"- National Institute of Republic of Serbia, University of Belgrade, Belgrade, Serbia
| | - Ljupka Gligorovska
- Department of Biochemistry, Institute for Biological Research "Siniša Stanković"- National Institute of Republic of Serbia, University of Belgrade, Belgrade, Serbia
| | - Djurdjica Ignjatović
- Department of Biochemistry, Institute for Biological Research "Siniša Stanković"- National Institute of Republic of Serbia, University of Belgrade, Belgrade, Serbia
| | - Sanja Kovačević
- Department of Biochemistry, Institute for Biological Research "Siniša Stanković"- National Institute of Republic of Serbia, University of Belgrade, Belgrade, Serbia
| | - Nataša Veličković
- Department of Biochemistry, Institute for Biological Research "Siniša Stanković"- National Institute of Republic of Serbia, University of Belgrade, Belgrade, Serbia
| | - Ana Djordjevic
- Department of Biochemistry, Institute for Biological Research "Siniša Stanković"- National Institute of Republic of Serbia, University of Belgrade, Belgrade, Serbia
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Wang X, Liu X, Chen L, Zhang X. The inflammatory injury in the striatal microglia-dopaminergic-neuron crosstalk involved in Tourette syndrome development. Front Immunol 2023; 14:1178113. [PMID: 37187752 PMCID: PMC10175669 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2023.1178113] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/02/2023] [Accepted: 04/06/2023] [Indexed: 05/17/2023] Open
Abstract
Background Tourette syndrome (TS) is associated with immunological dysfunction. The DA system is closely related to TS development, or behavioral stereotypes. Previous evidence suggested that hyper-M1-polarized microglia may exist in the brains of TS individuals. However, the role of microglia in TS and their interaction with dopaminergic neurons is unclear. In this study, we applied iminodipropionitrile (IDPN) to establish a TS model and focused on the inflammatory injury in the striatal microglia-dopaminergic-neuron crosstalk. Methods Male Sprague-Dawley rats were intraperitoneally injected with IDPN for seven consecutive days. Stereotypic behavior was observed to verify the TS model. Striatal microglia activation was evaluated based on different markers and expressions of inflammatory factors. The striatal dopaminergic neurons were purified and co-cultured with different microglia groups, and dopamine-associated markers were assessed. Results First, there was pathological damage to striatal dopaminergic neurons in TS rats, as indicated by decreased expression of TH, DAT, and PITX3. Next, the TS group showed a trend of increased Iba-1 positive cells and elevated levels of inflammatory factors TNF-α and IL-6, as well as an enhanced M1-polarization marker (iNOS) and an attenuated M2-polarization marker (Arg-1). Finally, in the co-culture experiment, IL-4-treated microglia could upregulate the expression of TH, DAT, and PITX3 in striatal dopaminergic neurons vs LPS-treated microglia. Similarly, the TS group (microglia from TS rats) caused a decreased expression of TH, DAT, and PITX3 compared with the Sham group (microglia from control rats) in the dopaminergic neurons. Conclusion In the striatum of TS rats, microglia activation is M1 hyperpolarized, which transmits inflammatory injury to striatal dopaminergic neurons and disrupts normal dopamine signaling.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xueming Wang
- Plastic Surgery Department, Fujian Children’s Hospital, Fuzhou, China
- Fujian Maternity and Child Health Hospital, Affiliated Hospital of Fujian Medical University, Fuzhou, China
| | - Xiumei Liu
- Fujian Maternity and Child Health Hospital, Affiliated Hospital of Fujian Medical University, Fuzhou, China
- Developmental and Behavior Pediatrics Department, Fujian Children’s Hospital, Fuzhou, China
- *Correspondence: Xiumei Liu,
| | - Liangliang Chen
- Fujian Maternity and Child Health Hospital, Affiliated Hospital of Fujian Medical University, Fuzhou, China
- Developmental and Behavior Pediatrics Department, Fujian Children’s Hospital, Fuzhou, China
| | - Xiaoling Zhang
- Child Healthcare Department, Fuzhou Maternal and Child Health Hospital, Fuzhou, China
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Long COVID and the Neuroendocrinology of Microbial Translocation Outside the GI Tract: Some Treatment Strategies. ENDOCRINES 2022. [DOI: 10.3390/endocrines3040058] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022] Open
Abstract
Similar to previous pandemics, COVID-19 has been succeeded by well-documented post-infectious sequelae, including chronic fatigue, cough, shortness of breath, myalgia, and concentration difficulties, which may last 5 to 12 weeks or longer after the acute phase of illness. Both the psychological stress of SARS-CoV-2 infection and being diagnosed with COVID-19 can upregulate cortisol, a stress hormone that disrupts the efferocytosis effectors, macrophages, and natural killer cells, leading to the excessive accumulation of senescent cells and disruption of biological barriers. This has been well-established in cancer patients who often experience unrelenting fatigue as well as gut and blood–brain barrier dysfunction upon treatment with senescence-inducing radiation or chemotherapy. In our previous research from 2020 and 2021, we linked COVID-19 to myalgic encephalomyelitis/chronic fatigue syndrome (ME/CFS) via angiotensin II upregulation, premature endothelial senescence, intestinal barrier dysfunction, and microbial translocation from the gastrointestinal tract into the systemic circulation. In 2021 and 2022, these hypotheses were validated and SARS-CoV-2-induced cellular senescence as well as microbial translocation were documented in both acute SARS-CoV-2 infection, long COVID, and ME/CFS, connecting intestinal barrier dysfunction to disabling fatigue and specific infectious events. The purpose of this narrative review is to summarize what is currently known about host immune responses to translocated gut microbes and how these responses relate to fatiguing illnesses, including long COVID. To accomplish this goal, we examine the role of intestinal and blood–brain barriers in long COVID and other illnesses typified by chronic fatigue, with a special emphasis on commensal microbes functioning as viral reservoirs. Furthermore, we discuss the role of SARS-CoV-2/Mycoplasma coinfection in dysfunctional efferocytosis, emphasizing some potential novel treatment strategies, including the use of senotherapeutic drugs, HMGB1 inhibitors, Toll-like receptor 4 (TLR4) blockers, and membrane lipid replacement.
