Ethanol extract of Angelica gigas inhibits croton oil-induced inflammation by suppressing the cyclooxygenase - prostaglandin pathway

Critical control point-based assessment and intervention of ochratoxin A risk in Angelicae Gigantis Radix production

Improperly practiced postharvest procedures can pose mycotoxin-related risks during medicinal herb production. As a health food material with pharmacological activities, Angelicae Gigantis Radix (AGR) has been extensively used in oriental medicine or functional foods. Compared with the official protocol, conventional practices were investigated for provisional critical control points (CCPs) in terms of ochratoxin A (OTA) contamination. Conventional practices include field-drying, which was associated with increased fungal exposure. Compared with conventional methods, the washing process in the official protocol was not advantageous for reducing OTA contamination in final products. Instead, drying was examined to assess the fungal growth risk during AGR production. To reduce the energy cost, product overload and shortened drying time could lead to failure in controlling fungal overgrowth and subsequent OTA production. In particular, inner parts of the load contained a higher OTA content than outer parts close to the heat outlet of the dryer. Improper thermal drying of loads allowed the growth of ochratoxigenic species during AGR production. Collectively, non-field-drying and optimally loaded thermal drying are easy preventive actions in key CCPs that need to be well maintained to attenuate any further microbial risk. These assessments provide insights into good practice-based mycotoxin risk management in producing herbal medicinal crops and new cost-efficient appropriate interventions for small-scale farms.

Botany, traditional uses, phytochemistry, pharmacological and toxicological effects of Croton tiglium Linn.: a comprehensive review

OBJECTIVES

Croton tiglium Linn. (Euphorbiaceae) is an ancient medicinal plant that has been used for a long time, which is widely distributed in tropical and subtropical regions. And it is widely used for defecation, induced labour, treatment of gastrointestinal diseases, headache, as well as rheumatoid arthritis.

KEY FINDINGS

Approximately 150 compounds have been isolated and identified from the seeds, stems, leaves and branches of C. tiglium, including fatty acids, terpenoids, alkaloids, the plants proteins and other types of components. Based on a wide range of biological properties, C. tiglium has a wide range of pharmacological effects, such as antitumor, anti-HIV, analgesic, anti-inflammatory and antibacterial effects.

SUMMARY

The review aims to provide a critical and comprehensive evaluation of the botany, phytochemistry, pharmacology and toxicity of C. tiglium, with a vision for promoting further pharmaceutical research to explore its complete potential for better clinical application. The tigliane diterpenoids have been the most studied compounds isolated from C. tiglium, which showing a variety of biological activities, but there is insufficient evidence to explain the mechanism of action. In addition, C. tiglium may have potential toxic effects, and it is necessary to reduce the toxic effects to ensure the safety of clinical medication, which may promote the discovery and development of new drugs.

Topical astilbin ameliorates imiquimod-induced psoriasis-like skin lesions in SKH-1 mice via suppression dendritic cell-Th17 inflammation axis

Astilbin, an essential component of Rhizoma smilacis glabrae, exerts significant antioxidant and anti‐inflammatory effects against various autoimmune diseases. We have previously reported that astilbin decreases proliferation and improves differentiation of HaCaT keratinocytes in a psoriatic model. The present study was designed to evaluate the potential therapeutic effects of topical administration of astilbin on an imiquimod (IMQ)‐induced psoriasis‐like murine model and to reveal their underlying mechanisms. Topical administration of astilbin at a lower dose alleviated IMQ‐induced psoriasis‐like skin lesions by inducing the differentiation of epidermal keratinocytes in mice, and the therapeutic effect was even better than that of calcipotriol. Moreover, the inflammatory skin disorder was relieved by astilbin treatment characterized by a reduction in both IL‐17‐producing T cell accumulation and psoriasis‐specific cytokine expression in skin lesions. Furthermore, we found that astilbin inhibited R837‐induced maturation and activation of bone marrow‐derived dendritic cells and decreased the expression of pro‐inflammatory cytokines by downregulating myeloid differentiation factor 88. Our findings provide the convincing evidence that lower doses of astilbin might attenuate psoriasis by interfering with the abnormal activation and differentiation of keratinocytes and accumulation of IL‐17‐producing T cells in skin lesions. Our results strongly support the pre‐clinical application of astilbin for psoriasis treatment.

