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Pidkovka N, Belkhiri A. Altered expression of AXL receptor tyrosine kinase in gastrointestinal cancers: a promising therapeutic target. Front Oncol 2023; 13:1079041. [PMID: 37469409 PMCID: PMC10353021 DOI: 10.3389/fonc.2023.1079041] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/24/2022] [Accepted: 05/31/2023] [Indexed: 07/21/2023] Open
Abstract
Gastrointestinal (GI) cancers that include all cancers of the digestive tract organs are generally associated with obesity, lack of exercising, smoking, poor diet, and heavy alcohol consumption. Treatment of GI cancers typically involves surgery followed by chemotherapy and/or radiation. Unfortunately, intrinsic or acquired resistance to these therapies underscore the need for more effective targeted therapies that have been proven in other malignancies. The aggressive features of GI cancers share distinct signaling pathways that are connected to each other by the overexpression and activation of AXL receptor tyrosine kinase. Several preclinical and clinical studies involving anti-AXL antibodies and small molecule AXL kinase inhibitors to test their efficacy in solid tumors, including GI cancers, have been recently carried out. Therefore, AXL may be a promising therapeutic target for overcoming the shortcomings of standard therapies in GI cancers.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nataliya Pidkovka
- Department of Health Science, South College, Nashville, TN, United States
| | - Abbes Belkhiri
- Department of Surgery, Vanderbilt University Medical Center, Nashville, TN, United States
- Vanderbilt-Ingram Cancer Center, Vanderbilt University Medical Center, Nashville, TN, United States
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2
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Wei M, Wang Y, Liu Y, Li D, He X. AXL, along with PROS1, is overexpressed in papillary thyroid carcinoma and regulates its biological behaviour. World J Surg Oncol 2022; 20:334. [PMID: 36203174 PMCID: PMC9535883 DOI: 10.1186/s12957-022-02801-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/05/2022] [Accepted: 09/24/2022] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND AXL, a TAM tyrosine kinase receptor, plays an essential role in the pathogenesis of various solid tumours. This study explores the role of AXL and its ligand PROS1 in the generation and biological behaviour of papillary thyroid cancer (PTC). METHODS The expression levels of AXL in PTC cancer tissue were analysed using immunohistochemistry (IHC) staining. The expression levels of AXL in PTC and normal thyroid cell lines were analysed using real-time quantitative polymerase chain reaction (RT-qPCR). CCK-8 was used to assess the proliferation of the PTC cell line with and without the effect of the AXL inhibitor (R428). Scratching assays played a role in evaluating the cell migration rate. RESULTS PROS1 and AXL were expressed in TPC-1, B-CPAP, and Nthy-Ori 3-1 cells at different levels. Expression was significantly higher in PTC cell lines (TPC-1 and B-CPAP) than in the normal thyroid cell line (Nthy-Ori 3-1) (p < 0.05). In addition, AXL expression in PTC tissues was significantly higher than in adjacent normal tissues (p < 0.05). CCK-8 experiments confirmed that R428 suppresses the proliferation of PTC cell lines in a dose-dependent manner, with an increase in concentration from 0.5 to 4 μM, decreasing the inhibitory effect (p < 0.01). In addition, R428 inhibited PTC cell line migration to different degrees in a range of concentrations from 0.5 to 2 μM compared to control cells (p < 0.01). CONCLUSION PROS1 and its downstream receptor AXL expression were significantly higher in PTC than in normal thyroid cells. AXL expression was also higher in human PTC tissues than in normal thyroid tissues. Inhibiting the PROS1-AXL-mediated TAM signaling pathway via the AXL blocker R428 suppressed the proliferation and migration of human PTC cells, highlighting the role of this cascade in human PTC development and progression.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mingze Wei
- grid.416271.70000 0004 0639 0580Department of General Surgery, Ningbo First Hospital, Ningbo Hospital of Zhejiang University, Zhejiang Province, Ningbo, China
| | - Yizeng Wang
- grid.412645.00000 0004 1757 9434Department of General Surgery, Tianjin Medical University General Hospital, Tianjin, China
| | - Yuanchao Liu
- grid.412645.00000 0004 1757 9434Department of General Surgery, Tianjin Medical University General Hospital, Tianjin, China
| | - Dongyang Li
- grid.412645.00000 0004 1757 9434Department of General Surgery, Tianjin Medical University General Hospital, Tianjin, China
| | - Xianghui He
- grid.412645.00000 0004 1757 9434Department of General Surgery, Tianjin Medical University General Hospital, Tianjin, China
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Hong J, Maacha S, Pidkovka N, Bates A, Salaria SN, Washington MK, Belkhiri A. AXL Promotes Metformin-Induced Apoptosis Through Mediation of Autophagy by Activating ROS-AMPK-ULK1 Signaling in Human Esophageal Adenocarcinoma. Front Oncol 2022; 12:903874. [PMID: 35936716 PMCID: PMC9354051 DOI: 10.3389/fonc.2022.903874] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/24/2022] [Accepted: 05/12/2022] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
AXL receptor tyrosine kinase promotes an invasive phenotype and chemotherapy resistance in esophageal adenocarcinoma (EAC). AXL has been implicated in the regulation of autophagy, but the underlying molecular mechanism remains poorly understood. Herein, we investigate the mechanistic role of AXL in autophagy as well as metformin-induced effects on the growth and survival of EAC. We demonstrate that AXL mediates autophagic flux through activation of AMPK-ULK1 signaling in a reactive oxygen species (ROS)-dependent mechanism by glucose starvation. AXL positively regulates basal cellular ROS levels without significantly affecting mitochondrial ROS production in EAC cells. Pharmacological inhibition of cellular ROS using Trolox abrogates glucose starvation-induced AMPK signaling and autophagy. We demonstrate that AXL expression is required for metformin-induced apoptosis in EAC cells in vitro. The apoptosis induction by metformin is markedly attenuated by inhibition of autophagy through genetic silencing of Beclin1 or ATG7 autophagy mediators, thereby confirming the requirement of intact autophagy for enhancing metformin-induced apoptosis in EAC cells. Our data indicate that metformin-induced autophagy displays a pro-apoptotic function in EAC cells. We show that the metformin-induced suppression of tumor growth in vivo is highly dependent on AXL expression in a tumor xenograft mouse model of EAC. We demonstrate that AXL promotes metformin-induced apoptosis through activation of autophagy in EAC. AXL may be a valuable biomarker to identify tumors that are sensitive to metformin. Therefore, AXL expression could inform the selection of patients for future clinical trials to evaluate the therapeutic efficacy of metformin in EAC.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jun Hong
- Department of Surgery, Vanderbilt University Medical Center, Nashville, TN, United States
| | - Selma Maacha
- Division of Translational Medicine, Sidra Medicine, Doha, Qatar
| | - Nataliya Pidkovka
- Department of Health Science, South College, Nashville, TN, United States
| | - Andreia Bates
- Department of Surgery, Vanderbilt University Medical Center, Nashville, TN, United States
| | - Safia N. Salaria
- Department of Pathology, Microbiology and Immunology, Vanderbilt University Medical Center, Nashville, TN, United States
| | - Mary K. Washington
- Department of Pathology, Microbiology and Immunology, Vanderbilt University Medical Center, Nashville, TN, United States
| | - Abbes Belkhiri
- Department of Surgery, Vanderbilt University Medical Center, Nashville, TN, United States
- Vanderbilt-Ingram Cancer Center, Vanderbilt University Medical Center, Nashville, TN, United States
- *Correspondence: Abbes Belkhiri,
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KHAMKO RICUPHAN, WASENANG WIPHAWAN, DADUANG JUREERUT, SETTASATIAN CHATRI, LIMPAIBOON TEMDUANG. Combined OPCML and AXL Expression as a Prognostic Marker and OPCML Enhances AXL Inhibitor in Cholangiocarcinoma. In Vivo 2022; 36:1168-1177. [PMID: 35478117 PMCID: PMC9087092 DOI: 10.21873/invivo.12816] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/25/2022] [Revised: 03/02/2022] [Accepted: 03/10/2022] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND/AIM Cholangiocarcinoma (CCA) is a type of liver cancer originating from bile duct epithelium which has an unfavorable prognosis. Therefore, novel prognostic markers and effective therapeutic regimens are required. Opioid-binding protein/cell adhesion molecule-like (OPCML) is a tumor-suppressor protein that suppresses CCA cell proliferation via AXL receptor tyrosine kinase/signal transducer and activator of transcription 3 (AXL/STAT3) inactivation. However, this association in clinical samples remains unknown. We aimed to determine OPCML and AXL expression and investigate their association with clinicopathological features in patients with CCA. In addition, we also addressed whether OPCML enhanced the sensitivity of CCA cells to AXL inhibitor R428 in vitro. MATERIALS AND METHODS The expression of OPCML and AXL was determined by immunohistochemistry in 90 CCA tissue samples. The study of CCA cell line sensitivity to R428 was performed by cell viability assay. RESULTS The expression of OPCML was significantly lower while AXL expression was substantially higher in CCA than in adjacent normal tissue (p<0.001). Furthermore, high AXL expression was significantly associated with lymph node metastasis (p=0.035). Interestingly, patients with combined low OPCML/high AXL expression had significantly shorter overall survival (p=0.007). OPCML enhanced the effect of AXL inhibitor R428 in AXL-expressing CCA cell lines. CONCLUSION Combined expression of OPCML and AXL shows potential value as a prognostic marker and OPCML as an agent enhancing the effect of R428 may contribute to better prognosis for patients with CCA.
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Affiliation(s)
- RICUPHAN KHAMKO
- Biomedical Science Program, Graduate School, Khon Kaen University, Khon Kaen, Thailand,Centre for Research and Development of Medical Diagnostic Laboratories, Faculty of Associated Medical Sciences, Khon Kaen University, Khon Kaen, Thailand
| | - WIPHAWAN WASENANG
- Faculty of Medical Technology, Nakhon Ratchasima College, Nakhon Ratchasima, Thailand
| | - JUREERUT DADUANG
- Centre for Research and Development of Medical Diagnostic Laboratories, Faculty of Associated Medical Sciences, Khon Kaen University, Khon Kaen, Thailand
| | - CHATRI SETTASATIAN
- Department of Pathology, Faculty of Medicine, Khon Kaen University, Khon Kaen, Thailand
| | - TEMDUANG LIMPAIBOON
- Centre for Research and Development of Medical Diagnostic Laboratories, Faculty of Associated Medical Sciences, Khon Kaen University, Khon Kaen, Thailand,Cholangiocarcinoma Research Institute, Faculty of Medicine, Khon Kaen University, Khon Kaen, Thailand
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Engelsen AST, Lotsberg ML, Abou Khouzam R, Thiery JP, Lorens JB, Chouaib S, Terry S. Dissecting the Role of AXL in Cancer Immune Escape and Resistance to Immune Checkpoint Inhibition. Front Immunol 2022; 13:869676. [PMID: 35572601 PMCID: PMC9092944 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2022.869676] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 13.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/04/2022] [Accepted: 03/16/2022] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
The development and implementation of Immune Checkpoint Inhibitors (ICI) in clinical oncology have significantly improved the survival of a subset of cancer patients with metastatic disease previously considered uniformly lethal. However, the low response rates and the low number of patients with durable clinical responses remain major concerns and underscore the limited understanding of mechanisms regulating anti-tumor immunity and tumor immune resistance. There is an urgent unmet need for novel approaches to enhance the efficacy of ICI in the clinic, and for predictive tools that can accurately predict ICI responders based on the composition of their tumor microenvironment. The receptor tyrosine kinase (RTK) AXL has been associated with poor prognosis in numerous malignancies and the emergence of therapy resistance. AXL is a member of the TYRO3-AXL-MERTK (TAM) kinase family. Upon binding to its ligand GAS6, AXL regulates cell signaling cascades and cellular communication between various components of the tumor microenvironment, including cancer cells, endothelial cells, and immune cells. Converging evidence points to AXL as an attractive molecular target to overcome therapy resistance and immunosuppression, supported by the potential of AXL inhibitors to improve ICI efficacy. Here, we review the current literature on the prominent role of AXL in regulating cancer progression, with particular attention to its effects on anti-tumor immune response and resistance to ICI. We discuss future directions with the aim to understand better the complex role of AXL and TAM receptors in cancer and the potential value of this knowledge and targeted inhibition for the benefit of cancer patients.
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Affiliation(s)
- Agnete S. T. Engelsen
- Centre for Cancer Biomarkers and Department of Biomedicine, University of Bergen, Bergen, Norway
| | - Maria L. Lotsberg
- Centre for Cancer Biomarkers and Department of Biomedicine, University of Bergen, Bergen, Norway
| | - Raefa Abou Khouzam
- Thumbay Research Institute for Precision Medicine, Gulf Medical University, Ajman, United Arab Emirates
| | - Jean-Paul Thiery
- Centre for Cancer Biomarkers and Department of Biomedicine, University of Bergen, Bergen, Norway
- Guangzhou Laboratory, Guangzhou, China
- Inserm, UMR 1186, Integrative Tumor Immunology and Immunotherapy, Villejuif, France
| | - James B. Lorens
- Centre for Cancer Biomarkers and Department of Biomedicine, University of Bergen, Bergen, Norway
| | - Salem Chouaib
- Thumbay Research Institute for Precision Medicine, Gulf Medical University, Ajman, United Arab Emirates
- Inserm, UMR 1186, Integrative Tumor Immunology and Immunotherapy, Villejuif, France
- Gustave Roussy, Villejuif, France
- Faculty of Medicine, University Paris Sud, Le Kremlin-Bicêtre, France
| | - Stéphane Terry
- Inserm, UMR 1186, Integrative Tumor Immunology and Immunotherapy, Villejuif, France
- Gustave Roussy, Villejuif, France
- Faculty of Medicine, University Paris Sud, Le Kremlin-Bicêtre, France
- Research Department, Inovarion, Paris, France
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Wang Y, Tian Y, Liu S, Wang Z, Xing Q. Prognostic value and immunological role of AXL gene in clear cell renal cell carcinoma associated with identifying LncRNA/RBP/AXL mRNA networks. Cancer Cell Int 2021; 21:625. [PMID: 34838035 PMCID: PMC8626946 DOI: 10.1186/s12935-021-02322-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/26/2021] [Accepted: 11/09/2021] [Indexed: 01/10/2023] Open
Abstract
Backgrounds This article aimed to explore the prognostic and immunological roles of AXL gene in clear cell renal cell carcinoma (ccRCC) for overall survival (OS) and to identify the LncRNA/RBP/AXL mRNA networks. Methods AXL-related gene expression matrix and clinical data were obtained from The Cancer Genome Atlas (TCGA) dataset and AXL-related pathways were identified by gene set enrichment analysis (GSEA). We performed univariate/multivariate Cox regression analysis to evaluate independent prognostic factors and the relationships between AXL and immunity were also investigated. Results The outcomes of us indicated that the AXL mRNA expression was up-regulated in ccRCC samples and high expression of AXL was associated with worse OS in TCGA dataset (P < 0.01). Further external verification results from HPA, UALCAN, ICGC dataset, GSE6344, GSE14994, and qRT-PCR remained consistent (all P < 0.05). AXL was also identified as an independent prognostic factor for ccRCC by univariate/multivariate Cox regression analysis (both P < 0.05). A nomogram including AXL expression and clinicopathological factors was established by us and GSEA results found that elevated AXL expression was associated with the JAK-STAT, P53, WNT, VEGF and MAPK signaling pathways. In terms of immunity, AXL was dramatically linked to tumor microenvironment, immune cells, immune infiltration, immune checkpoint molecules and tumor mutational burden (TMB). As for its potential mechanisms, we also identified several LncRNA/RBP/AXL mRNA axes. Conclusions AXL was revealed to play prognostic and immunological roles in ccRCC and LncRNA/RBP/AXL mRNA axes were also identified by us for its potential mechanisms. Supplementary Information The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1186/s12935-021-02322-y.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yi Wang
- Department of Urology, Affiliated Hospital of Nantong University, No. 20 West Temple Road, Nantong, 226001, Jiangsu Province, China
| | - Ye Tian
- Department of Urology, The First Affiliated Hospital of Nanjing Medical University, No. 300 Guangzhou Road, Nanjing, 210029, Jiangsu Province, China
| | - Shouyong Liu
- Department of Urology, The First Affiliated Hospital of Nanjing Medical University, No. 300 Guangzhou Road, Nanjing, 210029, Jiangsu Province, China
| | - Zengjun Wang
- Department of Urology, The First Affiliated Hospital of Nanjing Medical University, No. 300 Guangzhou Road, Nanjing, 210029, Jiangsu Province, China.
| | - Qianwei Xing
- Department of Urology, Affiliated Hospital of Nantong University, No. 20 West Temple Road, Nantong, 226001, Jiangsu Province, China.