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Polarization of Microglia and Its Therapeutic Potential in Sepsis. Int J Mol Sci 2022; 23:ijms23094925. [PMID: 35563317 PMCID: PMC9101892 DOI: 10.3390/ijms23094925] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/07/2021] [Revised: 01/17/2022] [Accepted: 01/17/2022] [Indexed: 02/04/2023] Open
Abstract
Sepsis is a life-threatening organ dysfunction caused by a dysregulated host response to infection, leaving the inflammation process without a proper resolution, leading to tissue damage and possibly sequelae. The central nervous system (CNS) is one of the first regions affected by the peripheral inflammation caused by sepsis, exposing the neurons to an environment of oxidative stress, triggering neuronal dysfunction and apoptosis. Sepsis-associated encephalopathy (SAE) is the most frequent sepsis-associated organ dysfunction, with symptoms such as deliriums, seizures, and coma, linked to increased mortality, morbidity, and cognitive disability. However, the current therapy does not avoid those patients’ symptoms, evidencing the search for a more optimal approach. Herein we focus on microglia as a prominent therapeutic target due to its multiple functions maintaining CNS homeostasis and its polarizing capabilities, stimulating and resolving neuroinflammation depending on the stimuli. Microglia polarization is a target of multiple studies involving nerve cell preservation in diseases caused or aggravated by neuroinflammation, but in sepsis, its therapeutic potential is overlooked. We highlight the peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor gamma (PPARγ) neuroprotective properties, its role in microglia polarization and inflammation resolution, and the interaction with nuclear factor-κB (NF-κB) and mitogen-activated kinases (MAPK), making PPARγ a molecular target for sepsis-related studies to come.
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Han J, Chitu V, Stanley ER, Wszolek ZK, Karrenbauer VD, Harris RA. Inhibition of colony stimulating factor-1 receptor (CSF-1R) as a potential therapeutic strategy for neurodegenerative diseases: opportunities and challenges. Cell Mol Life Sci 2022; 79:219. [PMID: 35366105 PMCID: PMC8976111 DOI: 10.1007/s00018-022-04225-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 43] [Impact Index Per Article: 21.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/06/2021] [Revised: 02/06/2022] [Accepted: 02/26/2022] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
Microglia are specialized dynamic immune cells in the central nervous system (CNS) that plays a crucial role in brain homeostasis and in disease states. Persistent neuroinflammation is considered a hallmark of many neurodegenerative diseases, including Alzheimer’s disease (AD), Parkinson's disease (PD), Huntington’s disease (HD), amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS) and primary progressive multiple sclerosis (MS). Colony stimulating factor 1-receptor (CSF-1R) is predominantly expressed on microglia and its expression is significantly increased in neurodegenerative diseases. Cumulative findings have indicated that CSF-1R inhibitors can have beneficial effects in preclinical neurodegenerative disease models. Research using CSF-1R inhibitors has now been extended into non-human primates and humans. This review article summarizes the most recent advances using CSF-1R inhibitors in different neurodegenerative conditions including AD, PD, HD, ALS and MS. Potential challenges for translating these findings into clinical practice are presented.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jinming Han
- Department of Neurology, Xuanwu Hospital, Capital Medical University, Beijing, China
| | - Violeta Chitu
- Department of Developmental and Molecular Biology, Albert Einstein College of Medicine, Bronx, NY 10461 USA
| | - E. Richard Stanley
- Department of Developmental and Molecular Biology, Albert Einstein College of Medicine, Bronx, NY 10461 USA
| | | | - Virginija Danylaité Karrenbauer
- Department of Clinical Neuroscience, Center for Molecular Medicine L8:04, Karolinska Institutet, Karolinska University Hospital, 171 76 Stockholm, Sweden
- Department of Neurology, Karolinska University Hospital, Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Robert A. Harris
- Applied Immunology and Immunotherapy, Department of Clinical Neuroscience, Center for Molecular Medicine, Karolinska Institutet, Karolinska University Hospital, Solna, Sweden
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10
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Inflammatory Response and Secondary White Matter Damage to the Corpus Callosum after Focal Striatal Stroke in Rats. Int J Mol Sci 2022; 23:ijms23063179. [PMID: 35328600 PMCID: PMC8955860 DOI: 10.3390/ijms23063179] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/29/2021] [Revised: 01/28/2022] [Accepted: 01/30/2022] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
Stroke is one of the leading causes of death and long-term disabilities worldwide, resulting in a debilitating condition occasioned by disturbances in the cerebral vasculature. Primary damage due to metabolic collapse is a quick outcome following stroke, but a multitude of secondary events, including excitotoxicity, inflammatory response, and oxidative stress cause further cell death and functional impairment. In the present work, we investigated whether a primary ischemic damage into the dorsal striatum may cause secondary damage in the circumjacent corpus callosum (CC). Animals were injected with endothelin-1 and perfused at 3, 7, 14, and 30 post-lesion days (PLD). Sections were stained with Cresyl violet for basic histopathology and immunolabeled by antibodies against astrocytes (anti-GFAP), macrophages/microglia (anti-IBA1/anti MHC-II), oligodendrocytes (anti-TAU) and myelin (anti-MBP), and Anti-Nogo. There were conspicuous microgliosis and astrocytosis in the CC, followed by later oligodendrocyte death and myelin impairment. Our results suggest that secondary white matter damage in the CC follows a primary focal striatal ischemia in adult rats.