Anti-Inflammatory Comparison of Melatonin and Its Bromobenzoylamide Derivatives in Lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-Induced RAW 264.7 Cells and Croton Oil-Induced Mice Ear Edema

The pineal gland is a neuroendocrine organ that plays an important role in anti-inflammation through the hormone melatonin. The anti-inflammatory effects of melatonin and its derivatives have been reported in both in vitro and in vivo models. Our previous study reported the potent antioxidant and neuroprotective activities of bromobenzoylamide substituted melatonin. In silico analysis successfully predicted that melatonin bromobenzoylamid derivatives were protected from metabolism by CYP2A1, which is a key enzyme of the melatonin metabolism process. Therefore, the anti-inflammatory activities of melatonin and its bromobenzoylamide derivatives BBM and EBM were investigated in LPS-induced RAW 264.7 macrophages and croton oil-induced ear edema in mice. The experiments showed that BBM and EBM significantly reduced production of the inflammatory mediators interleukin-6 (IL-6), prostaglandin E2 (PGE₂), and nitric oxide (NO) in a dose-dependent manner, but only slightly affected TNF-α in LPS-induced RAW 264.7 macrophages. This suggests that modifying melatonin at either the N1-position or the N-acetyl side chain affected production of NO, PGE₂ and IL-6 in in vitro model. In the croton oil-induced mouse ear edema model, BBM, significantly decreased ear edema thickness at 2-4 h. It leads to conclude that bromobenzoylamide derivatives of melatonin may be one of the potential candidates for a new type of anti-inflammatory agent.

Morel mushroom, Morchella from Kashmir Himalaya: a potential source of therapeutically useful bioactives that possess free radical scavenging, anti-inflammatory, and arthritic edema-inhibiting activities

Morel mushrooms, Morchella species are highly nutritious and excellently edible wild mushrooms abundantly growing in Kashmir Himalayas. The free radical scavenging, anti-inflammatory, and arthritis edema-inhibiting properties of bioactive extract of Morchella elata (EAE) were evaluated. EAE inhibited 53.2% formalin-induced paw edema at a dose of 500 mg/kg b.wt and 75.0% croton oil-induced skin inflammation at a dose of 50 mg topical application. EAE exhibited 51.8% COX inhibiting activity at a concentration of 100 µg/ml when assayed using LPS-stimulated RAW 264.7 cells exposed to the extract. NF-kB inhibiting activity of EAE was assayed using Lentix-293T P65 Ds Red stable cell line. High-throughput fluorescent imaging and flow cytometry showed profound ability of EAE to inhibit NF-kB activity. HPTLC analysis revealed that EAE is composed of several chemical components. The mushroom is a source of therapeutically useful functional food that can provide relief in arthritis.

Novel Clove Essential Oil Nanoemulgel Tailored by Taguchi's Model and Scaffold-Based Nanofibers: Phytopharmaceuticals with Promising Potential as Cyclooxygenase-2 Inhibitors in External Inflammation

PURPOSE

Clove essential oil is a phytochemical possessing a vast array of biological activities. Nevertheless, fabricating nano topical delivery systems targeted to augment the anti-inflammatory activity of the oil has not been investigated so far. Accordingly, in this study, controlled release nanoparticulate systems, namely nanoemulgel and nanofibers (NFs), of the oil were developed to achieve such goal.

METHODS

The nanoemulsion was incorporated in the hydrogel matrix of mixed biopolymers - chitosan, guar gum and gum acacia - to formulate nanoemulsion-based nanoemulgel. Taguchi's model was adopted to evaluate the effect of independently controlled parameters, namely, the concentration of chitosan (X1), guar gum (X2), and gum acacia (X3) on different dependently measured parameters. Additionally, the nanoemulsion-based NFs were prepared by the electrospinning technique using polyvinyl alcohol (PVA) polymer. Extensive in vitro, ex vivo and in vivo evaluations of the aforementioned formulae were conducted.