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Khalafi S, Lockhart AC, Livingstone AS, El-Rifai W. Targeted Molecular Therapies in the Treatment of Esophageal Adenocarcinoma, Are We There Yet? Cancers (Basel) 2020; 12:E3077. [PMID: 33105560 PMCID: PMC7690268 DOI: 10.3390/cancers12113077] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/10/2020] [Revised: 10/14/2020] [Accepted: 10/20/2020] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Esophageal adenocarcinoma is one of the leading causes of cancer-related deaths worldwide. The incidence of esophageal adenocarcinoma has increased at an alarming rate in the Western world and long-term survival remains poor. Current treatment approaches involve a combination of surgery, chemotherapy, and radiotherapy. Unfortunately, standard first-line approaches are met with high rates of recurrence and metastasis. More recent investigations into the distinct molecular composition of these tumors have uncovered key genetic and epigenetic alterations involved in tumorigenesis and progression. These discoveries have driven the development of targeted therapeutic agents in esophageal adenocarcinoma. While many agents have been studied, therapeutics targeting the human epidermal growth factor receptor (HER2) and vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) pathways have demonstrated improved survival. More recent advances in immunotherapies have also demonstrated survival advantages with monoclonal antibodies targeting the programmed death ligand 1 (PD-L1). In this review we highlight recent advances of targeted therapies, specifically agents targeting receptor tyrosine kinases, small molecule kinase inhibitors, and immune checkpoint inhibitors. While targeted therapeutics and immunotherapies have significantly improved survival, the benefits are limited to patients whose tumors express biomarkers such as PD-L1 and HER2. Survival remains poor for the remainder of patients with esophageal adenocarcinoma, underscoring the critical need for development of novel treatment strategies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shayan Khalafi
- Department of Surgery, Miler School of Medicine, University of Miami, Miami, FL 33136, USA; (S.K.); (A.S.L.)
| | - Albert Craig Lockhart
- Department of Medicine, Miler School of Medicine, University of Miami, Miami, FL 33136, USA;
- Sylvester Comprehensive Cancer Center, Miler School of Medicine, University of Miami, Miami, FL 33136, USA
| | - Alan S. Livingstone
- Department of Surgery, Miler School of Medicine, University of Miami, Miami, FL 33136, USA; (S.K.); (A.S.L.)
| | - Wael El-Rifai
- Department of Surgery, Miler School of Medicine, University of Miami, Miami, FL 33136, USA; (S.K.); (A.S.L.)
- Department of Medicine, Miler School of Medicine, University of Miami, Miami, FL 33136, USA;
- Department of Veterans Affairs, Miami Healthcare System, Miami, FL 33136, USA
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Wang KH, Ding DC. Dual targeting of TAM receptors Tyro3, Axl, and MerTK: Role in tumors and the tumor immune microenvironment. Tzu Chi Med J 2020; 33:250-256. [PMID: 34386362 PMCID: PMC8323642 DOI: 10.4103/tcmj.tcmj_129_20] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/25/2020] [Revised: 06/12/2020] [Accepted: 07/02/2020] [Indexed: 11/06/2022] Open
Abstract
In both normal and tumor tissues, receptor tyrosine kinases (RTKs) may be pleiotropically expressed. The RTKs not only regulate ordinary cellular processes, including proliferation, survival, adhesion, and migration, but also have a critical role in the development of many types of cancer. The Tyro3, Axl, and MerTK (TAM) family of RTKs (Tyro3, Axl, and MerTK) plays a pleiotropic role in phagocytosis, inflammation, and normal cellular processes. In this article, we highlight the cellular activities of TAM receptors and discuss their roles in cancer and immune cells. We also discuss cancer therapies that target TAM receptors. Further research is needed to elucidate the function of TAM receptors in immune cells toward the development of new targeted immunotherapies for cancer.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kai-Hung Wang
- Department of Medical Research, Hualien Tzu Chi Hospital, Buddhist Tzu Chi Medical Foundation, Hualien, Taiwan
| | - Dah-Ching Ding
- Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, Hualien Tzu Chi Hospital, Buddhist Tzu Chi Medical Foundation and Tzu Chi University, Hualien, Taiwan
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Bae CA, Ham IH, Oh HJ, Lee D, Woo J, Son SY, Yoon JH, Lorens JB, Brekken RA, Kim TM, Han SU, Park WS, Hur H. Inhibiting the GAS6/AXL axis suppresses tumor progression by blocking the interaction between cancer-associated fibroblasts and cancer cells in gastric carcinoma. Gastric Cancer 2020; 23:824-836. [PMID: 32239298 DOI: 10.1007/s10120-020-01066-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/20/2019] [Accepted: 03/22/2020] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND The effects of cancer-associated fibroblasts (CAF) on the progression of gastric carcinoma (GC) has recently been demonstrated. However, agents targeting the interaction between CAF and GC cells have not been applied in a clinical setting. Here, we examined if inhibition for Axl receptor tyrosine kinase (AXL) can suppress CAF-induced aggressive phenotype in GC. METHODS We investigated the function of CAF-derived growth arrest-specific 6 (GAS6), a major ligand of AXL, on the migration and proliferation of GC cells. The effect of the AXL inhibitor, BGB324, on the CAF-induced aggressive phenotype of GC cells was also investigated. In addition, we performed immunohistochemistry to examine the expression of phosphorylated AXL protein in 175 GC tissues and evaluated its correlation with the prognosis. RESULTS The qPCR and western blot analysis showed that GAS6 expression was higher in CAF relative to other cells. We found that co-culture with CAF increased the phosphorylation of AXL (P-AXL), differentiation into a mesenchymal-like phenotype, and cell survival in GC cell lines. When the expression of AXL was genetically inhibited in GC cells, the effect of CAF was reduced. BGB324, a small molecule inhibitor of AXL, suppressed the effects of CAF on GC cell lines. In GC tissues, high levels of P-AXL were significantly associated with poor overall survival (P = 0.022). CONCLUSIONS We concluded that CAF are a major source of GAS6 and that GAS6 promotes an aggressiveness through AXL activation in GC. We suggested that an AXL inhibitor may be a novel agent for GC treatment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Cheong A Bae
- Department of Surgery, Ajou University School of Medicine, Cancer Biology Graduate Program, Ajou University Graduate School of Medicine, 164 Worldcup-ro, Yeongtong-gu, Suwon-si, Gyunggi-do, 16499, Republic of Korea
- Department of Biomedical Science, Graduated School of Ajou University, Suwon, Republic of Korea
| | - In-Hye Ham
- Department of Surgery, Ajou University School of Medicine, Cancer Biology Graduate Program, Ajou University Graduate School of Medicine, 164 Worldcup-ro, Yeongtong-gu, Suwon-si, Gyunggi-do, 16499, Republic of Korea
| | - Hye Jeong Oh
- Department of Surgery, Ajou University School of Medicine, Cancer Biology Graduate Program, Ajou University Graduate School of Medicine, 164 Worldcup-ro, Yeongtong-gu, Suwon-si, Gyunggi-do, 16499, Republic of Korea
| | - Dagyeong Lee
- Department of Surgery, Ajou University School of Medicine, Cancer Biology Graduate Program, Ajou University Graduate School of Medicine, 164 Worldcup-ro, Yeongtong-gu, Suwon-si, Gyunggi-do, 16499, Republic of Korea
- Department of Biomedical Science, Graduated School of Ajou University, Suwon, Republic of Korea
| | - Jongsu Woo
- Department of Surgery, Ajou University School of Medicine, Cancer Biology Graduate Program, Ajou University Graduate School of Medicine, 164 Worldcup-ro, Yeongtong-gu, Suwon-si, Gyunggi-do, 16499, Republic of Korea
- Department of Biomedical Science, Graduated School of Ajou University, Suwon, Republic of Korea
| | - Sang-Yong Son
- Department of Surgery, Ajou University School of Medicine, Cancer Biology Graduate Program, Ajou University Graduate School of Medicine, 164 Worldcup-ro, Yeongtong-gu, Suwon-si, Gyunggi-do, 16499, Republic of Korea
| | - Jung Hwan Yoon
- Department of Pathology, College of Medicine, The Catholic University of Korea, Seoul, Republic of Korea
- Functional RNomics Research Center, College of Medicine, The Catholic University of Korea, Seoul, Republic of Korea
| | - James B Lorens
- Department of Biomedicine, Centre for Cancer Biomarkers (CCBIO), University of Bergen, Bergen, Norway
| | - Rolf A Brekken
- Division of Surgical Oncology, Department of Surgery, Haman Center for Therapeutic Oncology Research, University of Texas Southwestern Medical Center, Dallas, TX, US
| | - Tae-Min Kim
- Department of Medical Informatics, College of Medicine, The Catholic University of Korea, Seoul, Republic of Korea
| | - Sang-Uk Han
- Department of Surgery, Ajou University School of Medicine, Cancer Biology Graduate Program, Ajou University Graduate School of Medicine, 164 Worldcup-ro, Yeongtong-gu, Suwon-si, Gyunggi-do, 16499, Republic of Korea
| | - Won Sang Park
- Department of Pathology, College of Medicine, The Catholic University of Korea, Seoul, Republic of Korea
- Functional RNomics Research Center, College of Medicine, The Catholic University of Korea, Seoul, Republic of Korea
| | - Hoon Hur
- Department of Surgery, Ajou University School of Medicine, Cancer Biology Graduate Program, Ajou University Graduate School of Medicine, 164 Worldcup-ro, Yeongtong-gu, Suwon-si, Gyunggi-do, 16499, Republic of Korea.
- Department of Biomedical Science, Graduated School of Ajou University, Suwon, Republic of Korea.
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Hong J, Abid F, Phillips S, Salaria SN, Revetta FL, Peng D, Washington MK, El-Rifai W, Belkhiri A. Co-overexpression of AXL and c-ABL predicts a poor prognosis in esophageal adenocarcinoma and promotes cancer cell survival. J Cancer 2020; 11:5867-5879. [PMID: 32922529 PMCID: PMC7477426 DOI: 10.7150/jca.47318] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/22/2020] [Accepted: 07/31/2020] [Indexed: 11/24/2022] Open
Abstract
Background: Esophageal adenocarcinoma (EAC) is highly aggressive and characterized by poor prognosis. AXL expression has been linked to Barrett's tumorigenesis and resistance to chemotherapy, which is associated with c-ABL intracellular localization. However, the molecular and functional relationship between AXL and c-ABL and the clinical significance of the co-expression of these proteins in EAC remain unclear. Methods: We used immunohistochemical analysis (IHC) on tissue microarrays containing human EAC samples (n=53) and normal esophageal tissues (n=11) in combination with corresponding deidentified clinicopathological information to evaluate the expression and the prognostic significance of AXL and c-ABL in EAC. The data were statistically analyzed using Kruskal-Wallis, the chi-square, the Fisher's exact, and Pearson tests. The Kaplan-Meier method and Cox proportional hazards regression model were used to evaluate cancer patient survival. We used a serum deprivation EAC cell model to investigate the pro-survival function of AXL and c-ABL using cell viability, apoptosis, and lactate dehydrogenase activity assays. We performed in vitro assays, including Western blotting, quantitative real-time PCR, and translational chromatin immunoprecipitation (TrIP-Chip) to study the molecular relationship between AXL and c-ABL in EAC cells. Results: IHC analysis revealed that AXL and c-ABL were overexpressed in 55% and 66% of EAC samples, respectively, as compared to normal tissues. Co-overexpression of the two proteins was observed in 49% of EAC samples. The chi-square test indicated a significant association between AXL and c-ABL expression in the EAC samples (χ2 = 6.873, p = 0.032), and the expression of these proteins was significantly associated with EAC patient age (p < 0.001), tumor stage (p < 0.01), and lymph node status (p < 0.001). AXL and c-ABL protein expression data analysis exhibited an identical clinicopathological association profile. Additionally, we found a significant association between expression of AXL (χ2 = 16.7, p = 0.002) or c-ABL (χ2 = 13.4, p = 0.001) and survival of EAC patients. The Cox proportional hazards model and log rank test predicted a significant increase in mortality of patients with high expression of AXL [hazard ratio (HR): 2.86, 95% confidence interval (CI): 1.53 - 5.34, p = 0.003] or c-ABL [HR: 3.29, 95% CI: 1.35 - 8.03, p = 0.001] as compared to those patients with low expression of AXL or c-ABL proteins. Molecular investigations indicated that AXL positively regulates c-ABL protein expression through increased cap-dependent protein translation involving phosphorylation of EIF4E in EAC cells. Next, we investigated the functional relationship between AXL and c-ABL in EAC cells. We demonstrated that the pro-survival activity of AXL requires c-ABL expression in response to serum deprivation. Conclusion: This study highlights the importance of the co-overexpression of AXL and c-ABL proteins as a valuable prognostic biomarker and targeting these proteins could be an effective therapeutic approach in EAC or other solid tumors expressing high levels of AXL and c-ABL proteins.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jun Hong
- Department of Surgery, Vanderbilt University Medical Center, Nashville, TN, USA
| | - Fatma Abid
- Department of Surgery, Vanderbilt University Medical Center, Nashville, TN, USA
| | - Sharon Phillips
- Vanderbilt Center for Quantitative Sciences, Department of Biostatistics, Vanderbilt University Medical Center, Nashville, TN, USA
| | - Safia N Salaria
- Department of Pathology, Microbiology and Immunology, Vanderbilt University Medical Center, Nashville, TN, USA
| | - Frank L Revetta
- Department of Pathology, Microbiology and Immunology, Vanderbilt University Medical Center, Nashville, TN, USA
| | - Dunfa Peng
- Department of Surgery, University of Miami Miller School of Medicine, Miami, FL, USA
| | - Mary K Washington
- Department of Pathology, Microbiology and Immunology, Vanderbilt University Medical Center, Nashville, TN, USA
| | - Wael El-Rifai
- Department of Surgery, University of Miami Miller School of Medicine, Miami, FL, USA
| | - Abbes Belkhiri
- Department of Surgery, Vanderbilt University Medical Center, Nashville, TN, USA.,Vanderbilt-Ingram Cancer Center, Vanderbilt University Medical Center, Nashville, TN, USA
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11
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Kong L, Lu X, Chen X, Wu Y, Zhang Y, Shi H, Li J. Qigesan inhibits esophageal cancer cell invasion and migration by inhibiting Gas6/Axl-induced epithelial-mesenchymal transition. Aging (Albany NY) 2020; 12:9714-9725. [PMID: 32432570 PMCID: PMC7288918 DOI: 10.18632/aging.103238] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/14/2020] [Accepted: 03/31/2020] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Abstract
Qigesan (QGS) has been used to effectively treat esophageal cancer (EC) for decades in China, but the mechanism by which it suppresses EC metastasis remains unknown. In this study, we examined the effects of QGS on EC cell mobility. Using immunohistochemistry and immunofluorescence, expression of Gas6 and Axl, which promote tumor cell migration and invasion, was examined in carcinoma tissues and adjacent normal tissues from EC patients. Levels of Gas6, Axl, and the Gas6/Axl complex were also examined in ECA109 and TE13 EC cells treated with QGS. In addition, immunofluorescent staining and quantitative protein analysis were used to examine E-cadherin, N-cadherin, and Snail levels in ECA109 and TE13 EC cells after QSG administration, and cell mobility was assessed. The results demonstrated that levels of Gas6 and Axl expression are higher in EC tissues than in adjacent normal tissues. Moreover, QGS decreased Gas6/Axl levels, increased E-cadherin expression, decreased Snail and N-cadherin expression, and inhibited epithelial-mesenchymal transition (EMT) in EC cells. QGS thus suppresses EMT in EC by inhibiting Gas6/Axl binding.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lingyu Kong
- College of Integrated Chinese and Western Medicine, Hebei Medical University, Shijiazhuang 050017, Hebei, China
| | - Xin Lu
- Department of Clinical Laboratory, Tangshan Maternal and Children Hospital, Tangshan 063000, Hebei, China
| | - Xuanyu Chen
- College of Integrated Chinese and Western Medicine, Hebei Medical University, Shijiazhuang 050017, Hebei, China
| | - Yunyan Wu
- Research Center, The Fourth Hospital of Hebei Medical University, Shijiazhuang 050011, Hebei, China
| | - Yushuang Zhang
- Department of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Tumor Hospital of Hebei Province, The Fourth Hospital of Hebei Medical University, Shijiazhuang 050011, Hebei, China
| | - Huijuan Shi
- Department of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Tumor Hospital of Hebei Province, The Fourth Hospital of Hebei Medical University, Shijiazhuang 050011, Hebei, China
| | - Jing Li
- College of Integrated Chinese and Western Medicine, Hebei Medical University, Shijiazhuang 050017, Hebei, China,Department of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Tumor Hospital of Hebei Province, The Fourth Hospital of Hebei Medical University, Shijiazhuang 050011, Hebei, China
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12
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Sarukhanyan E, Shityakov S, Dandekar T. Rational Drug Design of Axl Tyrosine Kinase Type I Inhibitors as Promising Candidates Against Cancer. Front Chem 2020; 7:920. [PMID: 32117858 PMCID: PMC7010640 DOI: 10.3389/fchem.2019.00920] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/05/2019] [Accepted: 12/18/2019] [Indexed: 12/15/2022] Open
Abstract
The high level of Axl tyrosine kinase expression in various cancer cell lines makes it an attractive target for the development of anti-cancer drugs. In this study, we carried out several sets of in silico screening for the ATP-competitive Axl kinase inhibitors based on different molecular docking protocols. The best drug-like candidates were identified, after parental structure modifications, by their highest affinity to the target protein. We found that our newly designed compound R5, a derivative of the R428 patented analog, is the most promising inhibitor of the Axl kinase according to the three molecular docking algorithms applied in the study. The molecular docking results are in agreement with the molecular dynamics simulations using the MM-PBSA/GBSA implicit solvation models, which confirm the high affinity of R5 toward the protein receptor. Additionally, the selectivity test against other kinases also reveals a high affinity of R5 toward ABL1 and Tyro3 kinases, emphasizing its promising potential for the treatment of malignant tumors.
