1
|
Dugbartey GJ. Cellular and molecular mechanisms of cell damage and cell death in ischemia-reperfusion injury in organ transplantation. Mol Biol Rep 2024; 51:473. [PMID: 38553658 PMCID: PMC10980643 DOI: 10.1007/s11033-024-09261-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/16/2023] [Accepted: 01/16/2024] [Indexed: 04/02/2024]
Abstract
Ischemia-reperfusion injury (IRI) is a critical pathological condition in which cell death plays a major contributory role, and negatively impacts post-transplant outcomes. At the cellular level, hypoxia due to ischemia disturbs cellular metabolism and decreases cellular bioenergetics through dysfunction of mitochondrial electron transport chain, causing a switch from cellular respiration to anaerobic metabolism, and subsequent cascades of events that lead to increased intracellular concentrations of Na+, H+ and Ca2+ and consequently cellular edema. Restoration of blood supply after ischemia provides oxygen to the ischemic tissue in excess of its requirement, resulting in over-production of reactive oxygen species (ROS), which overwhelms the cells' antioxidant defence system, and thereby causing oxidative damage in addition to activating pro-inflammatory pathways to cause cell death. Moderate ischemia and reperfusion may result in cell dysfunction, which may not lead to cell death due to activation of recovery systems to control ROS production and to ensure cell survival. However, prolonged and severe ischemia and reperfusion induce cell death by apoptosis, mitoptosis, necrosis, necroptosis, autophagy, mitophagy, mitochondrial permeability transition (MPT)-driven necrosis, ferroptosis, pyroptosis, cuproptosis and parthanoptosis. This review discusses cellular and molecular mechanisms of these various forms of cell death in the context of organ transplantation, and their inhibition, which holds clinical promise in the quest to prevent IRI and improve allograft quality and function for a long-term success of organ transplantation.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- George J Dugbartey
- Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, School of Pharmacy, College of Health Sciences, University of Ghana, Legon, Accra, Ghana.
- Department of Physiology & Pharmacology, Accra College of Medicine, East Legon, Accra, Ghana.
| |
Collapse
|
2
|
Lécuyer T, Seguin J, Balfourier A, Delagrange M, Burckel P, Lai-Kuen R, Mignon V, Ducos B, Tharaud M, Saubaméa B, Scherman D, Mignet N, Gazeau F, Richard C. Fate and biological impact of persistent luminescence nanoparticles after injection in mice: a one-year follow-up. NANOSCALE 2022; 14:15760-15771. [PMID: 36239706 DOI: 10.1039/d2nr03546d] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/16/2023]
Abstract
Persistent luminescence nanoparticles (PLNPs) are attracting growing interest for non-invasive optical imaging of tissues with a high signal to noise ratio. PLNPs can emit a persistent luminescence signal through the tissue transparency window for several minutes, after UV light excitation before systemic administration or directly in vivo through visible irradiation, allowing us to get rid of the autofluorescence signal of tissues. PLNPs constitute a promising alternative to the commercially available optical near infrared probes thanks to their versatile functionalization capabilities for improvement of the circulation time in the blood stream. Nevertheless, while biodistribution for a short time is well known, the long-term fate and toxicity of the PLNP's inorganic core after injection have not been dealt with in depth. Here we extend the current knowledge on ZnGa1.995O4Cr0.005 NPs (or ZGO) with a one-year follow-up of their fate after a single systemic administration in mice. We investigated the organ tissue uptake of ZGO with two different coatings and determined their intracellular processing up to one year after injection. The biopersistence of ZGO was assessed, with a long-term retention, quantified by ICP-MS, mostly in the liver and spleen, parallel with a loss of their luminescence properties. The analysis of the toxicity related to combining an animal's weight, key hematological and metabolic markers, histological observations of liver tissues and quantification of the expression of 31 genes linked to different metabolic reactions did not reveal any signs of noxiousness, from the macro scale to the molecular level. Therefore, the ZGO imaging probe has been proven to be a safe and relevant candidate for preclinical studies, allowing its long term use without any in vivo disturbance of the general metabolism.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Thomas Lécuyer
- Université Paris Cité, CNRS, INSERM, UTCBS, Unité de Technologies Chimiques et Biologiques pour la Santé, Faculté de Pharmacie, 75006 Paris, France.
- Université Paris Cité, CNRS UMR 7057, Matières et Systèmes Complexes (MSC), 75006 Paris, France.
| | - Johanne Seguin
- Université Paris Cité, CNRS, INSERM, UTCBS, Unité de Technologies Chimiques et Biologiques pour la Santé, Faculté de Pharmacie, 75006 Paris, France.
| | - Alice Balfourier
- Université Paris Cité, CNRS UMR 7057, Matières et Systèmes Complexes (MSC), 75006 Paris, France.
| | - Marine Delagrange
- High Throughput qPCR Core Facility of the ENS, Université PSL, Institut de Biologie de l'École normale supérieure, F-75005 Paris, France
- Laboratoire de Physique de l'École normale supérieure, ENS, Université PSL, CNRS, Sorbonne Université, Université de Paris, F-75005 Paris, France
| | - Pierre Burckel
- Université de Paris, Institut de physique du globe de Paris, CNRS, F-75005 Paris, France
| | - René Lai-Kuen
- Université de Paris, Inserm, CNRS, US25 Inserm, UMS3612 CNRS, Cellular and Molecular Imaging facility, Faculté de Pharmacie de Paris, F-75006, Paris, France
| | - Virginie Mignon
- Université de Paris, Inserm, CNRS, US25 Inserm, UMS3612 CNRS, Cellular and Molecular Imaging facility, Faculté de Pharmacie de Paris, F-75006, Paris, France
| | - Bertrand Ducos
- High Throughput qPCR Core Facility of the ENS, Université PSL, Institut de Biologie de l'École normale supérieure, F-75005 Paris, France
- Laboratoire de Physique de l'École normale supérieure, ENS, Université PSL, CNRS, Sorbonne Université, Université de Paris, F-75005 Paris, France
| | - Michael Tharaud
- Université de Paris, Institut de physique du globe de Paris, CNRS, F-75005 Paris, France
| | - Bruno Saubaméa
- Université de Paris, Inserm, CNRS, US25 Inserm, UMS3612 CNRS, Cellular and Molecular Imaging facility, Faculté de Pharmacie de Paris, F-75006, Paris, France
| | - Daniel Scherman
- Université Paris Cité, CNRS, INSERM, UTCBS, Unité de Technologies Chimiques et Biologiques pour la Santé, Faculté de Pharmacie, 75006 Paris, France.