RESULTS

Both Fourier transform-infrared spectroscopy (FT-IR) and differential scanning calorimetry (DSC) established the complete dispersion of the nanoemulsion in the polymeric matrices of the prepared nanoemulgel and NFs. The ex vivo skin permeation data of clove essential oil from the prepared formulations showed that NFs can sustain its penetration through the skin comparably with nanoemulgel. Topical treatment with NFs (once application) and nanoemulgel (twice application) evoked a marvelous in vivo anti-inflammatory activity against croton oil-induced mouse skin inflammation model when compared with pure clove essential oil along with relatively higher efficacy of medicated NFs than that of medicated nanoemulgel. Such prominent anti-inflammatory activity was affirmed by histopathological and immunohistochemical examinations.

CONCLUSION

These results indicated that nanoemulsion-based nanoemulgel and nanoemulsion-based NFs could be introduced to the phytomedicine field as promising topical delivery systems for effective treatment of inflammatory diseases instead of nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs that possess adverse effects.

Computational and Biological Comparisons of Plant Steroids as Modulators of Inflammation through Interacting with Glucocorticoid Receptor

Despite the usefulness of glucocorticoids, they may cause hazardous side effects that limit their use. Searching for compounds that are as equally efficient as glucocorticoids, but with less side effects, the current study compared plant steroids, namely, glycyrrhetinic acid, guggulsterone, boswellic acid, withaferin A, and diosgenin with the classical glucocorticoid, fluticasone. This was approached both in silico using molecular docking against glucocorticoid receptor (GR) and in vivo in two different animal models. All tested compounds interacted with GR, but only boswellic acid and withaferin A showed docking results comparable to fluticasone, as well as similar in vivo anti-inflammatory effects, by significantly decreasing serum levels of interleukin-6 and tumor necrosis factor-α in cotton pellet-induced granuloma in rats. In addition, both compounds significantly decreased the percent of change in ear weight in croton oil-induced ear edema in mice and the granuloma weight in cotton pellet-induced granuloma in rats, to levels comparable to that of fluticasone. Both boswellic acid and withaferin A had no effect on adrenal index, but only withaferin A significantly increased the thymus index. In conclusion, boswellic acid may have comparable anti-inflammatory effects to fluticasone with fewer side effects.

Bio-isosteric replacement of amide group with 1,2,3-triazole in phenacetin improves the toxicology and efficacy of phenacetin-triazole conjugates (PhTCs)

AIM

Inflammatory algesia and pyresia are common pathological consequences of physiological defense. Phenacetin introduced as effective analgesic anti-pyretic agent, was proscribed from therapeutic use because of associated systemic toxicity. The aim of the study was to evaluate the potency of 1,2,3-triazole conjugation in reducing toxicity and increasing efficacy of the phenacetin nucleus.

MAIN METHODS

The amide bond implicated as the cause of phenacetin toxicity was bioisosterically replaced with 1,2,3-triazoles to yield a series of PhTCs(PhTC1, PhTC2 and PhTC3). The toxicology of the synthesized conjugates in reference to phenacetin was evaluated in accordance with OECD test guidelines 420, 425 and 407. For the purpose of evaluating anti-inflammatory potency carrageenan induced paw edema and croton oil induced ear edema models were evaluated. Anti-nociceptive efficacy was assessed using Eddy's hot plate and acetic acid induced writhing experimental models. For anti-pyretic efficacy, the conjugates were submitted to Brewer's yeast antipyretic assay.