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Affiliation(s)
- Edita Sarukhanyan
- Department of Bioinformatics, Biocenter, University of Würzburg, Würzburg, Germany
| | - Sergey Shityakov
- Department of Bioinformatics, Biocenter, University of Würzburg, Würzburg, Germany.,Department of Anesthesia and Critical Care, University Hospital Würzburg, Würzburg, Germany.,Department of Psychiatry and Mind-Body Interface Laboratory (MBI-Lab), China Medical University Hospital, Taichung, Taiwan.,College of Medicine, China Medical University, Taichung, Taiwan
| | - Thomas Dandekar
- Department of Bioinformatics, Biocenter, University of Würzburg, Würzburg, Germany
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13
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A gain-of-functional screen identifies the Hippo pathway as a central mediator of receptor tyrosine kinases during tumorigenesis. Oncogene 2019; 39:334-355. [PMID: 31477837 DOI: 10.1038/s41388-019-0988-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 47] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/02/2019] [Revised: 07/03/2019] [Accepted: 07/05/2019] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
Abstract
The Hippo pathway has emerged as a key signaling pathway that regulates various biological functions. Dysregulation of the Hippo pathway has been implicated in a broad range of human cancer types. While a number of stimuli affecting the Hippo pathway have been reported, its upstream kinase and extracellular regulators remain largely unknown. Here we performed the first comprehensive gain-of-functional screen for receptor tyrosine kinases (RTKs) regulating the Hippo pathway using an RTK overexpression library and a Hippo signaling activity biosensor. Surprisingly, we found that the majority of RTKs could regulate the Hippo signaling activity. We further characterized several of these novel relationships [TAM family members (TYRO3, AXL, METRK), RET, and FGFR family members (FGFR1 and FGFR2)] and found that the Hippo effectors YAP/TAZ are central mediators of the tumorigenic phenotypes (e.g., increased cell proliferation, transformation, increased cell motility, and angiogenesis) induced by these RTKs and their extracellular ligands (Gas6, GDNF, and FGF) through either PI3K or MAPK signaling pathway. Significantly, we identify FGFR, RET, and MERTK as the first RTKs that can directly interact with and phosphorylate YAP/TAZ at multiple tyrosine residues independent of upstream Hippo signaling, thereby activating their functions in tumorigenesis. In conclusion, we have identified several novel kinases and extracellular stimuli regulating the Hippo pathway. Our findings also highlight the pivotal role of the Hippo pathway in mediating Gas6/GDNF/FGF-TAM/RET/FGFR-MAPK/PI3K signaling during tumorigenesis and provide a compelling rationale for targeting YAP/TAZ in RTK-driven cancers.
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14
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The beginning of the end for conventional RECIST - novel therapies require novel imaging approaches. Nat Rev Clin Oncol 2019; 16:442-458. [PMID: 30718844 DOI: 10.1038/s41571-019-0169-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 88] [Impact Index Per Article: 17.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/18/2022]
Abstract
Owing to improvements in our understanding of the biological principles of tumour initiation and progression, a wide variety of novel targeted therapies have been developed. Developments in biomedical imaging, however, have not kept pace with these improvements and are still mainly designed to determine lesion size alone, which is reflected in the Response Evaluation Criteria in Solid Tumors (RECIST). Imaging approaches currently used for the evaluation of treatment responses in patients with solid tumours, therefore, often fail to detect successful responses to novel targeted agents and might even falsely suggest disease progression, a scenario known as pseudoprogression. The ability to differentiate between responders and nonresponders early in the course of treatment is essential to allowing the early adjustment of treatment regimens. Various imaging approaches targeting a single dedicated tumour feature, as described in the hallmarks of cancer, have been successful in preclinical investigations, and some have been evaluated in pilot clinical trials. However, these approaches have largely not been implemented in clinical practice. In this Review, we describe current biomedical imaging approaches used to monitor responses to treatment in patients receiving novel targeted therapies, including a summary of the most promising future approaches and how these might improve clinical practice.
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15
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Shin SA, Moon SY, Park D, Park JB, Lee CS. Apoptotic cell clearance in the tumor microenvironment: a potential cancer therapeutic target. Arch Pharm Res 2019; 42:658-671. [PMID: 31243646 DOI: 10.1007/s12272-019-01169-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/28/2019] [Accepted: 06/06/2019] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Abstract
Millions of cells in the human body undergo apoptosis not only under normal physiological conditions but also under pathological conditions such as infection or other diseases related to acute tissue injury. Swift apoptotic cell clearance is essential for tissue homeostasis. Defective clearance of dead cells is linked to pathogenesis of diseases such as inflammatory diseases, atherosclerosis, neurological disease, and cancer. Significance of apoptotic cell clearance has been emerging as an interesting field for disease treatment. Efficient apoptotic cell clearance plays an important role in reducing inflammation through the suppression of inappropriate inflammatory responses under healthy and diseased conditions. However, apoptotic cell clearance related to cancer pathogenesis is more complex in tumor microenvironments. Chronic inflammation resulting from the failure of apoptotic cell clearance can contribute to tumor progression. Conversely, tumor cells can exploit the anti-inflammatory effect of apoptotic cell clearance to generate an immunosuppressive tumor microenvironment. In this review, focus is on the current understanding of apoptotic cell clearance in the tumor microenvironment. Furthermore, we discuss how signaling molecules (PtdSer and PtdSer recognition receptor) mediating apoptotic cell clearance are aberrantly expressed in the tumor microenvironment and their current development state as potential therapeutic targets for clinical cancer therapy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Seong-Ah Shin
- College of Pharmacy and Research Institute of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Gyeongsang National University, 501 Jinju-daero, Jinju, Gyeongnam, 52828, Republic of Korea
| | - Sun Young Moon
- College of Pharmacy and Research Institute of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Gyeongsang National University, 501 Jinju-daero, Jinju, Gyeongnam, 52828, Republic of Korea
| | - Daeho Park
- School of Life Sciences and Aging Research Institute, Gwangju Institute of Science and Technology, Gwangju, 61005, Republic of Korea
| | - Jong Bae Park
- Specific Organs Cancer Branch, Research Institute and Hospital, National Cancer Center, Goyang, Gyeonggi, 10408, Republic of Korea.,Department of System Cancer Science, Graduate School of Cancer Science and Policy, National Cancer Center, Goyang, Gyeonggi, 10408, Republic of Korea
| | - Chang Sup Lee
- College of Pharmacy and Research Institute of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Gyeongsang National University, 501 Jinju-daero, Jinju, Gyeongnam, 52828, Republic of Korea.
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16
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Qigesan reduces the motility of esophageal cancer cells via inhibiting Gas6/Axl and NF-κB expression. Biosci Rep 2019; 39:BSR20190850. [PMID: 31110076 PMCID: PMC6549095 DOI: 10.1042/bsr20190850] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/02/2019] [Revised: 05/09/2019] [Accepted: 05/17/2019] [Indexed: 01/21/2023] Open
Abstract
The present study is mainly to explore the mechanism that how Qigesan (QGS) affects the movement capacity of esophageal cancer (EC) cell. QGS incubates ECA109 and TE1 cell lines and detecting the motility of tumor cells by different experiments. Growth arrest-specific 6 (Gas6) and Anexelekto (Axl) were co-localized, and then detecting Gas6, Axl signaling pathway, and protein expression after QGS intervention. Similarly, Observing the signal localization and protein expression of P-phosphoinositide3-kinases (PI3K), P-AKT protein kinase B (AKT), P-nuclear factor-kappa B (NF-κB), matrix metalloproteinase-2 (MMP2), and matrix metalloproteinase-9 (MMP9). The results showed that the concentration of QGS was less than 200 ug/ml, and the cultured cells did not exceed 24 h, that no obvious cytotoxicity was observed. QGS significantly inhibited the mobility of ECA109 and TE1 cell lines in the concentration-dependent manner. In addition, QGS can regulate the Gas6/Axl pathway, inhibit the formation and localization of the Gas6/Axl complex, and reduce the protein activation of PI3K/AKT, NF-κB, MMP2, and MMP9. Experimental innovation shows that QGS can significantly slow down the mobility of EC cells by regulating the Gas6/Axl complex and downstream signaling pathways, and provides a theoretical basis for the pharmacological effects of QGS in the therapy of EC.
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17
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Myers KV, Amend SR, Pienta KJ. Targeting Tyro3, Axl and MerTK (TAM receptors): implications for macrophages in the tumor microenvironment. Mol Cancer 2019; 18:94. [PMID: 31088471 PMCID: PMC6515593 DOI: 10.1186/s12943-019-1022-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 246] [Impact Index Per Article: 49.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/04/2019] [Accepted: 05/02/2019] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
Tumor-associated macrophages are an abundant cell type in the tumor microenvironment. These macrophages serve as a promising target for treatment of cancer due to their roles in promoting cancer progression and simultaneous immunosuppression. The TAM receptors (Tyro3, Axl and MerTK) are promising therapeutic targets on tumor-associated macrophages. The TAM receptors are a family of receptor tyrosine kinases with shared ligands Gas6 and Protein S that skew macrophage polarization towards a pro-tumor M2-like phenotype. In macrophages, the TAM receptors also promote apoptotic cell clearance, a tumor-promoting process called efferocytosis. The TAM receptors bind the "eat-me" signal phosphatidylserine on apoptotic cell membranes using Gas6 and Protein S as bridging ligands. Post-efferocytosis, macrophages are further polarized to a pro-tumor M2-like phenotype and secrete increased levels of immunosuppressive cytokines. Since M2 polarization and efferocytosis are tumor-promoting processes, the TAM receptors on macrophages serve as exciting targets for cancer therapy. Current TAM receptor-directed therapies in preclinical development and clinical trials may have anti-cancer effects though impacting macrophage phenotype and function in addition to the cancer cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kayla V. Myers
- 0000 0001 2171 9311grid.21107.35Department of Pharmacology and Molecular Sciences, The Johns Hopkins School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD USA ,0000 0001 2171 9311grid.21107.35The James Buchanan Brady Urological Institute, Department of Urology, The Johns Hopkins School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD USA
| | - Sarah R. Amend
- 0000 0001 2171 9311grid.21107.35The James Buchanan Brady Urological Institute, Department of Urology, The Johns Hopkins School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD USA
| | - Kenneth J. Pienta
- 0000 0001 2171 9311grid.21107.35Department of Pharmacology and Molecular Sciences, The Johns Hopkins School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD USA ,0000 0001 2171 9311grid.21107.35The James Buchanan Brady Urological Institute, Department of Urology, The Johns Hopkins School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD USA ,0000 0001 2171 9311grid.21107.35Department of Oncology, The Johns Hopkins School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD USA ,0000 0001 2171 9311grid.21107.35Department of Chemical and Biomolecular Engineering, Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, MD USA
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18
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Tata P, Gondaliya P, Sunkaria A, Srivastava A, Kalia K. Modulation of CD44, EGFR and RAC Pathway Genes (WAVE Complex) in Epithelial Cancers. Curr Pharm Des 2019; 25:833-848. [PMID: 30799784 DOI: 10.2174/1381612825666190222143044] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/14/2018] [Accepted: 02/13/2019] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
Cancer hallmarks help in understanding the diversity of various neoplasms. Epithelial cancers play an immense role in the tumor biology through Epithelial-Mesenchymal Transition (EMT) process. Receptor tyrosine kinase, as well as phosphatidyl ionositol-3 kinase pathways, play an important role in the regulation of cell proliferation, survival, and differentiation during EMT. Till date, numerous studies have shown modulation in the expression profile of potential targets like CD44, EGFR, and Rac in epithelial cancers. CD44 interacts with EGFR and recruits other molecules which further activate the Rac pathway intermediates. This review mainly focused on modulation of genes like CD44, EGFR, and Rac pathway intermediates which play a crucial role in the tumor progression, metastasis, proliferation, and invasion characteristics in epithelial cancers with EMT properties. Hence, targeting Rac pathway might be a more strategically relevant approach in treating epithelial cancers.