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Fernando KKM, Wijayasinghe YS. Sirtuins as Potential Therapeutic Targets for Mitigating Neuroinflammation Associated With Alzheimer's Disease. Front Cell Neurosci 2021; 15:746631. [PMID: 34630044 PMCID: PMC8492950 DOI: 10.3389/fncel.2021.746631] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/24/2021] [Accepted: 08/26/2021] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
Alzheimer's disease (AD) is the most common neurodegenerative disorder, which is associated with memory deficit and global cognitive decline. Age is the greatest risk factor for AD and, in recent years, it is becoming increasingly appreciated that aging-related neuroinflammation plays a key role in the pathogenesis of AD. The presence of β-amyloid plaques and neurofibrillary tangles are the primary pathological hallmarks of AD; defects which can then activate a cascade of molecular inflammatory pathways in glial cells. Microglia, the resident macrophages in the central nervous system (CNS), are the major triggers of inflammation; a response which is typically intended to prevent further damage to the CNS. However, persistent microglial activation (i.e., neuroinflammation) is toxic to both neurons and glia, which then leads to neurodegeneration. Growing evidence supports a central role for sirtuins in the regulation of neuroinflammation. Sirtuins are NAD+-dependent protein deacetylases that modulate a number of cellular processes associated with inflammation. This review examines the latest findings regarding AD-associated neuroinflammation, mainly focusing on the connections among the microglial molecular pathways of inflammation. Furthermore, we highlight the biology of sirtuins, and their role in neuroinflammation. Suppression of microglial activity through modulation of the sirtuin activity has now become a key area of research, where progress in therapeutic interventions may slow the progression of Alzheimer's disease.
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12
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Yazar T, Olgun Yazar H, Cihan M. Evaluation of serum galectin-3 levels at Alzheimer patients by stages: a preliminary report. Acta Neurol Belg 2021; 121:949-954. [PMID: 32852752 DOI: 10.1007/s13760-020-01477-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/21/2020] [Accepted: 08/17/2020] [Indexed: 02/11/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND AND AIMS Neuroinflammation has a critic role in the pathophysiology of neurological diseases. The activation of microglia is the main actor in this process. The aim of this study to collect data on the role of microglial activation in the etiology, and the possible continuum at the stage of disease through the evaluation of serum galectin-3 levels in patients with Alzheimer's disease (AD). METHODS This was a prospective and cross-sectional study conducted on patients who were diagnosed as having AD using the criteria of the National Institute of Neurological and Communicative Disorders and Stroke-Alzheimer's Disease and Related Disorders Association (NINCDS-ADRDA) and stages determined with the scales of Clinical Dementia Rating (CDR) and Mini-Mental State Examination (MMSE) with healthy controls. RESULTS In our study, we studied 118 people, 57 with AD and 61 healthy people as a control group. In the AD patient group, serum galectin-3 levels were higher compared with the control group (p = 0.003). There were no significant differences in either group in other collected parameters (p > 0.05). It was observed that in all patients with AD, parallel to the stage of the disease, serum galectin-3 levels, patience's age, and duration of disease were statically and significantly increased (p < 0.05). CONCLUSION In conclusion, serum galactin-3 levels may be associated with AD and maybe a potential biomarker for the identification of disease in the early stages. In future years, serum galectin-3 levels may become an important biomarker and therapeutic agent for chronic neurodegenerative diseases such as AD.