KEY FINDINGS

Toxicological examination of PhTCs in comparison to phenacetin revealed that, phenacetin treatment caused considerable nephrotoxicity and hepatotoxicity in experimental models PhTCs were devoid of such toxic manifestations. Results of pharmacological assays showed that the entire series of PhTCs possessed better anti-inflammatory, anti-nociceptive and anti-pyretic potential than phenacetin. Furthermore it was revealed that the pharmacological profile of PhTC1 with triazole substitution at para position of the phenol ring exhibited potency even better than that exhibited by the reference standards.

CONCLUSION

Bioisosteric replacement of amide bond by 1,2,3-triazole in the phenacetin moiety yields conjugates with superior efficacy and diminished toxicity, thus opening neo avenues in treatment of inflammatory syndromes.

Anti-allergic actions of F-PASA, a novel herbal cocktail, in IgE/antigen-mediated allergic responses in RBL-2H3 cells and passive cutaneous anaphylaxis in mice

BACKGROUND

The anti-inflammatory actions of Polygonum cuspidatum, Angelica gigas, Sophora flavescens and Arctium fruit are well known. Nonetheless, effects of herbal combination (PASA) or its fermentation by microorganisms (F-PASA) on the allergic response remain unknown.

PURPOSE

We investigated whether PASA or F-PASA could inhibit IgE/antigen complex (IgE/Ag)-mediated allergic responses.

METHODS

To evaluate and compare anti-allergic actions of PASA and F-PASA, we performed cell viability, β-hexosaminidase activity, ELISA assays for cytokines and eicosanoids, immunoblot analysis, HPLC analysis and passive cutaneous anaphylaxis (PCA) models.

RESULTS

F-PASA had stronger anti-degranulation actions (IC₅₀, 510.9  µg/ml) than PASA (IC₅₀, 1,261  µg/ml) without cytotoxicity until 2000  µg/ml in IgE/Ag-activated RBL-2H3 cells. Additionally, F-PASA inhibited formation of tumor necrosis factor-α (IC₅₀, 147.4  µg/ml), interleukin-4 (IC₅₀, 213.4  µg/ml), prostaglandin D₂ (IC₅₀, 42.40  µg/ml) and leukotriene C₄ (IC₅₀, 157.9  µg/ml). Moreover, F-PASA dose-dependently inhibited the phosphorylation and expression of proteins that are related to the FcεRI and arachidonate cascades. Consistent with in vitro studies, F-PASA from 25 to 100  mg/kg also suppressed IgE/Ag-induced PCA reaction more than PASA did in mice. In phytochemical analysis, using PASA and F-PASA, F-PASA showed a higher level of emodin-8-O-β-d-glucoside, whereas the level of arctiin, an artigenin glycoside, was reduced compared with that using PASA.

CONCLUSION

These findings indicate that F-PASA, including both artigenin and emodin-8-O-β-d-glucoside, possesses stronger anti-allergic properties. Therefore, F-PASA may be useful as a functional food or as a phytomedicine for allergic diseases.

Carboplatin–Angelica gigas Nakai combination synergistically enhances apoptosis by suppressed Akt, Erk, and Stat3 expression in H460 human lung cancer cells

The lower potency of low dose of carboplatin often requires combination with other drugs to improve its efficacy. Newer and more potent carboplatin-based combination therapies are investigated for treatment. We investigated whether paclitaxel, carboplatin, and Angelica gigas Nakai (AGN) affect viability of H460 cells by MTT assay. Western blot analysis was used to measure the expression of various modulators, such as p-Stat3, p-Akt, and p-Erk. Paclitaxel, carboplatin, and AGN affected the viability of H460 cells. Paclitaxel, carboplatin, and AGN suppressed p-Akt, p-Erk, and p-Stat3 expression. AGN combined with carboplatin significantly decreased c-Jun, HIF-1α, and VEGF levels. AGN combined with carboplatin significantly increased p21 and p27 levels and suppressed cyclin D1 and cyclin E levels. AGN combined with carboplatin-induced apoptosis by increasing Bax and cleavage of caspase and Parp level and by suppressing Bcl-2 level. Our results clearly demonstrate that AGN combined with carboplatin could be a useful compound for treating lung cancer.