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Affiliation(s)
- Pranathi Tata
- National Institute of Pharmaceutical Education and Research (NIPER)-Ahmedabad, Palaj, Opposite Air Force Station, Gandhinagar, Gujarat-382355, India
| | - Piyush Gondaliya
- National Institute of Pharmaceutical Education and Research (NIPER)-Ahmedabad, Palaj, Opposite Air Force Station, Gandhinagar, Gujarat-382355, India
| | - Aditya Sunkaria
- National Institute of Pharmaceutical Education and Research (NIPER)-Ahmedabad, Palaj, Opposite Air Force Station, Gandhinagar, Gujarat-382355, India
| | - Akshay Srivastava
- National Institute of Pharmaceutical Education and Research (NIPER)-Ahmedabad, Palaj, Opposite Air Force Station, Gandhinagar, Gujarat-382355, India
| | - Kiran Kalia
- National Institute of Pharmaceutical Education and Research (NIPER)-Ahmedabad, Palaj, Opposite Air Force Station, Gandhinagar, Gujarat-382355, India
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19
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Paccez JD, Duncan K, Sekar D, Correa RG, Wang Y, Gu X, Bashin M, Chibale K, Libermann TA, Zerbini LF. Dihydroartemisinin inhibits prostate cancer via JARID2/miR-7/miR-34a-dependent downregulation of Axl. Oncogenesis 2019; 8:14. [PMID: 30783079 PMCID: PMC6381097 DOI: 10.1038/s41389-019-0122-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 50] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/08/2018] [Revised: 11/16/2018] [Accepted: 01/28/2019] [Indexed: 01/24/2023] Open
Abstract
Axl expression is deregulated in several cancer types, predicts poor overall patient survival and is linked to resistance to drug therapy. Here, we evaluated a library of natural compounds for inhibitors of Axl and identified dihydroartemisinin, the active principle of the anti-malarial drug artemisinin, as an Axl-inhibitor in prostate cancer. Dihydroartemisinin blocks Axl expression leading to apoptosis, decrease in cell proliferation, migration, and tumor development of prostate cancer cells. Dihydroartemisinin treatment synergizes with docetaxel, a standard of care in metastatic prostate cancer increasing overall survival of mice with human xenografts. Dihydroartemisinin control of miR-34a and miR-7 expression leads to inhibition of Axl expression in a process at least partially dependent on regulation of chromatin via methylation of histone H3 lysine 27 residues by Jumonji, AT-rich interaction domain containing 2 (JARID2), and the enhancer of zeste homolog 2. Our discovery of a previously unidentified miR-34a/miR-7/JARID2 pathway controlling dihydroartemisinin effects on Axl expression and inhibition of cancer cell proliferation, migration, invasion, and tumor formation provides new molecular mechanistic insights into dihydroartemisinin anticancer effect on prostate cancer with potential therapeutic implications.
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Affiliation(s)
- Juliano D Paccez
- International Centre for Genetic Engineering and Biotechnology (ICGEB), Cape Town, South Africa
- Department of Integrative Biomedical Sciences, University of Cape Town, Cape Town, South Africa
| | - Kristal Duncan
- International Centre for Genetic Engineering and Biotechnology (ICGEB), Cape Town, South Africa
| | - Durairaj Sekar
- International Centre for Genetic Engineering and Biotechnology (ICGEB), Cape Town, South Africa
- Department of Integrative Biomedical Sciences, University of Cape Town, Cape Town, South Africa
| | - Ricardo G Correa
- Sanford Burnham Prebys Medical Discovery Institute, La Jolla, CA, USA
| | - Yihong Wang
- Department of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine, Warren Alpert School of Medicine, Brown University, Providence, RI, USA
| | - Xuesong Gu
- BIDMC Genomics, Proteomics, Bioinformatics and Systems Biology Center, Beth Israel Deaconess Medical Center and Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, USA
| | - Manoj Bashin
- BIDMC Genomics, Proteomics, Bioinformatics and Systems Biology Center, Beth Israel Deaconess Medical Center and Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, USA
| | - Kelly Chibale
- South African Medical Research Council Drug Discovery and Development Research Unit, Department of Chemistry and Institute of Infectious Disease and Molecular Medicine, University of Cape Town, Cape Town, South Africa
| | - Towia A Libermann
- BIDMC Genomics, Proteomics, Bioinformatics and Systems Biology Center, Beth Israel Deaconess Medical Center and Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, USA
| | - Luiz F Zerbini
- International Centre for Genetic Engineering and Biotechnology (ICGEB), Cape Town, South Africa.
- Department of Integrative Biomedical Sciences, University of Cape Town, Cape Town, South Africa.
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20
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Integrated analysis of multiple receptor tyrosine kinases identifies Axl as a therapeutic target and mediator of resistance to sorafenib in hepatocellular carcinoma. Br J Cancer 2019; 120:512-521. [PMID: 30765873 PMCID: PMC6461770 DOI: 10.1038/s41416-018-0373-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/15/2018] [Revised: 11/29/2018] [Accepted: 12/14/2018] [Indexed: 02/08/2023] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Aberrant activation of Axl is implicated in the progression of hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC). We explored the biologic significance and preclinical efficacy of Axl inhibition as a therapeutic strategy in sorafenib-naive and resistant HCC. METHODS We evaluated Axl expression in sorafenib-naive and resistant (SR) clones of epithelial (HuH7) and mesenchymal origin (SKHep-1) using antibody arrays and confirmed tissue expression. We tested the effect of Axl inhibition with RNA-interference and pharmacologically with R428 on a number of phenotypic assays. RESULTS Axl mRNA overexpression in cell lines (n = 28) and RNA-seq tissue datasets (n = 373) correlated with epithelial-to-mesenchymal transition (EMT). Axl was overexpressed in HCC compared to cirrhosis and normal liver. We confirmed sorafenib resistance to be associated with EMT and enhanced motility in both HuH7-SR and SKHep-1-SR cells documenting a 4-fold increase in Axl phosphorylation as an adaptive feature of chronic sorafenib treatment in SKHep-1-SR cells. Axl inhibition reduced motility and enhanced sensitivity to sorafenib in SKHep-1SR cells. In patients treated with sorafenib (n = 40), circulating Axl levels correlated with shorter survival. CONCLUSIONS Suppression of Axl-dependent signalling influences the transformed phenotype in HCC cells and contributes to adaptive resistance to sorafenib, providing a pre-clinical rationale for the development of Axl inhibitors as a measure to overcome sorafenib resistance.
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Abstract
IMPACT STATEMENT Cancer is among the leading causes of death worldwide. In 2016, 8.9 million people are estimated to have died from various forms of cancer. The current treatments, including surgery with chemotherapy and/or radiation therapy, are not effective enough to provide full protection from cancer, which highlights the need for developing novel therapy strategies. In this review, we summarize the molecular biology of a unique member of a subfamily of receptor tyrosine kinase, TYRO3 and discuss the new insights in TYRO3-targeted treatment for cancer therapy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Pei-Ling Hsu
- 1 Department of Physiology, College of Medicine, National Cheng Kung University, Tainan 70101, Taiwan
| | - Jonathan Jou
- 2 College of Medicine, University of Illinois, IL 60612, USA
| | - Shaw-Jenq Tsai
- 1 Department of Physiology, College of Medicine, National Cheng Kung University, Tainan 70101, Taiwan
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22
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Hong J, Maacha S, Belkhiri A. Transcriptional upregulation of c-MYC by AXL confers epirubicin resistance in esophageal adenocarcinoma. Mol Oncol 2018; 12:2191-2208. [PMID: 30353671 PMCID: PMC6275285 DOI: 10.1002/1878-0261.12395] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/12/2018] [Revised: 09/19/2018] [Accepted: 10/10/2018] [Indexed: 01/21/2023] Open
Abstract
AXL receptor tyrosine kinase is overexpressed in esophageal adenocarcinoma (EAC) and several other types of malignancies; hence, it may be a valuable therapeutic target. Herein, we investigated the role of AXL in regulating c‐MYC expression and resistance to the chemotherapeutic agent epirubicin in EAC. Using in vitro EAC cell models, we found that AXL overexpression enhances epirubicin resistance in sensitive cells. Conversely, genetic knockdown or pharmacological inhibition of AXL sensitizes resistant cells to epirubicin. Notably, we showed that inhibition or knockdown of c‐MYC markedly sensitizes AXL‐dependent resistant cells to epirubicin, and our data demonstrated that AXL promotes epirubicin resistance through transcriptional upregulation of c‐MYC. We showed that AXL overexpression significantly increased transcriptional activity, mRNA, and protein levels of c‐MYC. Conversely, AXL knockdown reversed these effects. Mechanistic investigations indicated that AXL upregulates c‐MYC expression through activation of the AKT/β‐catenin signaling pathway. Data from a tumor xenograft mouse model indicated that inhibition of AXL with R428 in combination with epirubicin synergistically suppresses tumor growth and proliferation. Our results demonstrate that AXL promotes epirubicin resistance through transcriptional upregulation of c‐MYC in EAC. Our findings support future clinical trials to assess the therapeutic potential of R428 in epirubicin‐resistant tumors with overexpression of AXL and activation of c‐MYC.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jun Hong
- Department of Surgery, Vanderbilt University Medical Center, Nashville, TN, USA
| | - Selma Maacha
- Department of Surgery, Vanderbilt University Medical Center, Nashville, TN, USA
| | - Abbes Belkhiri
- Department of Surgery, Vanderbilt University Medical Center, Nashville, TN, USA
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23
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The Dual Role of TAM Receptors in Autoimmune Diseases and Cancer: An Overview. Cells 2018; 7:cells7100166. [PMID: 30322068 PMCID: PMC6210017 DOI: 10.3390/cells7100166] [Citation(s) in RCA: 42] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/05/2018] [Revised: 10/05/2018] [Accepted: 10/09/2018] [Indexed: 01/01/2023] Open
Abstract
Receptor tyrosine kinases (RTKs) regulate cellular processes by converting signals from the extracellular environment to the cytoplasm and nucleus. Tyro3, Axl, and Mer (TAM) receptors form an RTK family that plays an intricate role in tissue maintenance, phagocytosis, and inflammation as well as cell proliferation, survival, migration, and development. Defects in TAM signaling are associated with numerous autoimmune diseases and different types of cancers. Here, we review the structure of TAM receptors, their ligands, and their biological functions. We discuss the role of TAM receptors and soluble circulating TAM receptors in the autoimmune diseases systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE) and multiple sclerosis (MS). Lastly, we discuss the effect of TAM receptor deregulation in cancer and explore the therapeutic potential of TAM receptors in the treatment of diseases.
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24
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Maacha S, Hong J, von Lersner A, Zijlstra A, Belkhiri A. AXL Mediates Esophageal Adenocarcinoma Cell Invasion through Regulation of Extracellular Acidification and Lysosome Trafficking. Neoplasia 2018; 20:1008-1022. [PMID: 30189359 PMCID: PMC6126204 DOI: 10.1016/j.neo.2018.08.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/25/2018] [Revised: 08/06/2018] [Accepted: 08/14/2018] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Abstract
Esophageal adenocarcinoma (EAC) is a highly aggressive malignancy that is characterized by resistance to chemotherapy and a poor clinical outcome. The overexpression of the receptor tyrosine kinase AXL is frequently associated with unfavorable prognosis in EAC. Although it is well documented that AXL mediates cancer cell invasion as a downstream effector of epithelial-to-mesenchymal transition, the precise molecular mechanism underlying this process is not completely understood. Herein, we demonstrate for the first time that AXL mediates cell invasion through the regulation of lysosomes peripheral distribution and cathepsin B secretion in EAC cell lines. Furthermore, we show that AXL-dependent peripheral distribution of lysosomes and cell invasion are mediated by extracellular acidification, which is potentiated by AXL-induced secretion of lactate through AKT-NF-κB-dependent MCT-1 regulation. Our novel mechanistic findings support future clinical studies to evaluate the therapeutic potential of the AXL inhibitor R428 (BGB324) in highly invasive EAC.
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Affiliation(s)
- Selma Maacha
- Department of Surgery, Vanderbilt University Medical Center, Nashville, TN 37232, USA
| | - Jun Hong
- Department of Surgery, Vanderbilt University Medical Center, Nashville, TN 37232, USA
| | - Ariana von Lersner
- Department of Pathology, Microbiology, and Immunology, Vanderbilt University, Nashville, TN 37240, USA
| | - Andries Zijlstra
- Department of Pathology, Microbiology, and Immunology, Vanderbilt University, Nashville, TN 37240, USA
| | - Abbes Belkhiri
- Department of Surgery, Vanderbilt University Medical Center, Nashville, TN 37232, USA.
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25
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Zhao C, Tu S, Zhang F, Zhang X. Expression characteristics of AXL and YAP in non-small cell lung cancer and prognostic importance. INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF CLINICAL AND EXPERIMENTAL PATHOLOGY 2018; 11:3357-3365. [PMID: 31949712 PMCID: PMC6962885] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/07/2018] [Accepted: 05/18/2018] [Indexed: 06/10/2023]
Abstract
Lung cancer has some of the highest morbidity and mortality. It is an urgent task to illuminate the exact mechanism of tumorigenesis of lung cancer. Previous studies suggested that receptor tyrosine kinase family member AXL and Hippo signal pathway co-activator YAP may be important signal molecules in tumorigenesis. In this paper we detect AXL and YAP expression in 81 non-small cell lung cancer cases that received surgery, and we discuss the relationship between the expression of AXL and YAP and tissue type, pathological staging, and degree of differentiation. We found that in NSCLC tissues AXLLowYAPLow was 29.63%, AXLHighYAPLow was 13.58%, AXLLowYAPHigh was 25.93% and AXLHighYAPHigh was 30.86%. The expression pattern of AXL and YAP was related to the degree of differentiation, T stage and pathological stage. Based on clinical follow-up data, we assessed the prognostic significance of AXL and YAP combined, with respect to recurrence and long-term survival. NSCLC tended to show AXL and YAP high expression, and high expression of AXL and YAP in NSCLC tissues suggested worse prognosis. Combined detection of AXL and YAP may be a new index to predict NSCLC patients' prognosis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chun Zhao
- Department of Cardiothoracic Surgery, Lishui Central Hospital Lishui, Zhejiang, P. R. China
| | - Shaosong Tu
- Department of Cardiothoracic Surgery, Lishui Central Hospital Lishui, Zhejiang, P. R. China
| | - Fangbiao Zhang
- Department of Cardiothoracic Surgery, Lishui Central Hospital Lishui, Zhejiang, P. R. China
| | - Xiangyan Zhang
- Department of Cardiothoracic Surgery, Lishui Central Hospital Lishui, Zhejiang, P. R. China
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26
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Shafit-Zagardo B, Gruber RC, DuBois JC. The role of TAM family receptors and ligands in the nervous system: From development to pathobiology. Pharmacol Ther 2018. [PMID: 29514053 DOI: 10.1016/j.pharmthera.2018.03.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 39] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/18/2022]
Abstract
Tyro3, Axl, and Mertk, referred to as the TAM family of receptor tyrosine kinases, are instrumental in maintaining cell survival and homeostasis in mammals. TAM receptors interact with multiple signaling molecules to regulate cell migration, survival, phagocytosis and clearance of metabolic products and cell debris called efferocytosis. The TAMs also function as rheostats to reduce the expression of proinflammatory molecules and prevent autoimmunity. All three TAM receptors are activated in a concentration-dependent manner by the vitamin K-dependent growth arrest-specific protein 6 (Gas6). Gas6 and the TAMs are abundantly expressed in the nervous system. Gas6, secreted by neurons and endothelial cells, is the sole ligand for Axl. ProteinS1 (ProS1), another vitamin K-dependent protein functions mainly as an anti-coagulant, and independent of this function can activate Tyro3 and Mertk, but not Axl. This review will focus on the role of the TAM receptors and their ligands in the nervous system. We highlight studies that explore the function of TAM signaling in myelination, the visual cortex, neural cancers, and multiple sclerosis (MS) using Gas6-/- and TAM mutant mice models.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bridget Shafit-Zagardo
- Albert Einstein College of Medicine, Department of Pathology, 1300 Morris Park Avenue, Bronx, NY 10461, United States.
| | - Ross C Gruber
- Sanofi, Neuroinflammation and MS Research, 49 New York Ave, Framingham, MA 01701, United States
| | - Juwen C DuBois
- Albert Einstein College of Medicine, Department of Pathology, 1300 Morris Park Avenue, Bronx, NY 10461, United States
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27
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Shen Y, Chen X, He J, Liao D, Zu X. Axl inhibitors as novel cancer therapeutic agents. Life Sci 2018; 198:99-111. [PMID: 29496493 DOI: 10.1016/j.lfs.2018.02.033] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/04/2017] [Revised: 02/07/2018] [Accepted: 02/23/2018] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
Abstract
Overexpression and activation of Axl receptor tyrosine kinase have been widely accepted to promote cell proliferation, chemotherapy resistance, invasion, and metastasis in several human cancers, such as lung, breast, and pancreatic cancers. Axl, a member of the TAM (Tyro3, Axl, Mer) family, and its inhibitors can specifically break the kinase signaling nodes, allowing advanced patients to regain drug sensitivity with improved therapeutic efficacy. Therefore, the research on Axl is promising and it is worthy of further investigations. In this review, we present an update on the Axl inhibitors and provide new insights into their latent application.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yingying Shen
- Institute of Clinical Medicine, The First Affiliated Hospital of University of South China, Hengyang, Hunan 421001, PR China
| | - Xiguang Chen
- Institute of Clinical Medicine, The First Affiliated Hospital of University of South China, Hengyang, Hunan 421001, PR China
| | - Jun He
- Department of Spine Surgery, the Affiliated Nanhua Hospital of University of South China, Hengyang, Hunan 421001, PR China
| | - Duanfang Liao
- Division of Stem Cell Regulation and Application, Key Laboratory for Quality Evaluation of Bulk Herbs of Hunan Province, Hunan University of Chinese Medicine, Changsha 410208, Hunan, PR China
| | - Xuyu Zu
- Institute of Clinical Medicine, The First Affiliated Hospital of University of South China, Hengyang, Hunan 421001, PR China.