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13
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Ma DC, Zhang NN, Zhang YN, Chen HS. Salvianolic Acids for Injection alleviates cerebral ischemia/reperfusion injury by switching M1/M2 phenotypes and inhibiting NLRP3 inflammasome/pyroptosis axis in microglia in vivo and in vitro. JOURNAL OF ETHNOPHARMACOLOGY 2021; 270:113776. [PMID: 33421597 DOI: 10.1016/j.jep.2021.113776] [Citation(s) in RCA: 42] [Impact Index Per Article: 14.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/27/2020] [Revised: 12/22/2020] [Accepted: 12/30/2020] [Indexed: 06/12/2023]
Abstract
ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE After cerebral ischemia/reperfusion injury, pro-inflammatory M1 and anti-inflammatory M2 phenotypes of microglia are involved in neuroinflammation, in which activation of NLRP3 inflammasome and subsequent pyroptosis play essential roles. Salvianolic Acids for Injection (SAFI) is Chinese medicine injection which composed of multiple phenolic acids extracted from Radix Salviae Miltiorrhizae, and has been reported to generate neuroprotective effects after cerebral ischemic insult in clinical and animal studies. AIM OF THE STUDY The present study was designed to investigate whether SAFI exerts neuroprotective effects by switching microglial phenotype and inhibiting NLRP3 inflammasome/pyroptosis axis in microglia. MATERIALS AND METHODS The middle cerebral artery occlusion/reperfusion (MCAO/R) model in rats and oxygen-glucose deprivation/reoxygenation (OGD/R) model in co-cultured primary neurons and primary microglia were utilized. The neuroprotective effect of SAFI was evaluated through measuring neurological deficit scores, neuropathological changes, inflammatory factors, cell phenotype markers, and related proteins of NLRP3 inflammasome/pyroptosis axis. RESULTS The results showed that SAFI treatment was able to: (1) produce a significant increase in neurological deficit scores and decrease in infarct volumes, and alleviate histological injury and neuronal apoptosis in cerebral cortex in MCAO/R model; (2) increase neuronal viability and reduce neuronal apoptosis in the OGD model; (3) reshape microglial polarization patterns from M1-like phenotype to M2-like phenotype; (4) inhibit the activation of the NLRP3 inflammasome and the expression of proteins related to NLRP3 inflammasome/pyroptosis axis in vivo and in vitro. CONCLUSION These findings indicate that SAFI exert neuroprotective effect, probably via reducing neuronal apoptosis, switching microglial phenotype from M1 towards M2, and inhibiting NLRP3 inflammasome/pyroptosis axis in microglia.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dai-Chao Ma
- Graduate College, Liaoning University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, China; Department of Neurology, General Hospital of Northern Theater Command, China
| | - Nan-Nan Zhang
- Department of Neurology, General Hospital of Northern Theater Command, China
| | - Yi-Na Zhang
- Department of Neurology, General Hospital of Northern Theater Command, China
| | - Hui-Sheng Chen
- Department of Neurology, General Hospital of Northern Theater Command, China.
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14
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Gao F, Reynolds MB, Passalacqua KD, Sexton JZ, Abuaita BH, O'Riordan MXD. The Mitochondrial Fission Regulator DRP1 Controls Post-Transcriptional Regulation of TNF-α. Front Cell Infect Microbiol 2021; 10:593805. [PMID: 33520735 PMCID: PMC7840702 DOI: 10.3389/fcimb.2020.593805] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/11/2020] [Accepted: 11/30/2020] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
The mitochondrial network plays a critical role in the regulation of innate immune signaling and subsequent production of proinflammatory cytokines such as IFN-β and IL-1β. Dynamin-related protein 1 (DRP1) promotes mitochondrial fission and quality control to maintain cellular homeostasis during infection. However, mechanisms by which DRP1 and mitochondrial dynamics control innate immune signaling and the proinflammatory response are incompletely understood. Here we show that macrophage DRP1 is a positive regulator of TNF-α production during sterile inflammation or bacterial infection. Silencing macrophage DRP1 decreased mitochondrial fragmentation and TNF-α production upon stimulation with lipopolysaccharide (LPS) or methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) infection. The defect in TNF-α induction could not be attributed to changes in gene expression. Instead, DRP1 was required for post-transcriptional control of TNF-α. In contrast, silencing DRP1 enhanced IL-6 and IL-1β production, indicating a distinct mechanism for DRP1-dependent TNF-α regulation. Our results highlight DRP1 as a key player in the macrophage pro-inflammatory response and point to its involvement in post-transcriptional control of TNF-α production.
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Affiliation(s)
- Fushan Gao
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, University of Michigan Medical School, Ann Arbor, MI, United States.,Department of Orthopedics, The Second Xiangya Hospital, Central South University, Changsha, China
| | - Mack B Reynolds
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, University of Michigan Medical School, Ann Arbor, MI, United States
| | - Karla D Passalacqua
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, University of Michigan Medical School, Ann Arbor, MI, United States
| | - Jonathan Z Sexton
- Department of Internal Medicine, Gastroenterology, University of Michigan Medical School, Ann Arbor, MI, United States.,U-M Center for Drug Repurposing, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI, United States.,Michigan Institute for Clinical and Health Research, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI, United States.,Department of Medicinal Chemistry, College of Pharmacy, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI, United States
| | - Basel H Abuaita
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, University of Michigan Medical School, Ann Arbor, MI, United States
| | - Mary X D O'Riordan
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, University of Michigan Medical School, Ann Arbor, MI, United States
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15
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Klegeris A. Regulation of neuroimmune processes by damage- and resolution-associated molecular patterns. Neural Regen Res 2021; 16:423-429. [PMID: 32985460 PMCID: PMC7996015 DOI: 10.4103/1673-5374.293134] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/27/2022] Open
Abstract
Sterile inflammatory processes are essential for the maintenance of central nervous system homeostasis, but they also contribute to various neurological disorders, including neurotrauma, stroke, and demyelinating or neurodegenerative diseases. Immune mechanisms in the central nervous system and periphery are regulated by a diverse group of endogenous proteins, which can be broadly divided into the pro-inflammatory damage-associated molecular patterns (DAMPs) and anti-inflammatory resolution-associated molecular patterns (RAMPs), even though there is notable overlap between the DAMP- and RAMP-like activities for some of these molecules. Both groups of molecular patterns were initially described in peripheral immune processes and pathologies; however, it is now evident that at least some, if not all, of these immunomodulators also regulate neuroimmune processes and contribute to neuroinflammation in diverse central nervous system disorders. The review of recent literature demonstrates that studies on DAMPs and RAMPs of the central nervous system still lag behind the much broader research effort focused on their peripheral counterparts. Nevertheless, this review also reveals that over the last five years, significant advances have been made in our understanding of the neuroimmune functions of several well-established DAMPs, including high-mobility group box 1 protein and interleukin 33. Novel neuroimmune functions have been demonstrated for other DAMPs that previously were considered almost exclusively as peripheral immune regulators; they include mitochondrial transcription factor A and cytochrome C. RAMPs of the central nervous system are an emerging area of neuroimmunology with very high translational potential since some of these molecules have already been used in preclinical and clinical studies as candidate therapeutic agents for inflammatory conditions, such as multiple sclerosis and rheumatoid arthritis. The therapeutic potential of DAMP antagonists and neutralizing antibodies in central nervous system neuroinflammatory diseases is also supported by several of the identified studies. It can be concluded that further studies of DAMPs and RAMPs of the central nervous system will continue to be an important and productive field of neuroimmunology.