Decursin and decursinol angelate: molecular mechanism and therapeutic potential in inflammatory diseases

Epidemiological studies have shown that inflammation plays a critical role in the development and progression of various chronic diseases, including cancers, neurological diseases, hepatic fibrosis, diabetic retinopathy, and vascular diseases. Decursin and decursinol angelate (DA) are pyranocoumarin compounds obtained from the roots of Angelica gigas. Several studies have described the anti-inflammatory effects of decursin and DA. Decursin and DA have shown potential anti-inflammatory activity by modulating growth factors such as vascular endothelial growth factor, transcription factors such as signal transducer and activator of transcription 3 and nuclear factor kappa-light-chain-enhancer of activated B cells, cellular enzymes including matrix metalloproteinases cyclooxygenase, and protein kinases such as extracellular receptor kinase, phosphatidylinositol-3-kinase, and protein kinase C. These compounds have the ability to induce apoptosis by activating pro-apoptotic proteins and the caspase cascade, and reduced the expression of anti-apoptotic proteins such as B-cell lymphoma 2 and B-cell lymphoma-extra-large. Interaction with multiple molecular targets and cytotoxic effects, these two compounds are favorable candidates for treating various chronic inflammatory diseases such as cancers (prostate, breast, leukemia, cervical, and myeloma), rheumatoid arthritis, diabetic retinopathy, hepatic fibrosis, osteoclastogenesis, allergy, and Alzheimer's disease. We have summarized the preliminary studies regarding the biological effects of decursin and DA. In this review, we will also highlight the functions of coumarin compounds that can be translated to a clinical practice for the treatment and prevention of various inflammatory ailments.

Astilbin decreases proliferation and improves differentiation in HaCaT keratinocytes

Psoriasis is a common chronic dermatosis characterized by keratinocyte hyperproliferation accompanied by inflammatory reactions. Pathological changes upset the balance between keratinocyte proliferation, differentiation, and death in psoriatic lesions, suggesting that molecules with topical anti-inflammatory, anti-proliferation and anti-angiogenesis abilities may be useful for its treatment. The flavonoid astilbin is the major active component extracted from the rhizome of Smilax glabra, which has been widely used in China to treat inflammatory and autoimmune diseases. Here, we investigate the potential of astilbin as a treatment for psoriasis. We reveal that astilbin inhibits the growth of HaCaT keratinocytes. Detailed study shows that astilbin leads to S phase arrest of the cell cycle by induction of p53 and p21 and activated-AMPK. Additionally, astilbin induced keratinocyte differentiation correlated with suppression of keratin 5 (KRT5) and KRT14 proteins (the markers of epidermal basal layer) and induction KRT1 and KRT10 proteins (occurring in the upper layers). Moreover, astilbin regulates the expression of VEGF in human HaCaT keratinocytes. These results suggest that astilbin may be a promising agent for psoriasis treatment.

Decursin in Angelica gigas Nakai (AGN) Enhances Doxorubicin Chemosensitivity in NCI/ADR-RES Ovarian Cancer Cells via Inhibition of P-glycoprotein Expression

Angelica gigas Nakai (AGN, Korean Dang-gui) is traditionally used for the treatment of various diseases including cancer. Here, we investigated multidrug-resistant phenotype-reversal activities of AGN and its compounds (decursin, ferulic acid, and nodakenin) in doxorubicin-resistant NCI/ADR-RES ovarian cancer cells. Our results showed that a combination of doxorubicin with either AGN or decursin inhibited a proliferation of NCI/ADR-RES cells. These combinations increased the number of cells at sub-G1 phase when cells were stained with Annexin V-fluorescein isothiocyanate. We also found that these combinations activated caspase-9, caspase-8, and caspase-3 and increased cleaved PARP level. Moreover, an inhibition of P-glycoprotein expression by either AGN or decursin resulted in a reduction of its activity in NCI/ADR-RES cells. Therefore, our data demonstrate that decursin in AGN inhibits doxorubicin-resistant ovarian cancer cell proliferation and induces apoptosis in the presence of doxorubicin via blocking P-glycoprotein expression. Therefore, AGN would be a potentially novel treatment option for multidrug-resistant tumors by sensitizing to anticancer agents. Copyright © 2016 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