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28
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Kashyap MK, Abdel-Rahman O. Expression, regulation and targeting of receptor tyrosine kinases in esophageal squamous cell carcinoma. Mol Cancer 2018. [PMID: 29455652 DOI: 10.1186/s12943-018-0790-4,] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/10/2022] Open
Abstract
Esophageal cancer is one of the most common types of cancer, which is a leading cause of cancer-related death worldwide. Based on histological behavior, it is mainly of two types (i) Esophageal squamous cell carcinoma (ESCC), and (ii) esophageal adenocarcinoma (EAD or EAC). In astronomically immense majority of malignancies, receptor tyrosine kinases (RTKs) have been kenned to play a consequential role in cellular proliferation, migration, and metastasis of the cells. The post-translational modifications (PTMs) including phosphorylation of tyrosine (pY) residue of the tyrosine kinase (TK) domain have been exploited for treatment in different malignancies. Lung cancer where pY residues of EGFR have been exploited for treatment purpose in lung adenocarcinoma patients, but we do not have such kind of felicitously studied and catalogued data in ESCC patients. Thus, the goal of this review is to summarize the studies carried out on ESCC to explore the role of RTKs, tyrosine kinase inhibitors, and their pertinence and consequentiality for the treatment of ESCC patients.
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Affiliation(s)
- Manoj Kumar Kashyap
- School of Life and Allied Health Sciences, Glocal University, Saharanpur, UP, 247121, India. .,Department of Applied Sciences and Biotechnology, Shoolini University of Biotechnology and Management Sciences, Solan, Himachal Pradesh, India.
| | - Omar Abdel-Rahman
- Clinical Oncology Department, Faculty of Medicine, Ain Shams University, Cairo, Egypt
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29
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Kashyap MK, Abdel-Rahman O. Expression, regulation and targeting of receptor tyrosine kinases in esophageal squamous cell carcinoma. Mol Cancer 2018; 17:54. [PMID: 29455652 PMCID: PMC5817798 DOI: 10.1186/s12943-018-0790-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 50] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/16/2017] [Accepted: 02/01/2018] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Esophageal cancer is one of the most common types of cancer, which is a leading cause of cancer-related death worldwide. Based on histological behavior, it is mainly of two types (i) Esophageal squamous cell carcinoma (ESCC), and (ii) esophageal adenocarcinoma (EAD or EAC). In astronomically immense majority of malignancies, receptor tyrosine kinases (RTKs) have been kenned to play a consequential role in cellular proliferation, migration, and metastasis of the cells. The post-translational modifications (PTMs) including phosphorylation of tyrosine (pY) residue of the tyrosine kinase (TK) domain have been exploited for treatment in different malignancies. Lung cancer where pY residues of EGFR have been exploited for treatment purpose in lung adenocarcinoma patients, but we do not have such kind of felicitously studied and catalogued data in ESCC patients. Thus, the goal of this review is to summarize the studies carried out on ESCC to explore the role of RTKs, tyrosine kinase inhibitors, and their pertinence and consequentiality for the treatment of ESCC patients.
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Affiliation(s)
- Manoj Kumar Kashyap
- grid.449790.7School of Life and Allied Health Sciences, Glocal University, Saharanpur, UP 247121 India
- grid.430140.2Department of Applied Sciences and Biotechnology, Shoolini University of Biotechnology and Management Sciences, Solan, Himachal Pradesh India
| | - Omar Abdel-Rahman
- 0000 0004 0621 1570grid.7269.aClinical Oncology Department, Faculty of Medicine, Ain Shams University, Cairo, Egypt
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30
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Zhang S, Xu XS, Yang JX, Guo JH, Chao TF, Tong Y. The prognostic role of Gas6/Axl axis in solid malignancies: a meta-analysis and literature review. Onco Targets Ther 2018; 11:509-519. [PMID: 29416351 PMCID: PMC5789043 DOI: 10.2147/ott.s150952] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/29/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Axl is a receptor tyrosine kinase that is involved in many pathological conditions and carcinogenesis. Gas6 is the major ligand of Axl. Activation of Gas6/Axl pathway is essential for cancer development. However, its prognostic significance in solid tumors remains unclear. Therefore, we performed this meta-analysis to elucidate the prognostic impact of Axl. Methods Published studies on Axl or Gas6 expression and overall survival (OS) and/or disease-free survival (DFS) were searched from databases. The outcome measurement is hazard ratio (HR) for OS or DFS related to Axl/Gas6 expression. Meta-analysis was performed using RevMan. The pooled HR was calculated by fixed-/random-effect models. Results A total of 3,344 patients from 25 studies were included. The results of meta-analysis showed that Axl overexpression was correlated with shorter OS (HR: 2.03, p<0.0001) and DFS (HR: 1.85, p<0.0001). In subgroup analysis, Axl expression was significantly correlated with poor prognosis in hepatocellular, esophageal and lung cancer. Axl expression was associated with differentiation grade, TNM stage, lymph node and distant metastasis. Conclusion These results suggest that Axl overexpression is correlated with poor prognosis in solid tumors. This correlation varies among different types of cancers. More studies are needed to further investigate the prognostic value of Axl.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sheng Zhang
- Department of Gastrointestinal Surgery, Tongji Hospital, Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, China
| | - Xiang Shang Xu
- Department of Gastrointestinal Surgery, Tongji Hospital, Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, China
| | - Jie Xi Yang
- Department of Gastrointestinal Surgery, Tongji Hospital, Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, China
| | - Jian Hui Guo
- Department of Gastrointestinal Surgery, Tongji Hospital, Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, China
| | - Teng Fei Chao
- Department of Oncology, Tongji Hospital, Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, China
| | - YiXin Tong
- Department of Gastrointestinal Surgery, Tongji Hospital, Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, China
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31
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The AXL receptor tyrosine kinase is associated with adverse prognosis and distant metastasis in esophageal squamous cell carcinoma. Oncotarget 2018; 7:36956-36970. [PMID: 27172793 PMCID: PMC5095051 DOI: 10.18632/oncotarget.9231] [Citation(s) in RCA: 42] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/06/2015] [Accepted: 04/18/2016] [Indexed: 12/15/2022] Open
Abstract
Esophageal squamous cell carcinoma (ESCC) is a frequently recurrent deadly cancer for which no efficient targeted drug exists. AXL is an adverse prognostic factor in some cancers. Strong clinical evidence to support the prognostic role of AXL in ESCC is lacking. A total of 116 patients diagnosed with operable primary ESCC were enrolled. Both AXL and HER2 expression were detected by immunohistochemistry (IHC) in esophageal tissue and were correlated with the clinical outcome of patients. The efficacy of the AXL targeted drug foretinib was also evaluated in ESCC cells. Expression of AXL was found in about 80 % of ESCC tissue, and was significantly correlated with progression of tumor (P<0.001), increased risk of death (Hazard ratio HR [95 % CI=2.09[1.09-4.04], P=0.028], and distant metastasis (odds ratio OR [95 %CI]=3.96 (1.16-13.60), P=0.029). The adverse clinical impact of AXL was more evident when cumulatively expressed with HER2. In cell model, ESCC cells were more sensitive to AXL inhibitor foretinib than to the HER2 inhibitor lapatinib. Meanwhile, the AXL inhibitor foretinib showed a synergistic effect with HER2 inhibitors and the potential to overcome drug resistance to lapatinib. We thus concluded that AXL is a strong adverse prognostic factor for ESCC. Therapeutic agents targeting AXL have great potential to improve prognosis of ESCC patients.
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32
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Palisoul ML, Quinn JM, Schepers E, Hagemann IS, Guo L, Reger K, Hagemann AR, McCourt CK, Thaker PH, Powell MA, Mutch DG, Fuh KC. Inhibition of the Receptor Tyrosine Kinase AXL Restores Paclitaxel Chemosensitivity in Uterine Serous Cancer. Mol Cancer Ther 2017; 16:2881-2891. [PMID: 28904132 DOI: 10.1158/1535-7163.mct-17-0587] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/23/2017] [Revised: 08/11/2017] [Accepted: 09/07/2017] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
Abstract
Uterine serous cancer (USC) is aggressive, and the majority of recurrent cases are chemoresistant. Because the receptor tyrosine kinase AXL promotes invasion and metastasis of USC and is implicated in chemoresistance in other cancers, we assessed the role of AXL in paclitaxel resistance in USC, determined the mechanism of action, and sought to restore chemosensitivity by inhibiting AXL in vitro and in vivo We used short hairpin RNAs and BGB324 to knock down and inhibit AXL. We assessed sensitivity of USC cell lines to paclitaxel and measured paclitaxel intracellular accumulation in vitro in the presence or absence of AXL. We also examined the role of the epithelial-mesenchymal transition (EMT) in AXL-mediated paclitaxel resistance. Finally, we treated USC xenografts with paclitaxel, BGB324, or paclitaxel plus BGB324 and monitored tumor burden. AXL expression was higher in chemoresistant USC patient tumors and cell lines than in chemosensitive tumors and cell lines. Knockdown or inhibition of AXL increased sensitivity of USC cell lines to paclitaxel in vitro and increased cellular accumulation of paclitaxel. AXL promoted chemoresistance even in cells that underwent the EMT in vitro Finally, in vivo studies of combination treatment with BGB324 and paclitaxel showed a greater than 51% decrease in tumor volume after 2 weeks of treatment when compared with no treatment or single-agent treatments (P < 0.001). Our results show that AXL expression mediates chemoresistance independent of EMT and prevents accumulation of paclitaxel. This study supports the continued investigation of AXL as a clinical target, particularly in chemoresistant USC. Mol Cancer Ther; 16(12); 2881-91. ©2017 AACR.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marguerite L Palisoul
- Division of Gynecologic Oncology, Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, Missouri.,Center for Reproductive Health Sciences, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, Missouri
| | - Jeanne M Quinn
- Division of Gynecologic Oncology, Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, Missouri.,Center for Reproductive Health Sciences, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, Missouri
| | - Emily Schepers
- Division of Gynecologic Oncology, Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, Missouri.,Center for Reproductive Health Sciences, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, Missouri
| | - Ian S Hagemann
- Department of Pathology and Immunology, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, Missouri
| | - Lei Guo
- Division of Gynecologic Oncology, Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, Missouri.,Center for Reproductive Health Sciences, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, Missouri
| | - Kelsey Reger
- Division of Gynecologic Oncology, Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, Missouri.,Center for Reproductive Health Sciences, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, Missouri
| | - Andrea R Hagemann
- Division of Gynecologic Oncology, Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, Missouri
| | - Carolyn K McCourt
- Division of Gynecologic Oncology, Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, Missouri
| | - Premal H Thaker
- Division of Gynecologic Oncology, Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, Missouri
| | - Matthew A Powell
- Division of Gynecologic Oncology, Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, Missouri
| | - David G Mutch
- Division of Gynecologic Oncology, Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, Missouri
| | - Katherine C Fuh
- Division of Gynecologic Oncology, Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, Missouri. .,Center for Reproductive Health Sciences, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, Missouri
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33
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Akalu YT, Rothlin CV, Ghosh S. TAM receptor tyrosine kinases as emerging targets of innate immune checkpoint blockade for cancer therapy. Immunol Rev 2017; 276:165-177. [PMID: 28258690 DOI: 10.1111/imr.12522] [Citation(s) in RCA: 123] [Impact Index Per Article: 17.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/29/2022]
Abstract
Cancer immunotherapy utilizing T-cell checkpoint inhibitors has shown tremendous clinical success. Yet, this mode of treatment is effective in only a subset of patients. Unresponsive patients tend to have non-T-cell-inflamed tumors that lack markers associated with the activation of adaptive anti-tumor immune responses. Notably, elimination of cancer cells by T cells is critically dependent on the optimal activity of innate immune cells. Therefore, identifying new targets that regulate innate immune cell function and promote the engagement of adaptive tumoricidal responses is likely to lead to the development of improved therapies against cancer. Here, we review the TAM receptor tyrosine kinases-TYRO3, AXL, and MERTK-as an emerging class of innate immune checkpoints that participate in key steps of anti-tumoral immunity. Namely, TAM-mediated efferocytosis, negative regulation of dendritic cell activity, and dysregulated production of chemokines collectively favor the escape of malignant cells. Hence, disabling TAM signaling may promote engagement of adaptive immunity and complement T-cell checkpoint blockade.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yemsratch T Akalu
- Department of Immunobiology, Yale University School of Medicine, New Haven, CT, USA
| | - Carla V Rothlin
- Department of Immunobiology, Yale University School of Medicine, New Haven, CT, USA.,Department of Pharmacology, Yale University School of Medicine, New Haven, CT, USA
| | - Sourav Ghosh
- Department of Pharmacology, Yale University School of Medicine, New Haven, CT, USA.,Department of Neurology, Yale University School of Medicine, New Haven, CT, USA
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34
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Kasikara C, Kumar S, Kimani S, Tsou WI, Geng K, Davra V, Sriram G, Devoe C, Nguyen KQN, Antes A, Krantz A, Rymarczyk G, Wilczynski A, Empig C, Freimark B, Gray M, Schlunegger K, Hutchins J, Kotenko SV, Birge RB. Phosphatidylserine Sensing by TAM Receptors Regulates AKT-Dependent Chemoresistance and PD-L1 Expression. Mol Cancer Res 2017; 15:753-764. [PMID: 28184013 PMCID: PMC8363069 DOI: 10.1158/1541-7786.mcr-16-0350] [Citation(s) in RCA: 87] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/27/2016] [Revised: 12/30/2016] [Accepted: 01/13/2017] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Abstract
Tyro3, Axl, and Mertk (collectively TAM receptors) are three homologous receptor tyrosine kinases that bind vitamin K-dependent endogenous ligands, Protein S (ProS), and growth arrest-specific factor 6 (Gas6), and act as bridging molecules to promote phosphatidylserine (PS)-mediated clearance of apoptotic cells (efferocytosis). TAM receptors are overexpressed in a vast array of tumor types, whereby the level of expression correlates with the tumor grade and the emergence of chemo- and radioresistance to targeted therapeutics, but also have been implicated as inhibitory receptors on infiltrating myeloid-derived cells in the tumor microenvironment that can suppress host antitumor immunity. In the present study, we utilized TAM-IFNγR1 reporter lines and expressed TAM receptors in a variety of epithelial cell model systems to show that each TAM receptor has a unique pattern of activation by Gas6 or ProS, as well as unique dependency for PS on apoptotic cells and PS liposomes for activity. In addition, we leveraged this system to engineer epithelial cells that express wild-type TAM receptors and show that although each receptor can promote PS-mediated efferocytosis, AKT-mediated chemoresistance, as well as upregulate the immune checkpoint molecule PD-L1 on tumor cells, Mertk is most dominant in the aforementioned pathways. Functionally, TAM receptor-mediated efferocytosis could be partially blocked by PS-targeting antibody 11.31 and Annexin V, demonstrating the existence of a PS/PS receptor (i.e., TAM receptor)/PD-L1 axis that operates in epithelial cells to foster immune escape. These data provide a rationale that PS-targeting, anti-TAM receptor, and anti-PD-L1-based therapeutics will have merit as combinatorial checkpoint inhibitors.Implications: Many tumor cells are known to upregulate the immune checkpoint inhibitor PD-L1. This study demonstrates a role for PS and TAM receptors in the regulation of PD-L1 on cancer cells. Mol Cancer Res; 15(6); 753-64. ©2017 AACR.