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Affiliation(s)
- Andis Klegeris
- Department of Biology, University of British Columbia Okanagan Campus, Kelowna, BC, Canada
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16
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Dos Santos IRC, Dias MNC, Gomes-Leal W. Microglial activation and adult neurogenesis after brain stroke. Neural Regen Res 2021; 16:456-459. [PMID: 32985465 PMCID: PMC7996005 DOI: 10.4103/1673-5374.291383] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
The discovery that new neurons are produced in some regions of the adult mammalian brain is a paradigm-shift in neuroscience research. These new-born cells are produced from neuroprogenitors mainly in the subventricular zone at the margin of the lateral ventricle, subgranular zone in the hippocampal dentate gyrus and in the striatum, a component of the basal ganglia, even in humans. In the human hippocampus, neuroblasts are produced even in elderlies. The regulation of adult neurogenesis is a complex phenomenon involving a multitude of molecules, neurotransmitters and soluble factors released by different sources including glial cells. Microglia, the resident macrophages of the central nervous system, are considered to play an important role on the regulation of adult neurogenesis both in physiological and pathological conditions. Following stroke and other acute neural disorders, there is an increase in the numbers of neuroblast production in the neurogenic niches. Microglial activation is believed to display both beneficial and detrimental role on adult neurogenesis after stroke, depending on the activation level and brain location. In this article, we review the scientific evidence addressing the role of microglial activation on adult neurogenesis after ischemia. A comprehensive understanding of the microglial role after stroke and other neural disorders it is an important step for development of future therapies based on manipulation of adult neurogenesis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ijair R C Dos Santos
- Laboratory of Experimental Neuroprotection and Neuroregeneration, Institute of Biological Sciences, Federal University of Pará-Brazil, Belém-Pará, Brazil
| | - Michelle Nerissa C Dias
- Laboratory of Experimental Neuroprotection and Neuroregeneration, Institute of Biological Sciences, Federal University of Pará-Brazil, Belém-Pará, Brazil
| | - Walace Gomes-Leal
- Laboratory of Experimental Neuroprotection and Neuroregeneration, Institute of Biological Sciences, Federal University of Pará-Brazil, Belém-Pará, Brazil
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17
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Limbic Encephalitis Brain Damage Induced by Cocal Virus in Adult Mice Is Reduced by Environmental Enrichment: Neuropathological and Behavioral Studies. Viruses 2020; 13:v13010048. [PMID: 33396704 PMCID: PMC7824630 DOI: 10.3390/v13010048] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/12/2020] [Accepted: 12/14/2020] [Indexed: 12/26/2022] Open
Abstract
We previously demonstrated, using the Piry virus model, that environmental enrichment promotes higher T-cell infiltration, fewer microglial changes, and faster central nervous system (CNS) virus clearance in adult mice. However, little is known about disease progression, behavioral changes, CNS cytokine concentration, and neuropathology in limbic encephalitis in experimental models. Using Cocal virus, we infected C57Bl6 adult mice and studied the neuroanatomical distribution of viral antigens in correlation with the microglial morphological response, measured the CNS cytokine concentration, and assessed behavioral changes. C57Bl6 adult mice were maintained in an impoverished environment (IE) or enriched environment (EE) for four months and then subjected to the open field test. Afterwards, an equal volume of normal or virus-infected brain homogenate was nasally instilled. The brains were processed to detect viral antigens and microglial morphological changes using selective immunolabeling. We demonstrated earlier significant weight loss and higher mortality in IE mice. Additionally, behavioral analysis revealed a significant influence of the environment on locomotor and exploratory activity that was associated with less neuroinvasion and a reduced microglial response. Thus, environmental enrichment was associated with a more effective immune response in a mouse model of limbic encephalitis, allowing faster viral clearance/decreased viral dissemination, reduced disease progression, and less CNS damage.