| | - Nathalie Mignet
- Université Paris Cité, CNRS, INSERM, UTCBS, Unité de Technologies Chimiques et Biologiques pour la Santé, Faculté de Pharmacie, 75006 Paris, France.
| | - Florence Gazeau
- Université Paris Cité, CNRS UMR 7057, Matières et Systèmes Complexes (MSC), 75006 Paris, France.
| | - Cyrille Richard
- Université Paris Cité, CNRS, INSERM, UTCBS, Unité de Technologies Chimiques et Biologiques pour la Santé, Faculté de Pharmacie, 75006 Paris, France.
| |
Collapse
|
3
|
Zhu L, Liu L. New Insights Into the Interplay Among Autophagy, the NLRP3 Inflammasome and Inflammation in Adipose Tissue. Front Endocrinol (Lausanne) 2022; 13:739882. [PMID: 35432210 PMCID: PMC9008752 DOI: 10.3389/fendo.2022.739882] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/12/2021] [Accepted: 03/09/2022] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Obesity is a feature of metabolic syndrome with chronic inflammation in obese subjects, characterized by adipose tissue (AT) expansion, proinflammatory factor overexpression, and macrophage infiltration. Autophagy modulates inflammation in the enlargement of AT as an essential step for maintaining the balance in energy metabolism and waste elimination. Signaling originating from dysfunctional AT, such as AT containing hypertrophic adipocytes and surrounding macrophages, activates NOD-like receptor family 3 (NLRP3) inflammasome. There are interactions about altered autophagy and NLRP3 inflammasome activation during the progress in obesity. We summarize the current studies and potential mechanisms associated with autophagy and NLRP3 inflammasome in AT inflammation and aim to provide further evidence for research on obesity and obesity-related complications.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Liyuan Zhu
- Department of Cardiovascular Medicine, The Second Xiangya Hospital, Central South University, Changsha, China
- Research Institute of Blood Lipid and Atherosclerosis, Central South University, Changsha, China
- Modern Cardiovascular Disease Clinical Technology Research Center of Hunan Province, Changsha, China
- Cardiovascular Disease Research Center of Hunan Province, Changsha, China
| | - Ling Liu
- Department of Cardiovascular Medicine, The Second Xiangya Hospital, Central South University, Changsha, China
- Research Institute of Blood Lipid and Atherosclerosis, Central South University, Changsha, China
- Modern Cardiovascular Disease Clinical Technology Research Center of Hunan Province, Changsha, China
- Cardiovascular Disease Research Center of Hunan Province, Changsha, China
- *Correspondence: Ling Liu,
| |
Collapse
|
4
|
Fan M, Xiang G, Chen J, Gao J, Xue W, Wang Y, Li W, Zhou L, Jiao R, Shen Y, Xu Q. Libertellenone M, a diterpene derived from an endophytic fungus Phomopsis sp. S12, protects against DSS-induced colitis via inhibiting both nuclear translocation of NF-κB and NLRP3 inflammasome activation. Int Immunopharmacol 2020; 80:106144. [PMID: 31927507 DOI: 10.1016/j.intimp.2019.106144] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/15/2019] [Revised: 12/19/2019] [Accepted: 12/20/2019] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Abstract
NLRP3 inflammasome may serve as a potential target for the development of novel therapeutics for inflammatory bowel diseases. In this study, we found that Libertellenone M (Lib M), a secondary metabolite from the endophytic fungus Phomopsis sp. S12, has anti-inflammatory potential both in vitro and in vivo. Lib M selectively inhibited the expression of proinflammatory cytokine IL-1β and IL-18 in LPS-activated macrophages. The cleavage of pro-caspase 1 was remarkably reduced by Lib M in macrophages stimulated with three NLRP3 inflammasome activators. Administering Lib M attenuated dextran sulfate sodium-induced experimental acute colitis in mice and significantly reduced the production of these cytokines and cleaved caspase 1 in colon tissues. Apart from inhibition of NLRP3 inflammasome assembly, Lib M also suppressed NF-κB nuclear translocation in macrophages. Taken together, these findings suggest that Lib M-mediated inhibition of NLRP3 inflammasome activation could protect against colitis-like inflammatory diseases, and that this compound derived from a plant-associated fungus might inspire the exploration of novel immunosuppressive agents.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Minmin Fan
- State Key Laboratory of Pharmaceutical Biotechnology, School of Life Sciences, Nanjing University, Nanjing 210093, China
| | - Gang Xiang
- State Key Laboratory of Pharmaceutical Biotechnology, School of Life Sciences, Nanjing University, Nanjing 210093, China
| | - Jingwei Chen
- State Key Laboratory of Pharmaceutical Biotechnology, School of Life Sciences, Nanjing University, Nanjing 210093, China
| | - Jian Gao
- State Key Laboratory of Pharmaceutical Biotechnology, School of Life Sciences, Nanjing University, Nanjing 210093, China
| | - Wenwen Xue
- State Key Laboratory of Pharmaceutical Biotechnology, School of Life Sciences, Nanjing University, Nanjing 210093, China
| | - Yixuan Wang
- State Key Laboratory of Pharmaceutical Biotechnology, School of Life Sciences, Nanjing University, Nanjing 210093, China
| | - Wuhao Li
- State Key Laboratory of Pharmaceutical Biotechnology, School of Life Sciences, Nanjing University, Nanjing 210093, China
| | - Lin Zhou
- State Key Laboratory of Pharmaceutical Biotechnology, School of Life Sciences, Nanjing University, Nanjing 210093, China
| | - Ruihua Jiao
- State Key Laboratory of Pharmaceutical Biotechnology, School of Life Sciences, Nanjing University, Nanjing 210093, China
| | - Yan Shen
- State Key Laboratory of Pharmaceutical Biotechnology, School of Life Sciences, Nanjing University, Nanjing 210093, China.