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Affiliation(s)
- Canan Kasikara
- Department of Microbiology, Biochemistry and Molecular Genetics, Rutgers University, New Jersey Medical School Cancer Center, Newark, New Jersey
| | - Sushil Kumar
- Department of Microbiology, Biochemistry and Molecular Genetics, Rutgers University, New Jersey Medical School Cancer Center, Newark, New Jersey
| | - Stanley Kimani
- Department of Microbiology, Biochemistry and Molecular Genetics, Rutgers University, New Jersey Medical School Cancer Center, Newark, New Jersey
| | - Wen-I Tsou
- Department of Microbiology, Biochemistry and Molecular Genetics, Rutgers University, New Jersey Medical School Cancer Center, Newark, New Jersey
| | - Ke Geng
- Department of Microbiology, Biochemistry and Molecular Genetics, Rutgers University, New Jersey Medical School Cancer Center, Newark, New Jersey
| | - Viralkumar Davra
- Department of Microbiology, Biochemistry and Molecular Genetics, Rutgers University, New Jersey Medical School Cancer Center, Newark, New Jersey
| | - Ganapathy Sriram
- Department of Microbiology, Biochemistry and Molecular Genetics, Rutgers University, New Jersey Medical School Cancer Center, Newark, New Jersey
| | - Connor Devoe
- Department of Microbiology, Biochemistry and Molecular Genetics, Rutgers University, New Jersey Medical School Cancer Center, Newark, New Jersey
| | - Khanh-Quynh N Nguyen
- Department of Microbiology, Biochemistry and Molecular Genetics, Rutgers University, New Jersey Medical School Cancer Center, Newark, New Jersey
| | - Anita Antes
- Department of Microbiology, Biochemistry and Molecular Genetics, Rutgers University, New Jersey Medical School Cancer Center, Newark, New Jersey
| | - Allen Krantz
- Advanced Proteome Therapeutics Corporation, Boston, Massachusetts
| | - Grzegorz Rymarczyk
- Advanced Proteome Therapeutics Corporation, Boston, Massachusetts
- Department of Medicine, Boston University School of Medicine, Boston, Massachusetts
| | | | - Cyril Empig
- Peregrine Pharmaceuticals, Tustin, California
| | | | | | | | | | - Sergei V Kotenko
- Department of Microbiology, Biochemistry and Molecular Genetics, Rutgers University, New Jersey Medical School Cancer Center, Newark, New Jersey
| | - Raymond B Birge
- Department of Microbiology, Biochemistry and Molecular Genetics, Rutgers University, New Jersey Medical School Cancer Center, Newark, New Jersey.
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Wu X, Ma W, Zhou Q, Yan H, Lim ZF, Huang M, Deng C, Yu X, Su H, Komo S, Yang H, Zhang X, Wen S, Zhang Z, Ma PC. AXL-GAS6 expression can predict for adverse prognosis in non-small cell lung cancer with brain metastases. J Cancer Res Clin Oncol 2017; 143:1947-1957. [PMID: 28551766 PMCID: PMC5599460 DOI: 10.1007/s00432-017-2408-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/05/2017] [Accepted: 03/24/2017] [Indexed: 12/26/2022]
Abstract
PURPOSE Patients with non-small cell lung cancer (NSCLC) brain metastases (BM) have poor clinical outcomes. We sought to determine if AXL-GAS6 expression can be used as independent prognostic biomarkers for NSCLC BM. METHODS We retrospectively studied the medical records of 98 patients diagnosed with advanced metastatic NSCLC from December 2000 to June 2014. Out of a total of 98 patients with NSCLC metastases, 66 patients were identified to have brain metastases. The expressions of AXL and GAS6 were assessed by standard immunohistochemistry and correlated with clinicopathological factors and overall survival (OS) outcomes. RESULTS The expression of AXL was positively associated with GAS6 expression (P < 0.001), and tumor differentiation (P = 0.014) in advanced NSCLC with metastases. AXL expression displayed no association with gender, age, smoking history, pathology, T stage, N stage, CEA, and LDH. In univariate analysis, both AXL and GAS6 were found to predict worse OS outcomes (AXL: HR 1.77, 95% CI 1.13-2.79, P = 0.01; GAS6: HR 1.80, 95% CI 1.14-2.84, P = 0.01). In the brain metastasis subgroup, the expression of AXL was positively associated with GAS6 expression (P < 0.001). Both AXL and GAS6 were found to predict worse BM-OS outcomes in univariate analysis (AXL: HR 2.19, 95% CI 1.33-4.10, P = 0.005; GAS6: HR 2.04, 95% CI 1.01-3.71, P = 0.019). In multivariate analysis, high co-expression of AXL/GAS6 was found to be an independent unfavorable risk factor for the overall study population (HR 2.33, 95% CI 1.40-3.87, P = 0.0011) and also in BM (HR 2.76, 95% CI 1.45-5.25, P = 0.001), predicting worse survival outcome. CONCLUSIONS AXL-GAS6 co-expression represents a potential independent prognostic biomarker for survival outcome in NSCLC BM patients.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xiaoliang Wu
- State Key Laboratory of Oncology in South China and Collaborative Innovation Center for Cancer Medicine, Sun Yat-sen University Cancer Center, 651 Dongfeng East Rd, Guangzhou, 510060, China
- Department of Oncology, Guizhou Provincial People's Hospital, Guiyang, China
- WVU Cancer Institute, Mary Babb Randolph Cancer Center, West Virginia University, Morgantown, WV, USA
| | - Wenjuan Ma
- State Key Laboratory of Oncology in South China and Collaborative Innovation Center for Cancer Medicine, Sun Yat-sen University Cancer Center, 651 Dongfeng East Rd, Guangzhou, 510060, China
| | - Qianghua Zhou
- State Key Laboratory of Oncology in South China and Collaborative Innovation Center for Cancer Medicine, Sun Yat-sen University Cancer Center, 651 Dongfeng East Rd, Guangzhou, 510060, China
| | - Haijuan Yan
- Department of Biostatistics, West Virginia University, Morgantown, WV, USA
| | - Zuan-Fu Lim
- WVU Cancer Institute, Mary Babb Randolph Cancer Center, West Virginia University, Morgantown, WV, USA
| | - Mayan Huang
- State Key Laboratory of Oncology in South China and Collaborative Innovation Center for Cancer Medicine, Sun Yat-sen University Cancer Center, 651 Dongfeng East Rd, Guangzhou, 510060, China
| | - Chuangzhong Deng
- State Key Laboratory of Oncology in South China and Collaborative Innovation Center for Cancer Medicine, Sun Yat-sen University Cancer Center, 651 Dongfeng East Rd, Guangzhou, 510060, China
| | - Xingsu Yu
- State Key Laboratory of Oncology in South China and Collaborative Innovation Center for Cancer Medicine, Sun Yat-sen University Cancer Center, 651 Dongfeng East Rd, Guangzhou, 510060, China
| | - Huifang Su
- State Key Laboratory of Oncology in South China and Collaborative Innovation Center for Cancer Medicine, Sun Yat-sen University Cancer Center, 651 Dongfeng East Rd, Guangzhou, 510060, China
| | - Satoshi Komo
- WVU Cancer Institute, Mary Babb Randolph Cancer Center, West Virginia University, Morgantown, WV, USA
| | - Haixia Yang
- WVU Cancer Institute, Mary Babb Randolph Cancer Center, West Virginia University, Morgantown, WV, USA
| | - Xinke Zhang
- State Key Laboratory of Oncology in South China and Collaborative Innovation Center for Cancer Medicine, Sun Yat-sen University Cancer Center, 651 Dongfeng East Rd, Guangzhou, 510060, China
| | - Sijin Wen
- WVU Cancer Institute, Mary Babb Randolph Cancer Center, West Virginia University, Morgantown, WV, USA
- Department of Biostatistics, West Virginia University, Morgantown, WV, USA
- West Virginia Clinical and Translational Science Institute, Morgantown, WV, USA
| | - Zhenfeng Zhang
- State Key Laboratory of Oncology in South China and Collaborative Innovation Center for Cancer Medicine, Sun Yat-sen University Cancer Center, 651 Dongfeng East Rd, Guangzhou, 510060, China.
- Department of Radiology, The Second Affiliated Hospital of Guangzhou Medical University, 250 Changgang Road, Guangzhou, 510260, China.
- Department of Medical Imaging, Sun Yat-Sen University Cancer Center, 651 Dongfeng East Rd, Guangzhou, 510060, China.
| | - Patrick C Ma
- WVU Cancer Institute, Mary Babb Randolph Cancer Center, West Virginia University, Morgantown, WV, USA.
- West Virginia Clinical and Translational Science Institute, Morgantown, WV, USA.
- Sara Crile Allen and James Frederick Allen Comprehensive Lung Cancer Program, Eminent Scholar in Lung Cancer Research, WVU Cancer Institute, West Virginia University, 1 Medical Center Drive, P.O. Box 9300, Morgantown, WV, 26506-9300, USA.
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Cai YR, Dong YJ, Wu HB, Yu DP, Zhou LJ, Su D, Zhang L, Chen XJ. Expression level of CRKL and AXL combined with exon 19 deletion in EGFR and ALK status confer differential prognosis of lung adenocarcinoma subtypes. Oncol Lett 2016; 12:3312-3322. [PMID: 27899998 DOI: 10.3892/ol.2016.5080] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/29/2015] [Accepted: 07/22/2016] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Non-small cell lung cancer (NSCLC) is a lethal cancer-related disease in population. Adenocarcinoma (AC) is subclassified into several subtypes based on the new classification by the International Association for the Study of Lung Cancer, American Thoracic Society and European Respiratory Society in 2011. Correlation between original expression of Crk-like (CRKL) and anaplastic lymphoma receptor tyrosine kinase in diverse histological components of AC and epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR) or ALK status was evaluated by immunohistochemistry and sequencing in present study. A total of 106 cases, including 83 patients (78.3%) with mixed-type ACs, were assessed in the present study using eligible follow-up data. The ACs consisted of 32 acinar, 12 papillary, 5 mucinous, 11 micropapillary and 46 solid-predominant ACs. In total, 69.8% samples were composed of 2 or 3 histological components, with different expression levels of CRKL and AXL. ACs with EGFR mutation had a higher level of AXL expression compared with ACs without mutation (P=0.019). Multivariate survival analysis showed that AC subtypes and EGFR mutation subtypes were significantly associated with the progression-free survival (PFS) time. Acinar AC was the subtype with the most notable PFS time (30.6 months), which was significantly different from the PFS time of papillary, mucinous, micropapillary and solid-predominant ACs (hazard ratio, 0.4; 95% CI, 0.21-0.75; P=0.005). Among the ACs with exon 19 mutation, the median PFS time (28.8 months) of patients with a lower level of AXL protein expression was increased compared with the PFS time of patients with the L858R mutation and wild-type EGFR (9.1 months and 11 months, respectively; P=0.03), whereas no significant difference in ACs with an increased level of AXL expression. However, AC patients with higher level of CRKL expression had better PFS (28.8 months) than patients with the L858R mutation and wild-type EGFR (9.1 months and 11.3 months, respectively). Exon 19 deletion is an important status that is associated with an improved response to conventional chemotherapy. The identification of EGFR mutations combined with CRKL and AXL status may potentially alter the way that lung AC is treated.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yi-Ran Cai
- Department of Pathology, Beijing Chest Hospital, Capital Medical University, Beijing Tuberculosis and Thoracic Tumor Research Institute, Beijing 101149, P.R. China
| | - Yu-Jie Dong
- Department of Pathology, Beijing Chest Hospital, Capital Medical University, Beijing Tuberculosis and Thoracic Tumor Research Institute, Beijing 101149, P.R. China
| | - Hong-Bo Wu
- Department of Medical Oncology, Beijing Chest Hospital, Capital Medical University, Beijing Tuberculosis and Thoracic Tumor Research Institute, Beijing 101149, P.R. China
| | - Da-Ping Yu
- Department of Thoracic Surgery, Beijing Chest Hospital, Capital Medical University, Beijing Tuberculosis and Thoracic Tumor Research Institute, Beijing 101149, P.R. China
| | - Li-Juan Zhou
- Department of Pathology, Beijing Chest Hospital, Capital Medical University, Beijing Tuberculosis and Thoracic Tumor Research Institute, Beijing 101149, P.R. China
| | - Dan Su
- Department of Pathology, Beijing Chest Hospital, Capital Medical University, Beijing Tuberculosis and Thoracic Tumor Research Institute, Beijing 101149, P.R. China
| | - Li Zhang
- Department of Pathology, Beijing Chest Hospital, Capital Medical University, Beijing Tuberculosis and Thoracic Tumor Research Institute, Beijing 101149, P.R. China
| | - Xue-Jing Chen
- Department of Pathology, Beijing Chest Hospital, Capital Medical University, Beijing Tuberculosis and Thoracic Tumor Research Institute, Beijing 101149, P.R. China
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The Receptor Tyrosine Kinase AXL in Cancer Progression. Cancers (Basel) 2016; 8:cancers8110103. [PMID: 27834845 PMCID: PMC5126763 DOI: 10.3390/cancers8110103] [Citation(s) in RCA: 105] [Impact Index Per Article: 13.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/20/2016] [Revised: 10/26/2016] [Accepted: 11/03/2016] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
The AXL receptor tyrosine kinase (AXL) has emerged as a promising therapeutic target for cancer therapy. Recent studies have revealed a central role of AXL signaling in tumor proliferation, survival, stem cell phenotype, metastasis, and resistance to cancer therapy. Moreover, AXL is expressed within cellular components of the tumor microenvironment where AXL signaling contributes to the immunosuppressive and protumorigenic phenotypes. A variety of AXL inhibitors have been developed and are efficacious in preclinical studies. These agents offer new opportunities for therapeutic intervention in the prevention and treatment of advanced disease. Here we review the literature that has illuminated the cellular and molecular mechanisms by which AXL signaling promotes tumor progression and we will discuss the therapeutic potential of AXL inhibition for cancer therapy.
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Radhakrishnan A, Nanjappa V, Raja R, Sathe G, Puttamallesh VN, Jain AP, Pinto SM, Balaji SA, Chavan S, Sahasrabuddhe NA, Mathur PP, Kumar MM, Prasad TSK, Santosh V, Sukumar G, Califano JA, Rangarajan A, Sidransky D, Pandey A, Gowda H, Chatterjee A. A dual specificity kinase, DYRK1A, as a potential therapeutic target for head and neck squamous cell carcinoma. Sci Rep 2016; 6:36132. [PMID: 27796319 PMCID: PMC5086852 DOI: 10.1038/srep36132] [Citation(s) in RCA: 34] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/14/2016] [Accepted: 10/10/2016] [Indexed: 12/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Despite advances in clinical management, 5-year survival rate in patients with late-stage head and neck squamous cell carcinoma (HNSCC) has not improved significantly over the past decade. Targeted therapies have emerged as one of the most promising approaches to treat several malignancies. Though tyrosine phosphorylation accounts for a minority of total phosphorylation, it is critical for activation of signaling pathways and plays a significant role in driving cancers. To identify activated tyrosine kinase signaling pathways in HNSCC, we compared the phosphotyrosine profiles of a panel of HNSCC cell lines to a normal oral keratinocyte cell line. Dual-specificity tyrosine-(Y)-phosphorylation regulated kinase 1A (DYRK1A) was one of the kinases hyperphosphorylated at Tyr-321 in all HNSCC cell lines. Inhibition of DYRK1A resulted in an increased apoptosis and decrease in invasion and colony formation ability of HNSCC cell lines. Further, administration of the small molecular inhibitor against DYRK1A in mice bearing HNSCC xenograft tumors induced regression of tumor growth. Immunohistochemical labeling of DYRK1A in primary tumor tissues using tissue microarrays revealed strong to moderate staining of DYRK1A in 97.5% (39/40) of HNSCC tissues analyzed. Taken together our results suggest that DYRK1A could be a novel therapeutic target in HNSCC.