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18
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Jurga AM, Paleczna M, Kuter KZ. Overview of General and Discriminating Markers of Differential Microglia Phenotypes. Front Cell Neurosci 2020; 14:198. [PMID: 32848611 PMCID: PMC7424058 DOI: 10.3389/fncel.2020.00198] [Citation(s) in RCA: 495] [Impact Index Per Article: 123.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/07/2020] [Accepted: 06/05/2020] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Inflammatory processes and microglia activation accompany most of the pathophysiological diseases in the central nervous system. It is proven that glial pathology precedes and even drives the development of multiple neurodegenerative conditions. A growing number of studies point out the importance of microglia in brain development as well as in physiological functioning. These resident brain immune cells are divergent from the peripherally infiltrated macrophages, but their precise in situ discrimination is surprisingly difficult. Microglial heterogeneity in the brain is especially visible in their morphology and cell density in particular brain structures but also in the expression of cellular markers. This often determines their role in physiology or pathology of brain functioning. The species differences between rodent and human markers add complexity to the whole picture. Furthermore, due to activation, microglia show a broad spectrum of phenotypes ranging from the pro-inflammatory, potentially cytotoxic M1 to the anti-inflammatory, scavenging, and regenerative M2. A precise distinction of specific phenotypes is nowadays essential to study microglial functions and tissue state in such a quickly changing environment. Due to the overwhelming amount of data on multiple sets of markers that is available for such studies, the choice of appropriate markers is a scientific challenge. This review gathers, classifies, and describes known and recently discovered protein markers expressed by microglial cells in their different phenotypes. The presented microglia markers include qualitative and semi-quantitative, general and specific, surface and intracellular proteins, as well as secreted molecules. The information provided here creates a comprehensive and practical guide through the current knowledge and will facilitate the choosing of proper, more specific markers for detailed studies on microglia and neuroinflammatory mechanisms in various physiological as well as pathological conditions. Both basic research and clinical medicine need clearly described and validated molecular markers of microglia phenotype, which are essential in diagnostics, treatment, and prevention of diseases engaging glia activation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Agnieszka M Jurga
- Maj Institute of Pharmacology, Department of Neuropsychopharmacology, Polish Academy of Sciences, Krakow, Poland
| | - Martyna Paleczna
- Maj Institute of Pharmacology, Department of Neuropsychopharmacology, Polish Academy of Sciences, Krakow, Poland
| | - Katarzyna Z Kuter
- Maj Institute of Pharmacology, Department of Neuropsychopharmacology, Polish Academy of Sciences, Krakow, Poland
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19
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Dietrich L, Lucius R, Roider J, Klettner A. Interaction of inflammatorily activated retinal pigment epithelium with retinal microglia and neuronal cells. Exp Eye Res 2020; 199:108167. [PMID: 32735798 DOI: 10.1016/j.exer.2020.108167] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/22/2020] [Revised: 07/10/2020] [Accepted: 07/21/2020] [Indexed: 12/30/2022]
Abstract
In age-related macular degeneration, inflammatory events are presumed to contribute to disease development. A primary suspect of this contribution is the microglia, the innate immune cell of the retina. In addition, retinal pigment epithelium (RPE) cells can be inflammatorily activated. In this study, we investigate the effect of activated RPE cells on retinal microglia and on neuronal cells. RPE cells and microglia were harvested from porcine eyes. In addition, a neuronal cell line (SHSY-5Y) of human origin was used. For inflammatory activation, agonists of toll-like receptors in different concentrations were used: Pam2CSK4 (Pam; TLR-2), Polyinosinic:polycytidylic acid (Poly I:C; TLR-3) and lipopolysaccharid (LPS; TLR-4). Cell viability was investigated with an MTT assay. The secretion of cytokines was assessed in an ELISA and their expression in real-time PCR. There was no effect of the agonists on cell viability in RPE cells. All agonists induced the secretion of IL-6 and IL-8 in RPE cells with the strongest effect induced by LPS. In microglia, pro-inflammatory stimulation increased the metabolic activity. All agonists induced the secretion of IL-1ß, IL-8, and TNFα in microglia cells while in real-time PCR, LPS and Pam induced the expression of IL-6, IL-1ß and iNOS. Direct stimulation of SHSY-5Y with the agonists induced only minor alterations of viability. Stimulated RPE cell supernatant reduced the secretion of TNFα and IL-8 irrespective of the inducing agent in microglia cells. Additionally a slight induction of IL-1ß was found in microglia treated with supernatant of RPE cells treated with Pam. In real time PCR, the supernatant of RPE cells stimulated with LPS significantly reduced the expression of iNOS and IL-6, but not of IL-1ß. Of note, the expression of iNOS was also reduced by naive RPE cells. The treatment of the SHSY-5Y with supernatant of microglia previously treated with RPE conditioned medium significantly decreased SHSY-5Y viability with and without pro-inflammatory treatment. In conclusion, inflammatory activated RPE cells have a regulatory effect on the pro-inflammatory activation of microglia, stressing the importance of the interaction between these two retinal cell types. Microglia treated with RPE supernatant reduced viability of a neuronal cell line, indicating a neurotoxic effect.
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Affiliation(s)
- Luisa Dietrich
- University of Kiel, University Medical Center, Department of Ophthalmology, Kiel, Germany
| | - Ralph Lucius
- University of Kiel, Anatomical Institute, Kiel, Germany
| | - Johann Roider
- University of Kiel, University Medical Center, Department of Ophthalmology, Kiel, Germany
| | - Alexa Klettner
- University of Kiel, University Medical Center, Department of Ophthalmology, Kiel, Germany.