| | - Qiang Xu
- State Key Laboratory of Pharmaceutical Biotechnology, School of Life Sciences, Nanjing University, Nanjing 210093, China.
| |
Collapse
|
5
|
Koenig U, Robenek H, Barresi C, Brandstetter M, Resch GP, Gröger M, Pap T, Hartmann C. Cell death induced autophagy contributes to terminal differentiation of skin and skin appendages. Autophagy 2019; 16:932-945. [PMID: 31379249 PMCID: PMC7144843 DOI: 10.1080/15548627.2019.1646552] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/09/2023] Open
Abstract
In the adult mammalian skin, cells are constantly renewing, differentiating and moving upward, to finally die in a yet not fully understood manner. Here, we provide evidence that macroautophagy/autophagy has a dual role in the skin. In addition to its known catabolic protective role as an evolutionary conserved upstream regulator of lysosomal degradation, we show that autophagy induced cell death (CDA) occurs in epithelial lineage-derived organs, such as the inter-follicular epidermis, the sebaceous- and the Harderian gland. By utilizing GFP-LC3 transgenic and ATG7-deficient mice, we show that CDA is initiated during terminal differentiation at a stage when the cells have become highly resistant to apoptosis. In these transitional cells, the Golgi compartment expands, which accounts for the formation of primary lysosomes, and the nucleus starts to condense. During CDA a burst of autophagosome formation is observed, first the endoplasmic reticulum (ER) is phagocytosed followed by autophagy of the nucleus. By this selective form of cell death, most of the cytoplasmic organelles are degraded, but structural proteins remain intact. In the absence of autophagy, consequently, parts of the ER, ribosomes, and chromatin remain. A burst of autophagy was stochastically observed in single cells of the epidermis and collectively in larger areas of ductal cells, arguing for a coordinated induction. We conclude that autophagy is an integral part of cell death in keratinocyte lineage cells and participates in their terminal cell fate. Abbreviations: Atg7: autophagy related 7; BECN1: beclin 1; CDA: cell death-induced autophagy; Cre: Cre-recombinase; DAPI: 4′,6-diamidino-2-phenylindole; ER: endoplasmatic reticulum; GFP: green fluorescent protein; HaGl: haderian gland; IVL: involucrin; KRT14: keratin 14; LD: lipid droplet; LSM: laser scanning microscope; MAP1LC3/LC3: microtubule-associated protein 1 light chain 3; PN: perinuclear space; RB: residual body; rER: rough endoplasmatic reticulum; SB: sebum; SG-SC: stratum granulosum – stratum corneum; SGl: sebaceous gland; SQSTM1: sequestosome 1; TEM: transmission electron microscopy; TUNEL: terminal deoxynucleotidyl transferase dUTP nick end labelling.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Ulrich Koenig
- Institute of Musculoskeletal Medicine, Dept. Molecular Medicine, University Hospital Münster, Westfälische Wilhelms-Universität Münster, Münster, Germany.,Previous Address: Research Division of Biology and Pathobiology of the Skin, Department of Dermatology, Medical University of Vienna, Vienna, Austria
| | - Horst Robenek
- Institute of Musculoskeletal Medicine, Dept. Bone and Skeletal Research, University Hospital Münster, Westfälische Wilhelms-Universität Münster, Münster, Germany
| | - Caterina Barresi
- Previous Address: Research Division of Biology and Pathobiology of the Skin, Department of Dermatology, Medical University of Vienna, Vienna, Austria.,Current Address: Children´s Cancer Research Institute, Vienna, Austria
| | - Marlene Brandstetter
- Electron Microscopy Facility, Vienna Biocenter Core Facilities GmbH, Vienna, Austria
| | - Guenter P Resch
- Electron Microscopy Facility, Vienna Biocenter Core Facilities GmbH, Vienna, Austria.,Current Address: Nexperion e.U.-Solutions for Electron Microscopy, Vienna, Austria
| | - Marion Gröger
- Imaging Unit, Department of Dermatology, Medical University of Vienna, Vienna, Austria
| | - Thomas Pap
- Institute of Musculoskeletal Medicine, Dept. Molecular Medicine, University Hospital Münster, Westfälische Wilhelms-Universität Münster, Münster, Germany
| | - Christine Hartmann
- Institute of Musculoskeletal Medicine, Dept. Bone and Skeletal Research, University Hospital Münster, Westfälische Wilhelms-Universität Münster, Münster, Germany
| |
Collapse
|
6
|
Fraser DL, Stander BA, Steenkamp V. Cytotoxic activity of pentachlorophenol and its active metabolites in SH-SY5Y neuroblastoma cells. Toxicol In Vitro 2019; 58:118-125. [DOI: 10.1016/j.tiv.2019.03.024] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/12/2018] [Revised: 03/11/2019] [Accepted: 03/20/2019] [Indexed: 12/18/2022]
|
7
|
Campden RI, Zhang Y. The role of lysosomal cysteine cathepsins in NLRP3 inflammasome activation. Arch Biochem Biophys 2019; 670:32-42. [PMID: 30807742 DOI: 10.1016/j.abb.2019.02.015] [Citation(s) in RCA: 118] [Impact Index Per Article: 23.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/15/2018] [Revised: 01/22/2019] [Accepted: 02/19/2019] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
Abstract