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Affiliation(s)
- Aneesha Radhakrishnan
- Institute of Bioinformatics, International Technology Park, Bangalore, 560 066, India
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Pondicherry University, Puducherry 605014, India
| | - Vishalakshi Nanjappa
- Institute of Bioinformatics, International Technology Park, Bangalore, 560 066, India
- Amrita School of Biotechnology, Amrita University, Kollam 690 525, India
| | - Remya Raja
- Institute of Bioinformatics, International Technology Park, Bangalore, 560 066, India
| | - Gajanan Sathe
- Institute of Bioinformatics, International Technology Park, Bangalore, 560 066, India
- Manipal University, Madhav Nagar, Manipal 576104, India
| | - Vinuth N. Puttamallesh
- Institute of Bioinformatics, International Technology Park, Bangalore, 560 066, India
- Amrita School of Biotechnology, Amrita University, Kollam 690 525, India
| | - Ankit P. Jain
- Institute of Bioinformatics, International Technology Park, Bangalore, 560 066, India
- School of Biotechnology, KIIT University, Bhubaneswar 751024, India
| | - Sneha M. Pinto
- Institute of Bioinformatics, International Technology Park, Bangalore, 560 066, India
| | - Sai A. Balaji
- Department of Molecular Reproduction, Development and Genetics, Indian Institute of Science, Bangalore, 560012, India
| | - Sandip Chavan
- Institute of Bioinformatics, International Technology Park, Bangalore, 560 066, India
- Manipal University, Madhav Nagar, Manipal 576104, India
| | | | - Premendu P. Mathur
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Pondicherry University, Puducherry 605014, India
- School of Biotechnology, KIIT University, Bhubaneswar 751024, India
| | - Mahesh M. Kumar
- Department of Neuro-Virology, National Institute of Mental Health and Neurosciences, Bangalore 560029, India
| | - T. S. Keshava Prasad
- Institute of Bioinformatics, International Technology Park, Bangalore, 560 066, India
- Amrita School of Biotechnology, Amrita University, Kollam 690 525, India
- YU-IOB Center for Systems Biology and Molecular Medicine, Yenepoya University, Mangalore 575018, India
| | - Vani Santosh
- Department of Pathology, National Institute of Mental Health and Neurosciences, Bangalore 560029, India
| | - Geethanjali Sukumar
- Institute of Bioinformatics, International Technology Park, Bangalore, 560 066, India
| | - Joseph A. Califano
- Milton J. Dance Head and Neck Center, Greater Baltimore Medical Center, Baltimore, MD 21204, USA
- Department of Otolaryngology-Head and Neck Surgery, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD 21231, USA
| | - Annapoorni Rangarajan
- Department of Molecular Reproduction, Development and Genetics, Indian Institute of Science, Bangalore, 560012, India
| | - David Sidransky
- Department of Otolaryngology-Head and Neck Surgery, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD 21231, USA
| | - Akhilesh Pandey
- McKusick-Nathans Institute of Genetic Medicine,Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD 21205, USA
- Department of Biological Chemistry, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD 21205, USA
- Department of Oncology, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD 21205, USA
- Department of Pathology, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD 21205, USA
| | - Harsha Gowda
- Institute of Bioinformatics, International Technology Park, Bangalore, 560 066, India
- YU-IOB Center for Systems Biology and Molecular Medicine, Yenepoya University, Mangalore 575018, India
| | - Aditi Chatterjee
- Institute of Bioinformatics, International Technology Park, Bangalore, 560 066, India
- YU-IOB Center for Systems Biology and Molecular Medicine, Yenepoya University, Mangalore 575018, India
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Benedetto G, Vestal CG, Richardson C. Aptamer-Functionalized Nanoparticles as "Smart Bombs": The Unrealized Potential for Personalized Medicine and Targeted Cancer Treatment. Target Oncol 2016; 10:467-85. [PMID: 25989948 DOI: 10.1007/s11523-015-0371-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
Abstract
Conventional delivery of chemotherapeutic agents leads to multiple systemic side effects and toxicity, limiting the doses that can be used. The development of targeted therapies to selectively deliver anti-cancer agents to tumor cells without damaging neighboring unaffected cells would lead to higher effective local doses and improved response rates. Aptamers are single-stranded oligonucleotides that bind to target molecules with both high affinity and high specificity. The high specificity exhibited by aptamers promotes localization and uptake by specific cell populations, such as tumor cells, and their conjugation to anti-cancer drugs has been explored for targeted therapy. Advancements in the development of polymeric nanoparticles allow anti-cancer drugs to be encapsulated in protective nonreactive shells for controlled drug delivery with reduced toxicity. The conjugation of aptamers to nanoparticle-based therapeutics may further enhance direct targeting and personalized medicine. Here we present how the combinatorial use of aptamer and nanoparticle technologies has the potential to develop "smart bombs" for targeted cancer treatment, highlighting recent pre-clinical studies demonstrating efficacy for the direct targeting to particular tumor cell populations. However, despite these pre-clinical promising results, there has been little progress in moving this technology to the bedside.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gregory Benedetto
- Department of Biological Sciences, UNC Charlotte, 1902 University City Blvd., Woodward Hall Room 386B, Charlotte, NC, 28223, USA.
| | - C Greer Vestal
- Department of Biological Sciences, UNC Charlotte, 1902 University City Blvd., Woodward Hall Room 386B, Charlotte, NC, 28223, USA.
| | - Christine Richardson
- Department of Biological Sciences, UNC Charlotte, 1902 University City Blvd., Woodward Hall Room 386B, Charlotte, NC, 28223, USA.
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40
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Lin MW, Yang PW, Lee JM. Translational research in thoracic surgery-the National Taiwan University Hospital experience. J Thorac Dis 2016; 8:S642-7. [PMID: 27651941 DOI: 10.21037/jtd.2016.07.95] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/06/2022]
Abstract
Thoracic surgeons should be more aware of the latest information about histopathological, genetic and epigenetic alterations that may influence treatment policy and patient outcome in the biomolecular era. Translational research studies often produce a promising diagnostic tool or new treatment that can be used clinically. The results of these translational studies may even change the practical guidelines and current staging system in thoracic malignancies. The following article summarizes the experiences of translational research in esophageal cancer and non-small cell lung cancer (NSCLC) at National Taiwan University Hospital in Taiwan.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mong-Wei Lin
- Department of Surgery, National Taiwan University Hospital and National Taiwan University College of Medicine, Taipei, Taiwan
| | - Pei-Wen Yang
- Department of Surgery, National Taiwan University Hospital and National Taiwan University College of Medicine, Taipei, Taiwan
| | - Jang-Ming Lee
- Department of Surgery, National Taiwan University Hospital and National Taiwan University College of Medicine, Taipei, Taiwan
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41
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Sathe G, Pinto SM, Syed N, Nanjappa V, Solanki HS, Renuse S, Chavan S, Khan AA, Patil AH, Nirujogi RS, Nair B, Mathur PP, Prasad TSK, Gowda H, Chatterjee A. Phosphotyrosine profiling of curcumin-induced signaling. Clin Proteomics 2016; 13:13. [PMID: 27307780 PMCID: PMC4908701 DOI: 10.1186/s12014-016-9114-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/01/2016] [Accepted: 05/04/2016] [Indexed: 12/16/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Curcumin, derived from the rhizome Curcuma longa, is a natural anti-cancer agent and has been shown to inhibit proliferation and survival of tumor cells. Although the anti-cancer effects of curcumin are well established, detailed understanding of the signaling pathways altered by curcumin is still lacking. In this study, we carried out SILAC-based quantitative proteomic analysis of a HNSCC cell line (CAL 27) to investigate tyrosine signaling in response to curcumin. RESULTS Using high resolution Orbitrap Fusion Tribrid Fourier transform mass spectrometer, we identified 627 phosphotyrosine sites mapping to 359 proteins. We observed alterations in the level of phosphorylation of 304 sites corresponding to 197 proteins upon curcumin treatment. We report here for the first time, curcumin-induced alterations in the phosphorylation of several kinases including TNK2, FRK, AXL, MAPK12 and phosphatases such as PTPN6, PTPRK, and INPPL1 among others. Pathway analysis revealed that the proteins differentially phosphorylated in response to curcumin are known to be involved in focal adhesion kinase signaling and actin cytoskeleton reorganization. CONCLUSIONS The study indicates that curcumin may regulate cellular processes such as proliferation and migration through perturbation of the focal adhesion kinase pathway. This is the first quantitative phosphoproteomics-based study demonstrating the signaling events that are altered in response to curcumin. Considering the importance of curcumin as an anti-cancer agent, this study will significantly improve the current knowledge of curcumin-mediated signaling in cancer.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gajanan Sathe
- Institute of Bioinformatics, Unit I, 7th Floor, Discoverer Building, International Tech Park, Bangalore, 560066 India.,Manipal University, Madhav Nagar, Manipal, 576104 India
| | - Sneha M Pinto
- Institute of Bioinformatics, Unit I, 7th Floor, Discoverer Building, International Tech Park, Bangalore, 560066 India.,YU-IOB Center for Systems Biology and Molecular Medicine, Yenepoya University, Mangalore, 575018 India
| | - Nazia Syed
- Institute of Bioinformatics, Unit I, 7th Floor, Discoverer Building, International Tech Park, Bangalore, 560066 India.,Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Pondicherry University, Puducherry, 605014 India
| | - Vishalakshi Nanjappa
- Institute of Bioinformatics, Unit I, 7th Floor, Discoverer Building, International Tech Park, Bangalore, 560066 India.,Amrita School of Biotechnology, Amrita University, Kollam, 690525 India
| | - Hitendra S Solanki
- Institute of Bioinformatics, Unit I, 7th Floor, Discoverer Building, International Tech Park, Bangalore, 560066 India.,School of Biotechnology, KIIT University, Bhubaneswar, 751024 India
| | - Santosh Renuse
- Institute of Bioinformatics, Unit I, 7th Floor, Discoverer Building, International Tech Park, Bangalore, 560066 India.,Amrita School of Biotechnology, Amrita University, Kollam, 690525 India
| | - Sandip Chavan
- Institute of Bioinformatics, Unit I, 7th Floor, Discoverer Building, International Tech Park, Bangalore, 560066 India.,Manipal University, Madhav Nagar, Manipal, 576104 India
| | - Aafaque Ahmad Khan
- Institute of Bioinformatics, Unit I, 7th Floor, Discoverer Building, International Tech Park, Bangalore, 560066 India.,School of Biotechnology, KIIT University, Bhubaneswar, 751024 India
| | - Arun H Patil
- Institute of Bioinformatics, Unit I, 7th Floor, Discoverer Building, International Tech Park, Bangalore, 560066 India.,School of Biotechnology, KIIT University, Bhubaneswar, 751024 India
| | - Raja Sekhar Nirujogi
- Institute of Bioinformatics, Unit I, 7th Floor, Discoverer Building, International Tech Park, Bangalore, 560066 India.,Centre of Excellence in Bioinformatics, School of Life Sciences, Pondicherry University, Puducherry, 605014 India
| | - Bipin Nair
- Amrita School of Biotechnology, Amrita University, Kollam, 690525 India
| | | | - T S Keshava Prasad
- Institute of Bioinformatics, Unit I, 7th Floor, Discoverer Building, International Tech Park, Bangalore, 560066 India.,YU-IOB Center for Systems Biology and Molecular Medicine, Yenepoya University, Mangalore, 575018 India.,NIMHANS-IOB Proteomics and Bioinformatics Laboratory, Neurobiology Research Centre, National Institute of Mental Health and Neurosciences, Bangalore, 560029 India
| | - Harsha Gowda
- Institute of Bioinformatics, Unit I, 7th Floor, Discoverer Building, International Tech Park, Bangalore, 560066 India.,YU-IOB Center for Systems Biology and Molecular Medicine, Yenepoya University, Mangalore, 575018 India
| | - Aditi Chatterjee
- Institute of Bioinformatics, Unit I, 7th Floor, Discoverer Building, International Tech Park, Bangalore, 560066 India.,YU-IOB Center for Systems Biology and Molecular Medicine, Yenepoya University, Mangalore, 575018 India
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42
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Fleuren EDG, Hillebrandt-Roeffen MHS, Flucke UE, Te Loo DMWM, Boerman OC, van der Graaf WTA, Versleijen-Jonkers YMH. The role of AXL and the in vitro activity of the receptor tyrosine kinase inhibitor BGB324 in Ewing sarcoma. Oncotarget 2015; 5:12753-68. [PMID: 25528764 PMCID: PMC4350331 DOI: 10.18632/oncotarget.2648] [Citation(s) in RCA: 39] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/07/2014] [Accepted: 10/27/2014] [Indexed: 11/25/2022] Open
Abstract
New targets for Ewing sarcoma (ES) patients are urgently needed. Therefore, we investigated the expression and genetic aberrations of the oncogenic receptor tyrosine kinase (RTK) AXL in ES and determined the efficacy of AXL targeting on cell viability and migration. First, AXL and Gas6 (ligand) mRNA expression was determined by RT-PCR on 29 ES samples. Low, medium and high AXL mRNA expression was observed in 31% (n = 9), 48% (n = 14) and 21% (n = 6) of samples. Gas6 was abundantly present in all specimens. We next tested AXL protein expression immunohistochemically in 36 tumors (primary, post-chemotherapy, metastasized and relapsed samples) from 25 ES patients. Low, medium and high AXL protein expression was observed in 17% (n = 6), 19% (n = 7) and 36% (n = 13) of samples. In primary tumors (n = 15), high AXL expression correlated significantly with a worse overall survival compared to patients with lower expression (61 vs. 194 months, p = 0.026). No genetic aberrations were detected in the AXL RTK domain (n = 29). The AXL-inhibitor BGB324 affected viability (IC50 0.79-2.13 μmol/L) and migratory potential of all tested ES cell lines in vitro (n = 5-6). BGB324 chemosensitized chemotherapy-resistant ES-4 cells to vincristine and doxorubicin. These data suggest that AXL is a potential novel, druggable therapeutic target in ES.