Bo-Gan-Whan regulates proliferation and migration of vascular smooth muscle cells

Background

Bo-Gan-Whan (BGH), a Korean polyherbal medicine, is used as a hepatoprotective drug. It has six natural sources, and has been demonstrated to have anti-oxidative, anti-cancer, and anti-inflammatory properties; however, its effect on vascular diseases remains unclear.

Methods

Cell viability and proliferation assays were employed using an EZ-Cytox Cell Viability Assay Kit. Platelet-derived growth factor (PDGF)-BB-induced vascular smooth muscle cell (VSMC) migration was measured by scratch wound healing assay and Boyden chamber assay. The expression levels of the phosphorylated signaling proteins relevant to proliferation, including extracellular signal-regulated kinase (ERK) 1/2 and p38 mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) were determined by western blot analysis. Chromatogram and mass analysis were employed by Ultra Performance Liquid Chromatography (UPLC) system. Cell prolife ration and migration were also explored using the PDGF-BB-induced aortic sprout assay.

Results

BGH (100–500 μg/mL) significantly inhibited the proliferation and migration of PDGF-BB-stimulated VSMCs through the reduced phosphorylation of ERK1/2 and p38 MAPK in comparison to untreated PDGF-BB-stimulated VSMC. Moreover, we identified the paeoniflorin as the major composition of BGH.

Conclusions

We suggest that BGH may have an anti-atherosclerosis effect by inhibiting the proliferation and migration of PDGF-BB-stimulated VSMCs through down-regulation of ERK1/2 and p38 MAPK phosphorylation.

Analysis of mutations of two Gitelman syndrome family SLC12A3 genes and proposed treatments using Chinese medicine

OBJECTIVE

To determine the gene location of two Gitelman syndrome (GS) family SLC12A3 genes and explore treatments using Chinese medicine (CM) prescriptions.

METHODS

In order to locate the two GS mutations, samples were collected from 11 people from two different pedigrees for direct genetic sequencing and comparison of the 26 exons of SLC12A3. Furthermore, the change of serum potassium was monitored throughout the therapy and those two probands undertook a sequential superposition of Western medicine (including potassium, Panangin and potassium-sparing diuretics) with CM prescription based on Buyang Huanwu Decoction () and Sijunzi Decoction (). The treatment included three stages, oral potassium chloride for the first 2 weeks (stage 1), potassium-sparing diuretic and Panangin with potassium chloride for the next 2 weeks (stage 2), CM along with the medicine in stage 2 for the final 2 weeks (stage 3).

RESULTS

The three mutations occurring in proband 1 from pedigree I were Thr60Met, 965-1_976del13ins12 (small indels mutation) and Ala122Ala (homozygous silent mutation). Likewise, three mutations, Asn359Lys, Thr382Met and Arg913Gln, appeared in the proband 2 from pedigree II. The serum potassium levels increasing from baseline to sequential stages were 1.63 mmol/L (baseline), 2.5 mmol/L (stage 1), 3.1 mmol/L (stage 2) and 3.9 mmol/L (stage 3) in the proband 1, and 2.8 mmol/L (baseline), 3.1 mmol/L (stage 1), 3.5 mmol/L (stage 2) and 4.3 mmol/L (stage 3) in the proband 2, respectively. The symptoms (numbness of limbs, weakness, palpitations, etc.) of both probands were all alleviated.

CONCLUSIONS

The mutations of both GS pedigrees can be defined as compound heterozygous mutations, most of which are known as missense mutations. Applying CM could be an appropriate choice for future intervention of GS.