Lysosomal cysteine cathepsins are a family of proteases that are involved in a myriad of cellular processes from proteolytic degradation in the lysosome to bone resorption. These proteins mature following the cleavage of a pro-domain in the lysosome to become either exo- or endo-peptidases. The cathepsins B, C, L, S and Z have been implicated in NLRP3 inflammasome activation following their activation with ATP, monosodium urate, silica crystals, or bacterial components, among others. These five cathepsins have both compensatory and independent functions in NLRP3 inflammasome activation. There is much evidence in the literature to support the release of cathepsin B following lysosomal membrane degradation which leads to NLRP3 inflammasome activation. This is likely due to a hitherto unidentified role of this protein in the cytoplasm, although other interactions with autophagy proteins and within lysosomes have been proposed. Cathepsin C is involved in the processing of neutrophil IL-1β through processing of upstream proteases. Cathepsin Z is non-redundantly required for NLRP3 inflammasome activation following nigericin, ATP and monosodium urate activation. Lysosomal cysteine cathepsins are members of a diverse and complementary family, and likely share both overlapping and independent functions in NLRP3 inflammasome activation.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Rhiannon I Campden
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Faculty of Medicine, University of Calgary, Calgary, AB, Canada.
| | - Yifei Zhang
- Institute for Immunology, Department of Basic Medical Sciences, School of Medicine, Tsinghua-Peking Joint Center for Life Sciences, Tsinghua University, Beijing, 100084, China
| |
Collapse
|
8
|
Vital WD, Torquato HFV, Jesus LDOP, Judice WADS, Silva MFDGFD, Rodrigues T, Justo GZ, Veiga TAM, Paredes-Gamero EJ. 4-Deoxyraputindole C induces cell death and cell cycle arrest in tumor cell lines. J Cell Biochem 2018; 120:9608-9623. [PMID: 30525230 DOI: 10.1002/jcb.28238] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/06/2018] [Accepted: 11/15/2018] [Indexed: 11/12/2022]
Abstract
Several molecules extracted from natural products exhibit different biological activities, such as ion channel modulation, activation of signaling pathways, and anti-inflammatory or antitumor activity. In this study, we tested the antitumor ability of natural compounds extracted from the Raputia praetermissa plant. Among the compounds tested, an alkaloid, here called compound S4 (4-Deoxyraputindole C), showed antitumor effects against human tumor lineages. Compound S4 was the most active against Raji, a lymphoma lineage, promoting cell death with characteristics that including membrane permeabilization, dissipation of the mitochondrial potential, increased superoxide production, and lysosomal membrane permeabilization. The use of cell death inhibitors such as Z-VAD-FMK (caspase inhibitor), necrostatin-1 (receptor-interacting serine/threonine-protein kinase 1 inhibitor), E-64 (cysteine peptidases inhibitor), and N-acetyl- L-cysteine (antioxidant) did not decrease compound S4-dependent cell death. Additionally, we tested the effect of cellular activity on adherent human tumor cells. The highest reduction of cellular activity was observed in A549 cells, a lung carcinoma lineage. In this lineage, the effect on the reduction of the cellular activity was due to cell cycle arrest, without plasma membrane permeabilization, loss of the mitochondrial potential or lysosomal membrane permeabilization. Compound S4 was able to inhibit cathepsin B and L by a nonlinear competitive (negative co-operativity) and simple-linear competitive inhibitions, respectively. The potency of inhibition was higher against cathepsin L. Compound S4 promoted cell cycle arrest at G 0 and G 2 phase, and increase the expression of p16 and p21 proteins. In conclusion, compound S4 is an interesting molecule against cancer, promoting cell death in the human lymphoma lineage Raji and cell cycle arrest in the human lung carcinoma lineage A549.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Wagner D Vital
- Centro Interdisciplinar de Investigação Bioquı́mica, Universidade de Mogi das Cruzes, Mogi das Cruzes, Brasil
| | - Heron F V Torquato
- Departamento de Bioquímica, Universidade Federal de São Paulo, Universidade Braz Cubas, São Paulo, Brazil
| | | | | | | | - Tiago Rodrigues
- Centro de Ciências Naturais e Humanas, Universidade Federal do ABC, Santo André, Brazil
| | | | - Thiago A M Veiga
- Departamento de Química, Universidade Federal de São Paulo, Diadema, Brazil
| | - Edgar J Paredes-Gamero
- Departamento de Bioquímica, Universidade Federal de São Paulo, Universidade Braz Cubas, São Paulo, Brazil.,Faculdade de Ciências Farmacêuticas, Alimentos e Nutrição, Universidade Federal de Mato Grosso do Sul, Mato Grosso do Sul, Brazil
| |
Collapse
|
9
|
Morris G, Walker AJ, Berk M, Maes M, Puri BK. Cell Death Pathways: a Novel Therapeutic Approach for Neuroscientists. Mol Neurobiol 2018; 55:5767-5786. [PMID: 29052145 PMCID: PMC5994217 DOI: 10.1007/s12035-017-0793-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 96] [Impact Index Per Article: 16.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/16/2017] [Accepted: 09/26/2017] [Indexed: 02/08/2023]
Abstract
