PX-FERM proteins: A link between endosomal trafficking and signaling?

HPV-18 E6 enhances the interaction between EMILIN2 and SNX27 to promote WNT signaling

Oncogenic HPV E6 proteins have a PDZ-binding motif (PBM) which plays important roles in both the viral life cycle and tumor development. The PBM confers interaction with a large number of different PDZ domain-containing substrates, one of which is Sorting Nexin 27. This protein is part of the retromer complex and plays an important role in endocytic sorting pathways. It has been shown that at least two SNX27 interacting partners, GLUT1 and TANC2, are aberrantly trafficked due to the E6 PBM-dependent interaction with SNX27. To investigate further which other components of the endocytic trafficking pathway might be affected by the SNX27-HPV E6 interaction, we analyzed the SNX27 proteome interaction profile in a previously described HeLa cell line expressing GFP-SNX27, both in the presence and absence of the HPV-18 E6 oncoprotein. In this study, we identify a novel interacting partner of SNX27, secreted glycoprotein EMILIN2, whose release is blocked by HPV18 E6 in a PBM-dependent manner. Mechanistically, E6 can block EMILIN2 interaction with the WNT1 ligand, thereby enhancing WNT1 signaling and promoting cell proliferation.

IMPORTANCE

This study demonstrates that HPV E6 blocks EMILIN2 inhibition of WNT1 signaling, thereby enhancing cell proliferation in HPV-positive tumor cells. This involves a novel mechanism whereby the E6 PBM actually contributes toward enhancing the interaction between SNX27 and EMILIN2, suggesting that the mode of recognition of SNX27 by E6 and EMILIN2 is different. This is the first example of the E6 PBM altering a PDZ domain-containing protein to enhance potential substrate recognition.

SNX27 suppresses SARS-CoV-2 infection by inhibiting viral lysosome/late endosome entry

After binding to its cell surface receptor angiotensin converting enzyme 2 (ACE2), severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) enters the host cell through directly fusing with plasma membrane (cell surface pathway) or undergoing endocytosis traveling to lysosome/late endosome for membrane fusion (endocytic pathway). However, the endocytic entry regulation by host cell remains elusive. Recent studies show ACE2 possesses a type I PDZ binding motif (PBM) through which it could interact with a PDZ domain-containing protein such as sorting nexin 27 (SNX27). In this study, we determined the ACE2-PBM/SNX27-PDZ complex structure, and, through a series of functional analyses, we found SNX27 plays an important role in regulating the homeostasis of ACE2 receptor. More importantly, we demonstrated SNX27, together with retromer complex (the core component of the endosomal protein sorting machinery), prevents ACE2/virus complex from entering lysosome/late endosome, resulting in decreased viral entry in cells where the endocytic pathway dominates. The ACE2/virus retrieval mediated by SNX27-retromer could be considered as a countermeasure against invasion of ACE2 receptor-using SARS coronaviruses.

Biochemical basis for an interaction between SNX27 and the flexible SNX1 N-terminus

Metazoans require the sorting nexin (SNX) protein, SNX27, to recycle hundreds of important transmembrane protein receptors from endosomes to the plasma membrane. Cargo recycling by SNX27 requires its interaction with retromer, a heterotrimer known to assemble on membranes with multiple sorting nexins, including SNX-BAR proteins and SNX3. SNX27 has also been functionally linked to SNX-BARs, but the molecular basis of this interaction has been unknown. We identify a direct biochemical interaction between the conserved and flexible SNX1/SNX2 N-terminus and full-length SNX27 using purified proteins in pulldown experiments. Sequence alignments indicate both SNX1 and SNX2 contain two short and conserved stretches of acidic residues bearing a DxF motif in their flexible N-terminal regions. Biochemical pulldown and mapping experiments reveal forty residues in the N-terminus of either SNX1 or SNX2 can mediate binding to SNX27. SNX27 truncation analysis demonstrates the SNX27 FERM domain binds the SNX1 N-terminus. Calorimetry experiments quantified binding between the SNX1 N-terminus and SNX27 in the low micromolar affinity range (K_D ∼10 μM) and suggest the second DxF motif may play a more prominent role in binding. Mutation of either DxF sequence in SNX1 abrogates measurable binding to SNX27 in the calorimeter. Modelling from both predicted and experimentally determined structures suggests the SNX27 FERM domain could accommodate both DxF motifs simultaneously. Together, these data suggest SNX27 is directly linked to specific SNX-BAR proteins through binding acidic motifs in the SNX1 or SNX2 N-terminus.