Safety evaluation of Angelica gigas: Genotoxicity and 13-weeks oral subchronic toxicity in rats

As a well-known traditional medicine, Angelica gigas (AG) and its active constituents, including decursin and decursinol, have been shown to possess several health beneficial properties such as anti-bacterial, immunostimulating, anti-tumor, neuroprotective, anti-nociceptive and anti-amnestic activities. However, there is lack of toxicity studies to assess potential toxicological concerns, especially long-term toxicity and genotoxicity, regarding the AG extract. Therefore, the safety of AG extract was assessed in subchronic toxicity and genotoxicity assays in accordance with the test guidelines published by the Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development. In a subchronic toxicity study for 13 weeks (125, 250, 500, 1000 and 2000 mg/kg body weight, delivered by gavage), data revealed no significant adverse effects of the AG extract in food consumption, body weight, mortality, hematology, biochemistry, necropsy, organ weight and histopathology throughout the study in male and female rats. These results suggest that no observed adverse effect level of the AG extract administered orally was determined to be greater than 2000 mg/kg/day, the highest dose tested. In addition, a battery of tests including Ames test, in vitro chromosome aberration assay and in vivo micronucleus assay suggested that the AG extract was not genotoxic. In conclusion, the AG extract appears to be safe as a traditional medicine for oral consumption.

An ethanolic extract of Angelica gigas improves atherosclerosis by inhibiting vascular smooth muscle cell proliferation

The effects of an ethanolic extract of Angelica gigas (EAG) on the vascular smooth muscle cell (VSMC) proliferation and high-cholesterol diet-induced hypercholesterolemia and atherosclerosis were investigated. Rat aortic VSMCs were stimulated with platelet-derived growth factor-BB (25 ng/mL) for the induction of DNA synthesis and cell proliferation. EAG (1-10 µg/mL) significantly inhibited both the thymidine incorporation and cell proliferation in a concentration-dependent manner. Hypercholesterolemia was induced by feeding male New Zealand white rabbits with 0.5% cholesterol in diet for 10 weeks, during which EAG (1% in diet) was given for the final 8 weeks after 2-week induction of hypercholesterolemia. Hypercholesterolemic rabbits exhibited great increases in serum total cholesterol and low-density lipoproteins (LDL) levels, and finally severe atheromatous plaque formation covering 28.4% of the arterial walls. EAG significantly increased high-density lipoproteins (HDL), slightly decreased LDL, and potentially reduced the atheroma area to 16.6%. The results indicate that EAG attenuates atherosclerosis not only by inhibiting VASC proliferation, but also by increasing blood HDL levels. Therefore, it is suggested that EAG could be an alternative or an adjunct therapy for the improvement of hypercholesterolemia and atherosclerosis.

Anti-inflammatory and anti-proliferative effect of herbal medicines (APR) in RAW264.7 cells

The objective of the present study was to analyze the effect of a mixture of medicinal plants [Angelica gigas Nakai, Panax ginseng and Rhus verniciflua Stokes (APR)] on lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-induced inflammatory responses in the murine macrophage cell line RAW264.7. Cells were treated with APR and LPS at various concentrations and indicated times. WST assay, trypan blue assay and quantification of activated cells demonstrated that APR suppressed cell proliferation in a dose-dependent manner. APR induced G1 cell cycle arrest and inhibited the LPS-induced phosphorylation of protein kinase B (AKT), extracellular signal-regulated kinase (ERK), mitogen-activated protein kinase (p38) and necrosis factor κB (NF-κB). APR also suppressed nitric oxide synthase isoform (iNOS) and prostaglandin endoperoxide synthase 2 (Cox-2) messenger ribonucleic acid (mRNA) expression induced by LPS. Furthermore, APR decreased LPS-induced intracellular reactive oxygen species (ROS) levels, mitochondrial membrane potential, as well as induced PARP and caspase-3 cleavage, suggesting that APR causes apoptosis. In conclusion, the present study indicated that APR may be advantageous in treating inflammatory disease.