In the first part, the following mechanisms involved in different forms of cell death are considered, with a view to identifying potential therapeutic targets: tumour necrosis factor receptors (TNFRs) and their engagement by tumour necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-α); poly [ADP-ribose] polymerase (PARP)-1 cleavage; the apoptosis signalling kinase (ASK)-c-Jun N-terminal kinase (JNK) axis; lysosomal permeability; activation of programmed necrotic cell death; oxidative stress, caspase-3 inhibition and parthanatos; activation of inflammasomes by reactive oxygen species and the development of pyroptosis; oxidative stress, calcium dyshomeostasis and iron in the development of lysosomal-mediated necrosis and lysosomal membrane permeability; and oxidative stress, lipid peroxidation, iron dyshomeostasis and ferroptosis. In the second part, there is a consideration of the role of lethal and sub-lethal activation of these pathways in the pathogenesis and pathophysiology of neurodegenerative and neuroprogressive disorders, with particular reference to the TNF-α-TNFR signalling axis; dysregulation of ASK-1-JNK signalling; prolonged or chronic PARP-1 activation; the role of pyroptosis and chronic inflammasome activation; and the roles of lysosomal permeabilisation, necroptosis and ferroptosis. Finally, it is suggested that, in addition to targeting oxidative stress and inflammatory processes generally, neuropsychiatric disorders may respond to therapeutic targeting of TNF-α, PARP-1, the Nod-like receptor NLRP3 inflammasome and the necrosomal molecular switch receptor-interacting protein kinase-3, since their widespread activation can drive and/or exacerbate peripheral inflammation and neuroinflammation even in the absence of cell death. To this end, the use is proposed of a combination of the tetracycline derivative minocycline and N-acetylcysteine as adjunctive treatment for a range of neuropsychiatric disorders.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- G Morris
- , Bryn Road Seaside 87, Llanelli, Wales, , SA15 2LW, UK
- School of Medicine, Deakin University, Geelong, 3220, Australia
| | - A J Walker
- School of Medicine, Deakin University, Geelong, 3220, Australia
| | - M Berk
- The Centre for Molecular and Medical Research, School of Medicine, Deakin University, P.O. Box 291, Geelong, 3220, Australia
- Department of Clinical Medicine and Translational Psychiatry Research Group, Faculty of Medicine, Federal University of Ceará, Fortaleza, CE, 60430-040, Brazil
- IMPACT Strategic Research Centre, School of Medicine, Deakin University, P.O. Box 291, Geelong, 3220, Australia
- Orygen Youth Health Research Centre and the Centre of Youth Mental Health, The Florey Institute for Neuroscience and Mental Health and the Department of Psychiatry, University of Melbourne, Parkville, 3052, Australia
| | - M Maes
- School of Medicine, Deakin University, Geelong, 3220, Australia
- Department of Psychiatry, Chulalongkorn University, Bangkok, Thailand
| | - B K Puri
- Department of Medicine, Hammersmith Hospital, Imperial College London, London, W12 0HS, UK.
| |
Collapse
|
10
|
Inflammasome Activation by Methamphetamine Potentiates Lipopolysaccharide Stimulation of IL-1β Production in Microglia. J Neuroimmune Pharmacol 2018; 13:237-253. [PMID: 29492824 DOI: 10.1007/s11481-018-9780-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/14/2017] [Accepted: 02/19/2018] [Indexed: 01/09/2023]
Abstract
Methamphetamine (Meth) is an addictive psychostimulant abused worldwide. Ample evidence indicate that chronic abuse of Meth induces neurotoxicity via microglia-associated neuroinflammation and the activated microglia present in both Meth-administered animals and human abusers. The development of anti-neuroinflammation as a therapeutic strategy against Meth dependence promotes research to identify inflammatory pathways that are specifically tied to Meth-induced neurotoxicity. Currently, the exact mechanisms for Meth-induced microglia activation are largely unknown. NLRP3 is a well-studied cytosolic pattern recognition receptor (PRR), which promotes the assembly of the inflammasome in response to the danger-associated molecular patterns (DAMPs). It is our hypothesis that Meth activates NLRP3 inflammasome in microglia and promotes the processing and release of interleukin (IL)-1β, resulting in neurotoxic activity. To test this hypothesis, we studied the effects of Meth on IL-1β maturation and release from rat cortical microglial cultures. Incubation of microglia with physiologically relevant concentrations of Meth after lipopolysaccharide (LPS) priming produced an enhancement on IL-1β maturation and release. Meth treatment potentiated aggregation of inflammasome adaptor apoptosis-associated speck-like protein containing a caspase recruitment domain (ASC), induced activation of the IL-1β converting enzyme caspase-1 and produced lysosomal and mitochondrial impairment. Blockade of capase-1 activity, lysosomal cathepsin B activity or mitochondrial ROS production by their specific inhibitors reversed the effects of Meth, demonstrating an involvement of inflammasome in Meth-induced microglia activation. Taken together, our results suggest that Meth triggers microglial inflammasome activation in a manner dependent on both mitochondrial and lysosomal danger-signaling pathways.