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20
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Ma DC, Zhang NN, Zhang YN, Chen HS. Kv1.3 channel blockade alleviates cerebral ischemia/reperfusion injury by reshaping M1/M2 phenotypes and compromising the activation of NLRP3 inflammasome in microglia. Exp Neurol 2020; 332:113399. [PMID: 32652099 DOI: 10.1016/j.expneurol.2020.113399] [Citation(s) in RCA: 44] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/04/2020] [Revised: 07/01/2020] [Accepted: 07/04/2020] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
Abstract
After cerebral ischemia/reperfusion injury, pro-inflammatory M1-like and anti-inflammatory M2-like phenotypes of microglia are involved in neuroinflammation, in which NLRP3 inflammasome plays an essential role. Kv1.3 channel has been recognized as neuro-immunomodulatory target, but it is not clear as to its role in the neuroinflammation after cerebral ischemic injury. The current study aimed to investigate the issue. Middle cerebral artery occlusion/reperfusion (MCAO/R) model in rats and oxygen-glucose deprivation/ reoxygenation (OGD/R) in primary microglia were utilized to mimic disease state of ischemic stroke. Treatment with PAP-1, a Kv1.3 channel blocker, produced a significant improvement in neurological deficit scores and a decrease in infarct volume in MCAO/R model. An increased number of M2-like phenotypic microglia and a reduced number of M1-like phenotypic microglia were observed by immunofluorescent staining in the in vivo model, which was further validated by flow cytometry in vitro. Western blot showed that PAP-1 treatment profoundly reduced cleavage of caspase-1 and IL-1β in vivo and in vitro. Furthermore, PAP-1 administration reduced the number of NLRP3+/Iba1+ cells and NLRP3 protein levels in vivo, while reduced mRNA and protein expression levels of NLRP3 in vitro. Reduced mRNA expression levels of IL-1β in vitro and protein level of IL-1β in vivo were also observed. Taken together, our findings suggested that Kv1.3 channel blockade effectively alleviated cerebral ischemic injury, possibly by reshaping microglial phenotypic response from M1 towards M2, compromising the activation of NLRP3 inflammasome in microglia, and inhibiting release of IL-1β.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dai-Chao Ma
- Graduate College, Liaoning University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, China; Department of neurology, General Hospital of Northern Theater Command, China
| | - Nan-Nan Zhang
- Department of neurology, General Hospital of Northern Theater Command, China
| | - Yi-Na Zhang
- Department of neurology, General Hospital of Northern Theater Command, China
| | - Hui-Sheng Chen
- Department of neurology, General Hospital of Northern Theater Command, China.
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21
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Gray SC, Kinghorn KJ, Woodling NS. Shifting equilibriums in Alzheimer's disease: the complex roles of microglia in neuroinflammation, neuronal survival and neurogenesis. Neural Regen Res 2020; 15:1208-1219. [PMID: 31960800 PMCID: PMC7047786 DOI: 10.4103/1673-5374.272571] [Citation(s) in RCA: 46] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/28/2019] [Revised: 09/02/2019] [Accepted: 10/22/2019] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Alzheimer's disease is the leading cause of dementia. Its increased prevalence in developed countries, due to the sharp rise in ageing populations, presents one of the costliest challenges to modern medicine. In order to find disease-modifying therapies to confront this challenge, a more complete understanding of the pathogenesis of Alzheimer's disease is necessary. Recent studies have revealed increasing evidence for the roles played by microglia, the resident innate immune system cells of the brain. Reflecting the well-established roles of microglia in reacting to pathogens and inflammatory stimuli, there is now a growing literature describing both protective and detrimental effects for individual cytokines and chemokines produced by microglia in Alzheimer's disease. A smaller but increasing number of studies have also addressed the divergent roles played by microglial neurotrophic and neurogenic factors, and how their perturbation may play a key role in the pathogenesis of Alzheimer's disease. Here we review recent findings on the roles played by microglia in neuroinflammation, neuronal survival and neurogenesis in Alzheimer's disease. In each case, landmark studies have provided evidence for the divergent ways in which microglia can either promote neuronal function and survival, or perturb neuronal function, leading to cell death. In many cases, the secreted molecules of microglia can lead to divergent effects depending on the magnitude and context of microglial activation. This suggests that microglial functions must be maintained in a fine equilibrium, in order to support healthy neuronal function, and that the cellular microenvironment in the Alzheimer's disease brain disrupts this fine balance, leading to neurodegeneration. Thus, an understanding of microglial homeostasis, both in health and across the trajectory of the disease state, will improve our understanding of the pathogenic mechanisms underlying Alzheimer's disease, and will hopefully lead to the development of microglial-based therapeutic strategies to restore equilibrium in the Alzheimer's disease brain.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sophie C. Gray
- Institute of Healthy Ageing and Department of Genetics, Evolution and Environment, University College London, London, UK
| | - Kerri J. Kinghorn
- Institute of Healthy Ageing and Department of Genetics, Evolution and Environment, University College London, London, UK
| | - Nathaniel S. Woodling
- Institute of Healthy Ageing and Department of Genetics, Evolution and Environment, University College London, London, UK
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22
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Florentino D, Della Giustina A, de Souza Goldim MP, Danielski LG, de Oliveira Junior AN, Joaquim L, Bonfante S, Biehl E, da Rosa N, Fernandes D, Gava FF, Michels M, Fortunato JJ, Réus GZ, S Valvassori S, Quevedo J, Dal-Pizzol F, Barichello T, Petronilho F. Early life neuroimmune challenge protects the brain after sepsis in adult rats. Neurochem Int 2020; 135:104712. [DOI: 10.1016/j.neuint.2020.104712] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/02/2019] [Revised: 01/24/2020] [Accepted: 02/27/2020] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
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23