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Affiliation(s)
- Emmy D G Fleuren
- Department of Medical Oncology, Radboud University Medical Centre, Nijmegen, the Netherlands
| | | | - Uta E Flucke
- Department of Pathology, Radboud University Medical Centre, Nijmegen, the Netherlands
| | - D Maroeska W M Te Loo
- Department of Pediatric Hematology and Oncology, Radboud University Medical Centre, Nijmegen, the Netherlands
| | - Otto C Boerman
- Department of Radiology and Nuclear Medicine, Radboud University Medical Centre, Nijmegen, the Netherlands
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DAVELAAR AKUENIL, STRAUB DANIELLE, PARIKH KAUSHALB, LAU LIANA, FOCKENS PAUL, KRISHNADATH KAUSILIAK. Increased phosphorylation on residue S795 of the retinoblastoma protein in esophageal adenocarcinoma. Int J Oncol 2015; 47:583-91. [DOI: 10.3892/ijo.2015.3040] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/12/2014] [Accepted: 01/05/2015] [Indexed: 12/20/2022] Open
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Wu X, Liu X, Koul S, Lee CY, Zhang Z, Halmos B. AXL kinase as a novel target for cancer therapy. Oncotarget 2015; 5:9546-63. [PMID: 25337673 PMCID: PMC4259419 DOI: 10.18632/oncotarget.2542] [Citation(s) in RCA: 138] [Impact Index Per Article: 15.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/23/2014] [Accepted: 09/29/2014] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
The AXL receptor tyrosine kinase and its major ligand, GAS6 have been demonstrated to be overexpressed and activated in many human cancers (such as lung, breast, and pancreatic cancer) and have been correlated with poor prognosis, promotion of increased invasiveness/metastasis, the EMT phenotype and drug resistance. Targeting AXL in different model systems with specific small molecule kinase inhibitors or antibodies alone or in combination with other drugs can lead to inactivation of AXL-mediated signaling pathways and can lead to regained drug sensitivity and improved therapeutic efficacy, defining AXL as a promising novel target for cancer therapeutics. This review highlights the data supporting AXL as a novel treatment candidate in a variety of cancers as well as the current status of drug development targeting the AXL/GAS6 axis and future perspectives in this emerging field.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xiaoliang Wu
- Sun Yat-sen University Cancer Center, State Key Laboratory of Oncology in South China, Collaborative Innovation Center for Cancer Medicine, Guangzhou, People's Republic of China
| | - Xuewen Liu
- Sun Yat-sen University Cancer Center, State Key Laboratory of Oncology in South China, Collaborative Innovation Center for Cancer Medicine, Guangzhou, People's Republic of China. Division of Hematology/Oncology, Herbert Irving Comprehensive Cancer Center, New York Presbyterian Hospital-Columbia University Medical Center, New York, NY, USA
| | - Sanjay Koul
- Division of Hematology/Oncology, Herbert Irving Comprehensive Cancer Center, New York Presbyterian Hospital-Columbia University Medical Center, New York, NY, USA
| | - Chang Youl Lee
- Division of Pulmonary, Allergy and Critical Care Medicine, Department of Internal Medicine, Chuncheon Sacred Heart Hospital Hallym University Medical Center, Chuncheon-si Gangwon-do 200-704 Republic of Korea
| | - Zhenfeng Zhang
- Sun Yat-sen University Cancer Center, State Key Laboratory of Oncology in South China, Collaborative Innovation Center for Cancer Medicine, Guangzhou, People's Republic of China
| | - Balazs Halmos
- Division of Hematology/Oncology, Herbert Irving Comprehensive Cancer Center, New York Presbyterian Hospital-Columbia University Medical Center, New York, NY, USA
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McCormick Matthews LH, Noble F, Tod J, Jaynes E, Harris S, Primrose JN, Ottensmeier C, Thomas GJ, Underwood TJ. Systematic review and meta-analysis of immunohistochemical prognostic biomarkers in resected oesophageal adenocarcinoma. Br J Cancer 2015; 113:107-18. [PMID: 26110972 PMCID: PMC4647536 DOI: 10.1038/bjc.2015.179] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/19/2014] [Revised: 02/22/2015] [Accepted: 04/29/2015] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Oesophageal adenocarcinoma (OAC) is one of the fastest rising malignancies with continued poor prognosis. Many studies have proposed novel biomarkers but, to date, no immunohistochemical markers of survival after oesophageal resection have entered clinical practice. Here, we systematically review and meta-analyse the published literature, to identify potential biomarkers. METHODS Relevant articles were identified via Ovid medline 1946-2013. For inclusion, studies had to conform to REporting recommendations for tumor MARKer (REMARK) prognostic study criteria. The primary end-point was a pooled hazard ratio (HR) and variance, summarising the effect of marker expression on prognosis. RESULTS A total of 3059 articles were identified. After exclusion of irrelevant titles and abstracts, 214 articles were reviewed in full. Nine molecules had been examined in more than one study (CD3, CD8, COX-2, EGFR, HER2, Ki67, LgR5, p53 and VEGF) and were meta-analysed. Markers with largest survival effects were COX-2 (HR=2.47, confidence interval (CI)=1.15-3.79), CD3 (HR=0.51, 95% CI=0.32-0.70), CD8 (HR=0.55, CI=0.31-0.80) and EGFR (HR=1.65, 95% CI=1.14-2.16). DISCUSSION Current methods have not delivered clinically useful molecular prognostic biomarkers in OAC. We have highlighted the paucity of good-quality robust studies in this field. A genome-to-protein approach would be better suited for the development and subsequent validation of biomarkers. Large collaborative projects with standardised methodology will be required to generate clinically useful biomarkers.
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Affiliation(s)
- L H McCormick Matthews
- Cancer Sciences Unit, Faculty of Medicine, University of Southampton, Somers Cancer Research Building, MP824, Southampton SO16 6YD, UK
| | - F Noble
- Cancer Sciences Unit, Faculty of Medicine, University of Southampton, Somers Cancer Research Building, MP824, Southampton SO16 6YD, UK
- Department of Surgery, University Hospital Southampton NHS Foundation Trust, Southampton SO16 6YD, UK
| | - J Tod
- Cancer Sciences Unit, Faculty of Medicine, University of Southampton, Somers Cancer Research Building, MP824, Southampton SO16 6YD, UK
| | - E Jaynes
- Department of Cellular Pathology, University Hospital Southampton NHS Foundation Trust, Southampton SO16 6YD, UK
| | - S Harris
- Public Health Sciences and Medical Statistics, Faculty of Medicine, University of Southampton, Southampton SO16 6YD, UK
| | - J N Primrose
- Cancer Sciences Unit, Faculty of Medicine, University of Southampton, Somers Cancer Research Building, MP824, Southampton SO16 6YD, UK
- Department of Surgery, University Hospital Southampton NHS Foundation Trust, Southampton SO16 6YD, UK
| | - C Ottensmeier
- Cancer Sciences Unit, Faculty of Medicine, University of Southampton, Somers Cancer Research Building, MP824, Southampton SO16 6YD, UK
- National Institute for Health Research, Experimental Cancer Medicine Centre, Southampton SO16 6YD, UK
| | - G J Thomas
- Cancer Sciences Unit, Faculty of Medicine, University of Southampton, Somers Cancer Research Building, MP824, Southampton SO16 6YD, UK
- Department of Cellular Pathology, University Hospital Southampton NHS Foundation Trust, Southampton SO16 6YD, UK
| | - T J Underwood
- Cancer Sciences Unit, Faculty of Medicine, University of Southampton, Somers Cancer Research Building, MP824, Southampton SO16 6YD, UK
- Department of Surgery, University Hospital Southampton NHS Foundation Trust, Southampton SO16 6YD, UK
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Belkhiri A, El-Rifai W. Advances in targeted therapies and new promising targets in esophageal cancer. Oncotarget 2015; 6:1348-58. [PMID: 25593196 PMCID: PMC4359299 DOI: 10.18632/oncotarget.2752] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/19/2014] [Accepted: 11/15/2014] [Indexed: 01/29/2023] Open
Abstract
Esophageal cancer, comprising squamous carcinoma and adenocarcinoma, is a leading cause of cancer-related death in the world. Notably, the incidence of esophageal adenocarcinoma has increased at an alarming rate in the Western world. Unfortunately, the standard first-line chemo-radiotherapeutic approaches are toxic and of limited efficacy in the treatment of a significant number of cancer patients. The molecular analysis of cancer cells has uncovered key genetic and epigenetic alterations underlying the development and progression of tumors. These discoveries have paved the way for the emergence of targeted therapy approaches. This review will highlight recent progress in the development of targeted therapies in esophageal cancer. This will include a review of drugs targeting receptor tyrosine kinases and other kinases in esophageal cancer. Additional studies will be required to develop a rational integration of these targeted agents with respect to histologic types of esophageal cancer and the optimal selection of cancer patients who would most likely benefit from targeted therapy. Identification of AURKA and AXL as key molecular players in esophageal tumorigenesis and drug resistance strongly justifies the evaluation of the available drugs against these targets in clinical trials.
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Affiliation(s)
- Abbes Belkhiri
- Department of Surgery, Vanderbilt University Medical Center, Nashville, Tennessee 37232, USA
| | - Wael El-Rifai
- Department of Surgery, Vanderbilt University Medical Center, Nashville, Tennessee 37232, USA
- Department of Veterans Affairs, Tennessee Valley Healthcare System, Nashville, Tennessee 37212, USA
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Paccez JD, Duncan K, Vava A, Correa RG, Libermann TA, Parker MI, Zerbini LF. Inactivation of GSK3β and activation of NF-κB pathway via Axl represents an important mediator of tumorigenesis in esophageal squamous cell carcinoma. Mol Biol Cell 2015; 26:821-31. [PMID: 25568334 PMCID: PMC4342020 DOI: 10.1091/mbc.e14-04-0868] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Deregulation of Axl in esophageal squamous cell carcinoma (OSCC) with potential therapeutic implications is described for the first time. This paper also sheds light on the understanding of how Axl regulates OSCC development in vitro and in vivo. Axl expression leads to an Akt-dependent regulation of glycogen synthase kinase 3β activity and the nucluear factor kappaB (NF-κB) pathway, affecting the epithelial–mesenchymal transition. The receptor tyrosine kinase Axl has been described as an oncogene, and its deregulation has been implicated in the progression of several human cancers. While the role of Axl in esophageal adenocarcinoma has been addressed, there is no information about its role in esophageal squamous cell carcinoma (OSCC). In the current report, we identified, for the first time, deregulation of Axl expression in OSCC. Axl is consistently overexpressed in OSCC cell lines and human tumor samples, mainly in advanced stages of the disease. Blockage of Axl gene expression by small interfering RNA inhibits cell survival, proliferation, migration, and invasion in vitro and esophageal tumor growth in vivo. Additionally, repression of Axl expression results in Akt-dependent inhibition of pivotal genes involved in the nuclear factor-kappaB (NF-κB) pathway and in the induction of glycogen synthase kinase 3β (GSK3β) activity, resulting in loss of mesenchymal markers and induction of epithelial markers. Furthermore, treatment of esophageal cancer cells with the Akt inhibitor wortmannin inhibits NF-κB signaling, induces GSK3β activity, and blocks OSCC cell proliferation in an Axl-dependent manner. Taken together, our results establish a clear role for Axl in OSCC tumorigenesis with potential therapeutic implications.
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Affiliation(s)
- Juliano D Paccez
- International Centre for Genetic Engineering and Biotechnology, Cape Town 7925, South Africa Division of Medical Biochemistry, University of Cape Town, Cape Town, South Africa
| | - Kristal Duncan
- International Centre for Genetic Engineering and Biotechnology, Cape Town 7925, South Africa Division of Medical Biochemistry, University of Cape Town, Cape Town, South Africa
| | - Akhona Vava
- International Centre for Genetic Engineering and Biotechnology, Cape Town 7925, South Africa Division of Medical Biochemistry, University of Cape Town, Cape Town, South Africa
| | | | - Towia A Libermann
- BIDMC Genomics, Proteomics, Bioinformatics and Systems Biology Center, Beth Israel Deaconess Medical Center and Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA 02115
| | - M Iqbal Parker
- International Centre for Genetic Engineering and Biotechnology, Cape Town 7925, South Africa Division of Medical Biochemistry, University of Cape Town, Cape Town, South Africa
| | - Luiz F Zerbini
- International Centre for Genetic Engineering and Biotechnology, Cape Town 7925, South Africa Division of Medical Biochemistry, University of Cape Town, Cape Town, South Africa
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Graham DK, DeRyckere D, Davies KD, Earp HS. The TAM family: phosphatidylserine sensing receptor tyrosine kinases gone awry in cancer. Nat Rev Cancer 2014; 14:769-85. [PMID: 25568918 DOI: 10.1038/nrc3847] [Citation(s) in RCA: 518] [Impact Index Per Article: 51.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/08/2023]
Abstract
The TYRO3, AXL (also known as UFO) and MERTK (TAM) family of receptor tyrosine kinases (RTKs) are aberrantly expressed in multiple haematological and epithelial malignancies. Rather than functioning as oncogenic drivers, their induction in tumour cells predominately promotes survival, chemoresistance and motility. The unique mode of maximal activation of this RTK family requires an extracellular lipid–protein complex. For example, the protein ligand, growth arrest-specific protein 6 (GAS6), binds to phosphatidylserine (PtdSer) that is externalized on apoptotic cell membranes, which activates MERTK on macrophages. This triggers engulfment of apoptotic material and subsequent anti-inflammatory macrophage polarization. In tumours, autocrine and paracrine ligands and apoptotic cells are abundant, which provide a survival signal to the tumour cell and favour an anti-inflammatory, immunosuppressive microenvironment. Thus, TAM kinase inhibition could stimulate antitumour immunity, reduce tumour cell survival, enhance chemosensitivity and diminish metastatic potential.
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Axl as a downstream effector of TGF-β1 via PI3K/Akt-PAK1 signaling pathway promotes tumor invasion and chemoresistance in breast carcinoma. Tumour Biol 2014; 36:1115-27. [PMID: 25327287 DOI: 10.1007/s13277-014-2677-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/29/2014] [Accepted: 09/24/2014] [Indexed: 10/24/2022] Open
Abstract
The invasion and chemoresistance are crucial causes of morbidity and death for cancer patients. Axl is closely associated with malignant phenotype of breast tumor cells, including invasiveness and metastasis. Both breast cancer cell line and tissue displayed increased expression of Axl, especially in highly metastatic breast cancer. On the contrary, experimental inhibition of Axl or transforming growth factor beta 1 (TGF-β1) by RNAi assay could suppress cell invasion ability and chemoresistance. Moreover, the up-regulation of Axl was induced by TGF-β1, further activated phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase (PI3K)/Akt and PAK1 translocation, and resulted in greater cell motility, invasion, and chemoresistance in vitro and in vivo. After the detection and statistics in human breast cancer specimens, we found that the Axl expression was closely correlated with TGF-β1 level, tumor differentiation, lymph node metastasis, and clinical stage (p < 0.01). Our findings support the possibility that Axl is a significant regulator of invasion and chemosensitivity, and it means by targeting Axl or its related signaling pathways, we can reduce the invasion and chemosensitivity of breast tumor.
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Bitting RL, Schaeffer D, Somarelli JA, Garcia-Blanco MA, Armstrong AJ. The role of epithelial plasticity in prostate cancer dissemination and treatment resistance. Cancer Metastasis Rev 2014; 33:441-68. [PMID: 24414193 PMCID: PMC4230790 DOI: 10.1007/s10555-013-9483-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 54] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
Nearly 30,000 men die annually in the USA of prostate cancer, nearly uniformly from metastatic dissemination. Despite recent advances in hormonal, immunologic, bone-targeted, and cytotoxic chemotherapies, treatment resistance and further dissemination are inevitable in men with metastatic disease. Emerging data suggests that the phenomenon of epithelial plasticity, encompassing both reversible mesenchymal transitions and acquisition of stemness traits, may underlie this lethal biology of dissemination and treatment resistance. Understanding the molecular underpinnings of this cellular plasticity from preclinical models of prostate cancer and from biomarker studies of human metastatic prostate cancer has provided clues to novel therapeutic approaches that may delay or prevent metastatic disease and lethality over time. This review will discuss the preclinical and clinical evidence for epithelial plasticity in this rapidly changing field and relate this to clinical phenotype and resistance in prostate cancer while suggesting novel therapeutic approaches.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rhonda L. Bitting
- Division of Medical Oncology, Duke Cancer Institute, Duke University, DUMC Box 102002, Durham, NC 27710, USA. Department of Medicine, Duke University, Durham, NC, USA. Center for RNA Biology, Duke University, Durham, NC, USA
| | - Daneen Schaeffer
- Center for RNA Biology, Duke University, Durham, NC, USA. Department of Molecular Genetics and Microbiology, Duke University, Durham, NC, USA
| | - Jason A. Somarelli
- Center for RNA Biology, Duke University, Durham, NC, USA. Department of Molecular Genetics and Microbiology, Duke University, Durham, NC, USA
| | - Mariano A. Garcia-Blanco
- Department of Medicine, Duke University, Durham, NC, USA. Center for RNA Biology, Duke University, Durham, NC, USA. Department of Molecular Genetics and Microbiology, Duke University, Durham, NC, USA
| | - Andrew J. Armstrong
- Division of Medical Oncology, Duke Cancer Institute, Duke University, DUMC Box 102002, Durham, NC 27710, USA. Department of Medicine, Duke University, Durham, NC, USA. Center for RNA Biology, Duke University, Durham, NC, USA. Department of Molecular Genetics and Microbiology, Duke University, Durham, NC, USA
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