Collapse
|
11
|
Dornhof R, Maschowski C, Osipova A, Gieré R, Seidl M, Merfort I, Humar M. Stress fibers, autophagy and necrosis by persistent exposure to PM2.5 from biomass combustion. PLoS One 2017; 12:e0180291. [PMID: 28671960 PMCID: PMC5495337 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0180291] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/11/2017] [Accepted: 06/13/2017] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
Fine particulate matter (PM2.5) can adversely affect human health. Emissions from residential energy sources have the largest impact on premature mortality globally, but their pathological and molecular implications on cellular physiology are still elusive. In the present study potential molecular consequences were investigated during long-term exposure of human bronchial epithelial BEAS-2B cells to PM2.5, collected from a biomass power plant. Initially, we observed that PM2.5 did not affect cellular survival or proliferation. However, it triggered an activation of the stress response p38 MAPK which, along with RhoA GTPase and HSP27, mediated morphological changes in BEAS-2B cells, including actin cytoskeletal rearrangements and paracellular gap formation. The p38 inhibitor SB203580 prevented phosphorylation of HSP27 and ameliorated morphological changes. During an intermediate phase of long-term exposure, PM2.5 triggered proliferative regression and activation of an adaptive stress response necessary to maintain energy homeostasis, including AMPK, repression of translational elongation, and autophagy. Finally, accumulation of intracellular PM2.5 promoted lysosomal destabilization and cell death, which was dependent on lysosomal hydrolases and p38 MAPK, but not on the inflammasome and pyroptosis. TEM images revealed formation of protrusions and cellular internalization of PM2.5, induction of autophagosomes, amphisomes, autophagosome-lysosomal fusion, multiple compartmental fusion, lysosomal burst, swollen mitochondria and finally necrosis. In consequence, persistent exposure to PM2.5 may impair epithelial barriers and reduce regenerative capacity. Hence, our results contribute to a better understanding of PM-associated lung and systemic diseases on the basis of molecular events.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Regina Dornhof
- Institute of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Pharmaceutical Biology and Biotechnology, Albert-Ludwigs University Freiburg, Freiburg, Germany
| | - Christoph Maschowski
- Institute of Earth and Environmental Sciences, Albert-Ludwigs University Freiburg, Freiburg, Germany
| | - Anastasiya Osipova
- Institute of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Pharmaceutical Biology and Biotechnology, Albert-Ludwigs University Freiburg, Freiburg, Germany
| | - Reto Gieré
- Department of Earth and Environmental Science and Center of Excellence in Environmental Toxicology, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, United States of America
| | - Maximilian Seidl
- Institute for Surgical Pathology, Faculty of Medicine, Albert-Ludwigs University Freiburg, Freiburg, Germany
- Center for Chronic Immunodeficiency (CCI), Faculty of Medicine, Albert-Ludwigs University Freiburg, Freiburg, Germany
| | - Irmgard Merfort
- Institute of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Pharmaceutical Biology and Biotechnology, Albert-Ludwigs University Freiburg, Freiburg, Germany
- Spemann Graduate School of Biology and Medicine (SGBM), Albert-Ludwigs University Freiburg, Freiburg, Germany
- * E-mail: (IM); (MH)
| | - Matjaz Humar
- Institute of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Pharmaceutical Biology and Biotechnology, Albert-Ludwigs University Freiburg, Freiburg, Germany
- * E-mail: (IM); (MH)
| |
Collapse
|
12
|
Zhang F, Chen D, Wang Y, Zhang L, Dong W, Dai J, Jin C, Dong X, Sun Y, Zhao H, Fan K, Liu H, Chen B, Zou H, Li W. Lysosome-dependent necrosis specifically evoked in cancer cells by gold nanorods. Nanomedicine (Lond) 2017; 12:1575-1589. [DOI: 10.2217/nnm-2017-0126] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Aim: This article aims to explain the necrosis mechanisms of cancer cells specifically induced by gold nanorods (GNRs). Methods: The intracellular route and location of GNRs, the interaction between GNRs and lysosome, lysosome damage, cathepsin B release, necrosis complex formation, receptor-interacting protein 1 and TNF-α expression were systematically investigated. Results: The GNRs with serum corona were internalized quickly by cancer cells and finally taken up by lysosomes. The GNRs damaged the lysosomal membrane, resulting in the leakage of cathepsin B, which promoted the activation of receptor-interacting protein 1 and necrosomes formation. Necrotic cells and their debris or ill cellular contents were engulfed by macrophages resulting in high-level release of TNF-α, which further confirmed necrosis. Conclusion: GNRs can specifically trigger lysosome-dependent necrosis in cancer cells.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Fulei Zhang
- International Joint Cancer Institute, the Second Military Medical University, Shanghai 200433, China
| | - Di Chen
- International Joint Cancer Institute, the Second Military Medical University, Shanghai 200433, China
| | - Ying Wang
- International Joint Cancer Institute, the Second Military Medical University, Shanghai 200433, China
| | - Li Zhang
- International Joint Cancer Institute, the Second Military Medical University, Shanghai 200433, China
| | - Wei Dong
- The Third Department of Hepatic Surgery, Eastern Hepatobiliary Surgery Hospital, the Second Military Medical University, Shanghai 200438, China
| | - Jianxin Dai
- International Joint Cancer Institute, the Second Military Medical University, Shanghai 200433, China
| | - Chong Jin
- International Joint Cancer Institute, the Second Military Medical University, Shanghai 200433, China