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Liu RX, Ma J, Guo N, Liu SJ. Microinjection of a growth factor cocktail affects activated microglia in the neocortex of adult rats. Neural Regen Res 2020; 15:1709-1715. [PMID: 32209776 PMCID: PMC7437599 DOI: 10.4103/1673-5374.276342] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/04/2022] Open
Abstract
Microglia, as the resident immune cells in the central nervous system, play important roles in regulating neuronal processes, such as neural excitability, synaptic activity, and apoptotic cell clearance. Growth factors can activate multiple signaling pathways in central nervous system microglia and can regulate their immune effects, but whether growth factors can affect the morphological characteristics and ultrastructure of microglia has not been reported. After microinjecting 300 nL of a growth factor cocktail, including 10 μg/mL epidermal growth factor, 10 μg/mL basic fibroblast growth factor, 10 μg/mL hepatocyte growth factor and 10 μg/mL insulin-like growth factor into adult rat cortex, we found that the number of IBA1-positive microglia around the injection area increased significantly, indicating local activation of microglia. All CD68-positive labeling co-localized with IBA1 in microglia. Cell bodies and protrusions of CD68-positive cells were strongly attached to or were engulfing neurons. Characteristic huge phagosomes were observed in activated phagocytes by electron microscopy. The phagosomes generally included non-degraded neuronal protrusions and mitochondria, yet they contained no myelin membrane or remnants, which might indicate selective phagocytosis by the phagocytes. The remnant myelin sheath after phagocytosis still had regenerative ability and formed “myelin-like” structures around phagocytes. These results show that microinjection of a growth factor cocktail into the cerebral cortex of rodents can locally activate microglia and induce selective phagocytosis of neural structures by phagocytes. The study was approved by the Institute of Laboratory Animal Science, Beijing Institute of Basic Medical Sciences (approval No. IACUC-AMMS-2014-501) on June 30, 2014.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ruo-Xu Liu
- State Key Laboratory of Proteomics and Department of Neurobiology, Institute of Military Cognition and Brain Sciences, Beijing, China
| | - Jie Ma
- State Key Laboratory of Proteomics and Department of Neurobiology, Institute of Military Cognition and Brain Sciences, Beijing, China
| | - Ning Guo
- State Key Laboratory of Proteomics and Department of Neurobiology, Institute of Military Cognition and Brain Sciences, Beijing, China
| | - Shao-Jun Liu
- State Key Laboratory of Proteomics and Department of Neurobiology, Institute of Military Cognition and Brain Sciences, Beijing, China
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24
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Ma D, Zhao Y, Huang L, Xiao Z, Chen B, Shi Y, Shen H, Dai J. A novel hydrogel-based treatment for complete transection spinal cord injury repair is driven by microglia/macrophages repopulation. Biomaterials 2020; 237:119830. [PMID: 32036301 DOI: 10.1016/j.biomaterials.2020.119830] [Citation(s) in RCA: 59] [Impact Index Per Article: 14.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/07/2019] [Revised: 12/28/2019] [Accepted: 01/25/2020] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
Abstract
Microglia/macrophage mediated-inflammation, a main contributor to the microenvironment after spinal cord injury (SCI), persists for a long period of time and affects SCI repair. However, the effects of microglia/macrophage mediated-inflammation on neurogenic differentiation of endogenous neural stem/progenitor cells (NSPCs) are not well understood. In this study, to attenuate activated microglia/macrophage mediated-inflammation in the spinal cord of complete transection SCI mice, a combination of photo-crosslinked hydrogel transplantation and CSF1R inhibitor (PLX3397) treatment was used to replace the prolonged, activated microglia/macrophages via cell depletion and repopulation. This combined treatment in SCI mice produced a significant reduction in CD68-positive reactive microglia/macrophages and mRNA levels of pro-inflammatory factors, and a substantial increase in the number of Tuj1-positive neurons in the lesion area compared with single treatment methods. Moreover, most of the newborn Tuj1-positive neurons were confirmed to be generated from endogenous NSPCs using a genetic fate mapping mouse line (Nestin-CreERT2; LSL-tdTomato) that can label and trace NSPC marker-nestin expressing cells and their progenies. Collectively, our findings show that the combined treatment method for inhibiting microglia/macrophage mediated-inflammation promotes endogenous NSPC neurogenesis and improves functional recovery, which provides a promising therapeutic strategy for complete transection SCI.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dezun Ma
- State Key Laboratory of Molecular Developmental Biology, Institute of Genetics and Developmental Biology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, 100101, PR China; University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, 100101, PR China
| | - Yannan Zhao
- State Key Laboratory of Molecular Developmental Biology, Institute of Genetics and Developmental Biology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, 100101, PR China
| | - Lei Huang
- Key Laboratory for Nano-Bio Interface Research, Division of Nanobiomedicine, Suzhou Institute of Nano-Tech and Nano-Bionics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Suzhou, 215123, PR China
| | - Zhifeng Xiao
- State Key Laboratory of Molecular Developmental Biology, Institute of Genetics and Developmental Biology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, 100101, PR China
| | - Bing Chen
- State Key Laboratory of Molecular Developmental Biology, Institute of Genetics and Developmental Biology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, 100101, PR China
| | - Ya Shi
- State Key Laboratory of Molecular Developmental Biology, Institute of Genetics and Developmental Biology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, 100101, PR China
| | - He Shen
- Key Laboratory for Nano-Bio Interface Research, Division of Nanobiomedicine, Suzhou Institute of Nano-Tech and Nano-Bionics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Suzhou, 215123, PR China.
| | - Jianwu Dai
- State Key Laboratory of Molecular Developmental Biology, Institute of Genetics and Developmental Biology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, 100101, PR China; University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, 100101, PR China.
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