Potent anti-inflammatory activity of pyrenocine A isolated from the marine-derived fungus Penicillium paxilli Ma(G)K

Very little is known about the immunomodulatory potential of secondary metabolites isolated from marine microorganisms. In the present study, we characterized pyrenocine A, which is produced by the marine-derived fungus Penicillium paxilli Ma(G)K and possesses anti-inflammatory activity. Pyrenocine A was able to suppress, both pretreatment and posttreatment, the LPS-induced activation of macrophages via the inhibition of nitrite production and the synthesis of inflammatory cytokines and PGE2. Pyrenocine A also exhibited anti-inflammatory effects on the expression of receptors directly related to cell migration (Mac-1) as well as costimulatory molecules involved in lymphocyte activation (B7.1). Nitrite production was inhibited by pyrenocine A in macrophages stimulated with CpG but not Poly I:C, suggesting that pyrenocine A acts through the MyD88-dependent intracellular signaling pathway. Moreover, pyrenocine A is also able to inhibit the expression of genes related to NFκB-mediated signal transduction on macrophages stimulated by LPS. Our results indicate that pyrenocine A has promissory anti-inflammatory properties and additional experiments are necessary to confirm this finding in vivo model.

Discovery and preclinical characterization of novel small molecule TRK and ROS1 tyrosine kinase inhibitors for the treatment of cancer and inflammation

Receptor tyrosine kinases (RTKs), in response to their growth factor ligands, phosphorylate and activate downstream signals important for physiological development and pathological transformation. Increased expression, activating mutations and rearrangement fusions of RTKs lead to cancer, inflammation, pain, neurodegenerative diseases, and other disorders. Activation or over-expression of ALK, ROS1, TRK (A, B, and C), and RET are associated with oncogenic phenotypes of their respective tissues, making them attractive therapeutic targets. Cancer cDNA array studies demonstrated over-expression of TRK-A and ROS1 in a variety of cancers, compared to their respective normal tissue controls. We synthesized a library of small molecules that inhibit the above indicated RTKs with picomolar to nanomolar potency. The lead molecule GTx-186 inhibited RTK-dependent cancer cell and tumor growth. In vitro and in vivo growth of TRK-A-dependent IMR-32 neuroblastoma cells and ROS1-overexpressing NIH3T3 cells were inhibited by GTx-186. GTx-186 also inhibited inflammatory signals mediated by NFκB, AP-1, and TRK-A and potently reduced atopic dermatitis and air-pouch inflammation in mice and rats. Moreover, GTx-186 effectively inhibited ALK phosphorylation and ALK-dependent cancer cell growth. Collectively, the RTK inhibitor GTx-186 has a unique kinase profile with potential to treat cancer, inflammation, and neuropathic pain.

Anti-allergic effects and mechanisms of action of the ethanolic extract of Angelica gigas in dinitrofluorobenzene-induced inflammation models

To confirm the anti-allergic effects of the ethanolic extract of Angelica gigas (EAG), the levels of ear erythema, ear weight, vascular leakage, heamatology, tumor-necrosis factor-α, interleukin-6 and immunoglobulin E from mice sensitized with 2,4-dinitroflurorobenzene were examined. The results showed that EAG reduced ear erythema and ear weight; we also found that Evan's blue leakage decreased. Furthermore, the levels of interleukin-6 and immunoglobulin E in the serum were significantly inhibited. In RAW264.7 cells, EAG drastically inhibited the mRNA levels of inducible nitric oxide synthease, tumor-necrosis factor-α and macrophage inflammatory protein-1β, suggesting that EAG may inhibit the release of pro-inflammatory cytokines and acute neutrophilic inflammation. Western blot analysis showed that EAG inhibited nuclear factor-κB- and extracelullar signal-regulated protein kinase-dependent inflammatory pathways. Interestingly, EAG effectively inhibited the release of β-hexosaminidase, a granule marker from mast cells. Taken together, our results demonstrate that EAG inhibits focal and systemic inflammatory and allergic reactions, and holds great promise for the treatment of several inflammatory diseases.