| | - Xia Dong
- International Joint Cancer Institute, the Second Military Medical University, Shanghai 200433, China
| | - Yun Sun
- International Joint Cancer Institute, the Second Military Medical University, Shanghai 200433, China
| | - He Zhao
- International Joint Cancer Institute, the Second Military Medical University, Shanghai 200433, China
| | - Kexin Fan
- International Joint Cancer Institute, the Second Military Medical University, Shanghai 200433, China
| | - Hui Liu
- The Third Department of Hepatic Surgery, Eastern Hepatobiliary Surgery Hospital, the Second Military Medical University, Shanghai 200438, China
| | - Bingdi Chen
- The Institute for Biomedical Engineering & Nano Science, Tongji University School of Medicine, Shanghai 200120, China
| | - Hao Zou
- Department of Pharmaceutical Science, School of Pharmacy, the Second Military Medical University, Shanghai 200433, China
| | - Wei Li
- International Joint Cancer Institute, the Second Military Medical University, Shanghai 200433, China
| |
Collapse
|
13
|
Brojatsch J, Lima H, Palliser D, Jacobson LS, Muehlbauer SM, Furtado R, Goldman DL, Lisanti MP, Chandran K. Distinct cathepsins control necrotic cell death mediated by pyroptosis inducers and lysosome-destabilizing agents. Cell Cycle 2015; 14:964-72. [PMID: 25830414 DOI: 10.4161/15384101.2014.991194] [Citation(s) in RCA: 36] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/22/2022] Open
Abstract
Necrotic cell death triggers a range of biological responses including a strong adaptive immune response, yet we know little about the cellular pathways that control necrotic cell death. Inhibitor studies suggest that proteases, and in particular cathepsins, drive necrotic cell death. The cathepsin B-selective inhibitor CA-074-Me blocks all forms of programmed necrosis by an unknown mechanism. We found that cathepsin B deficiency does not prevent induction of pyroptosis and lysosome-mediated necrosis suggesting that CA-074-Me blocks necrotic cell death by targeting cathepsins other than cathepsin B. A single cathepsin, cathepsin C, drives necrotic cell death mediated by the lysosome-destabilizing agent Leu-Leu-OMe (LLOMe). Here we present evidence that cathepsin C-deficiency and CA-074-Me block LLOMe killing in a distinct and cell type-specific fashion. Cathepsin C-deficiency and CA-074-Me block LLOMe killing of all myeloid cells, except for neutrophils. Cathepsin C-deficiency, but not CA-074-Me, blocks LLOMe killing of neutrophils suggesting that CA-074-Me does not target cathepsin C directly, consistent with inhibitor studies using recombinant cathepsin C. Unlike other cathepsins, cathepsin C lacks endoproteolytic activity, and requires activation by other lysosomal proteases, such as cathepsin D. Consistent with this theory, we found that lysosomotropic agents and cathepsin D downregulation by siRNA block LLOMe-mediated necrosis. Our findings indicate that a proteolytic cascade, involving cathepsins C and D, controls LLOMe-mediated necrosis. In contrast, cathepsins C and D were not required for pyroptotic cell death suggesting that distinct cathepsins control pyroptosis and lysosome-mediated necrosis.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Jürgen Brojatsch
- a Department of Microbiology and Immunology; Albert Einstein College of Medicine , Bronx , NY USA
| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
14
|
Železnik TZ, Kadin A, Turk V, Dolenc I. Aspartic cathepsin D degrades the cytosolic cysteine cathepsin inhibitor stefin B in the cells. Biochem Biophys Res Commun 2015; 465:213-7. [PMID: 26239660 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbrc.2015.07.155] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/24/2015] [Accepted: 07/30/2015] [Indexed: 10/23/2022]
Abstract
Stefin B is the major general cytosolic protein inhibitor of cysteine cathepsins. Its main function is to protect the organism against the activity of endogenous potentially hazardous proteases accidentally released from lysosomes. In this study, we investigated the possible effect of endosomal/lysosomal aspartic cathepsins D and E on stefin B after membrane permeabilization. Loss of membrane integrity of lysosomes and endosomes was induced by a lysosomotropic agent L-Leucyl-L-leucine methyl ester (Leu-Leu-OMe). The rat thyroid cell line FRTL-5 was selected as a model cell line owing to its high levels of proteases, including cathepsin D and E. Permeabilization of acid vesicles from FRTL-5 cells induced degradation of stefin B. The process was inhibited by pepstatin A, a potent inhibitor of aspartic proteases. However, degradation of stefin B was prevented by siRNA-mediated silencing of cathepsin D expression. In contrast, cathepsin E silencing had no effect on stefin B degradation. These results showed that cathepsin D and not cathepsin E degrades stefin B. It can be concluded that the presence of cathepsin D in the cytosol affects the inhibitory potency of stefin B, thus preventing the regulation of cysteine cathepsin activities in various biological processes.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Tajana Zajc Železnik
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular and Structural Biology, J. Stefan Institute, Jamova 39, SI-1000 Ljubljana, Slovenia
| | - Andrey Kadin
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular and Structural Biology, J. Stefan Institute, Jamova 39, SI-1000 Ljubljana, Slovenia; Jožef Stefan International Postgraduate School, Jamova 39, SI-1000 Ljubljana, Slovenia
| | - Vito Turk
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular and Structural Biology, J. Stefan Institute, Jamova 39, SI-1000 Ljubljana, Slovenia; Jožef Stefan International Postgraduate School, Jamova 39, SI-1000 Ljubljana, Slovenia
| | - Iztok Dolenc
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular and Structural Biology, J. Stefan Institute, Jamova 39, SI-1000 Ljubljana, Slovenia.
| |
Collapse
|
15
|
Brojatsch J, Lima H, Kar AK, Jacobson LS, Muehlbauer SM, Chandran K, Diaz-Griffero F. A proteolytic cascade controls lysosome rupture and necrotic cell death mediated by lysosome-destabilizing adjuvants. PLoS One 2014; 9:e95032. [PMID: 24893007 PMCID: PMC4043491 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0095032] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/16/2013] [Accepted: 03/23/2014] [Indexed: 12/22/2022] Open
Abstract
Recent studies have linked necrotic cell death and proteolysis of inflammatory proteins to the adaptive immune response mediated by the lysosome-destabilizing adjuvants, alum and Leu-Leu-OMe (LLOMe). However, the mechanism by which lysosome-destabilizing agents trigger necrosis and proteolysis of inflammatory proteins is poorly understood. The proteasome is a cellular complex that has been shown to regulate both necrotic cell death and proteolysis of inflammatory proteins. We found that the peptide aldehyde proteasome inhibitors, MG115 and MG132, block lysosome rupture, degradation of inflammatory proteins and necrotic cell death mediated by the lysosome-destabilizing peptide LLOMe. However, non-aldehyde proteasome inhibitors failed to prevent LLOMe-induced cell death suggesting that aldehyde proteasome inhibitors triggered a pleotropic effect. We have previously shown that cathepsin C controls lysosome rupture, necrotic cell death and the adaptive immune response mediated by LLOMe. Using recombinant cathepsin C, we found that aldehyde proteasome inhibitors directly block cathepsin C, which presumably prevents LLOMe toxicity. The cathepsin B inhibitor CA-074-Me also blocks lysosome rupture and necrotic cell death mediated by a wide range of necrosis inducers, including LLOMe. Using cathepsin-deficient cells and recombinant cathepsins, we demonstrate that the cathepsins B and C are not required for the CA-074-Me block of necrotic cell death. Taken together, our findings demonstrate that lysosome-destabilizing adjuvants trigger an early proteolytic cascade, involving cathepsin C and a CA-074-Me-dependent protease. Identification of these early events leading to lysosome rupture will be crucial in our understanding of processes controlling necrotic cell death and immune responses mediated by lysosome-destabilizing adjuvants.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Jürgen Brojatsch
- Albert Einstein College of Medicine, Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Bronx, New York, United States of America
- * E-mail:
| | - Heriberto Lima
- Albert Einstein College of Medicine, Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Bronx, New York, United States of America
| | - Alak K. Kar
- Albert Einstein College of Medicine, Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Bronx, New York, United States of America
| | - Lee S. Jacobson
- Albert Einstein College of Medicine, Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Bronx, New York, United States of America
| | - Stefan M. Muehlbauer
- Albert Einstein College of Medicine, Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Bronx, New York, United States of America
| | - Kartik Chandran
- Albert Einstein College of Medicine, Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Bronx, New York, United States of America
| | - Felipe Diaz-Griffero
- Albert Einstein College of Medicine, Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Bronx, New York, United States of America
| |
Collapse
|
16
|
Bergmann-Leitner ES, Leitner WW. Adjuvants in the Driver's Seat: How Magnitude, Type, Fine Specificity and Longevity of Immune Responses Are Driven by Distinct Classes of Immune Potentiators. Vaccines (Basel) 2014; 2:252-96. [PMID: 26344620 PMCID: PMC4494256 DOI: 10.3390/vaccines2020252] [Citation(s) in RCA: 67] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/27/2013] [Revised: 03/20/2014] [Accepted: 03/28/2014] [Indexed: 12/16/2022] Open
Abstract
The mechanism by which vaccine adjuvants enhance immune responses has historically been considered to be the creation of an antigen depot. From here, the antigen is slowly released and provided to immune cells over an extended period of time. This "depot" was formed by associating the antigen with substances able to persist at the injection site, such as aluminum salts or emulsions. The identification of Pathogen-Associated Molecular Patterns (PAMPs) has greatly advanced our understanding of how adjuvants work beyond the simple concept of extended antigen release and has accelerated the development of novel adjuvants. This review focuses on the mode of action of different adjuvant classes in regards to the stimulation of specific immune cell subsets, the biasing of immune responses towards cellular or humoral immune response, the ability to mediate epitope spreading and the induction of persistent immunological memory. A better understanding of how particular adjuvants mediate their biological effects will eventually allow them to be selected for specific vaccines in a targeted and rational manner.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Elke S Bergmann-Leitner
- US Military Malaria Research Program, Malaria Vaccine Branch, 503 Robert Grant Ave, 3W65, Silver Spring, MD 20910, USA.
| | - Wolfgang W Leitner
- Division on Allergy, Immunology and Transplantation, National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, National Institutes of Health, 6610 Rockledge Drive, Bethesda, MD 20892, USA.
| |
Collapse
|
17
|
Ambiguities in NLRP3 inflammasome regulation: is there a role for mitochondria? Biochim Biophys Acta Gen Subj 2013; 1840:1433-40. [PMID: 23994495 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbagen.2013.08.014] [Citation(s) in RCA: 81] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/27/2013] [Revised: 08/10/2013] [Accepted: 08/19/2013] [Indexed: 02/08/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND The NLRP3 inflammasome is a sensor of specific pathogen, host and environmental danger molecules. Upon activation NLRP3 recruits caspase-1, which cleaves and thereby activates precursor interleukin-1β (IL-1β) and IL-18 to initiate immune responses. Several recent studies have posited that the mitochondria are a central regulator of NLRP3 function. SCOPE OF REVIEW Mitochondrial reactive oxygen species (mtROS) production, mitochondrial apoptosis, mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) release, mitophagy, calcium induced mitochondrial damage and mitochondrial co-ordination of NLRP3 localization have all been implicated in regulating NLRP3 activity. In this article we review the literature both for and against these models of NLRP3 inflammasome activation, and highlight other recent contentious issues concerning NLRP3 functioning. MAJOR CONCLUSIONS Although many mechanisms have been proposed for activating NLRP3, no unified model has yet to gain acceptance. Further research is required to clarify how the mitochondria might influence NLRP3 activity. GENERAL SIGNIFICANCE While the NLRP3 inflammasome is important for host protection against microbial infection, rare genetic mutations in NLRP3 also cause severe auto-inflammatory diseases. More recent research has implicated NLRP3 activity in pathologies such as atherosclerosis, cancer, type 2 diabetes and Alzheimer's disease. Understanding the mechanisms of NLRP3 inflammasome formation and regulation therefore has the potential to uncover new inflammasome and disease specific therapeutic targets. This article is part of a Special Issue entitled Frontiers of Mitochondrial Research.
Collapse
|