Genome-Wide Characterization of PX Domain-Containing Proteins Involved in Membrane Trafficking-Dependent Growth and Pathogenicity of Fusarium graminearum

The Phox homology (PX) domain is a membrane recruitment module that binds to phosphoinositides (PI) mediating the selective sorting and transport of transmembrane proteins, lipids, and other critical cargo molecules via membrane trafficking processes. However, the mechanism of vesicular trafficking mediated by PX domain-containing proteins in phytopathogenic fungi and how this relates to the fungal development and pathogenicity remain unclear. Here, we systematically identified and characterized the functions of PX domain-containing proteins in the plant fungal pathogen Fusarium graminearum. Our data identified 14 PX domain-containing proteins in F. graminearum, all of which were required for plant infection and deoxynivalenol (DON) production, with the exception of FgMvp1 and FgYkr078. Furthermore, all the PX domain-containing proteins showed distinct localization patterns that were limited to the endosomes, vacuolar membrane, endoplasmic reticulum, cytoplasm, and hyphal septa/tips. Remarkably, among these proteins, FgBem1 targeted to surface crescent and septal pores and was retained at the septum pores even after actin constriction during septum development. Further analyses demonstrated that the surface crescent targeting of FgBem1 solely depended on its SH3 domains, while its septum and apex anchoring localization relied on its PX domain, which was also indispensable for reactive oxygen species (ROS) production, sexual development, and pathogenicity in F. graminearum. In summary, our study is the first detailed and comprehensive functional analysis of PX domain-containing proteins in filamentous fungi, and it provides new insight into the mechanism of FgBem1 involved in septum and apex anchorage mediated by its PX domain, which is necessary for sexual development and pathogenicity of F. graminearum.

A comprehensive analysis of RAS-effector interactions reveals interaction hotspots and new binding partners

RAS effectors specifically interact with GTP-bound RAS proteins to link extracellular signals to downstream signaling pathways. These interactions rely on two types of domains, called RAS-binding (RB) and RAS association (RA) domains, which share common structural characteristics. Although the molecular nature of RAS-effector interactions is well-studied for some proteins, most of the RA/RB-domain-containing proteins remain largely uncharacterized. Here, we searched through human proteome databases, extracting 41 RA domains in 39 proteins and 16 RB domains in 14 proteins, each of which can specifically select at least one of the 25 members in the RAS family. We next comprehensively investigated the sequence–structure–function relationship between different representatives of the RAS family, including HRAS, RRAS, RALA, RAP1B, RAP2A, RHEB1, and RIT1, with all members of RA domain family proteins (RASSFs) and the RB-domain-containing CRAF. The binding affinity for RAS-effector interactions, determined using fluorescence polarization, broadly ranged between high (0.3 μM) and very low (500 μM) affinities, raising interesting questions about the consequence of these variable binding affinities in the regulation of signaling events. Sequence and structural alignments pointed to two interaction hotspots in the RA/RB domains, consisting of an average of 19 RAS-binding residues. Moreover, we found novel interactions between RRAS1, RIT1, and RALA and RASSF7, RASSF9, and RASSF1, respectively, which were systematically explored in sequence–structure–property relationship analysis, and validated by mutational analysis. These data provide a set of distinct functional properties and putative biological roles that should now be investigated in the cellular context.

Toward Understanding the Molecular Role of SNX27/Retromer in Human Health and Disease

Aberrations in membrane trafficking pathways have profound effects in cellular dynamics of cellular sorting processes and can drive severe physiological outcomes. Sorting nexin 27 (SNX27) is a metazoan-specific sorting nexin protein from the PX-FERM domain family and is required for endosomal recycling of many important transmembrane receptors. Multiple studies have shown SNX27-mediated recycling requires association with retromer, one of the best-known regulators of endosomal trafficking. SNX27/retromer downregulation is strongly linked to Down's Syndrome (DS) via glutamate receptor dysfunction and to Alzheimer's Disease (AD) through increased intracellular production of amyloid peptides from amyloid precursor protein (APP) breakdown. SNX27 is further linked to addiction via its role in potassium channel trafficking, and its over-expression is linked to tumorigenesis, cancer progression, and metastasis. Thus, the correct sorting of multiple receptors by SNX27/retromer is vital for normal cellular function to prevent human diseases. The role of SNX27 in regulating cargo recycling from endosomes to the cell surface is firmly established, but how SNX27 assembles with retromer to generate tubulovesicular carriers remains elusive. Whether SNX27/retromer may be a putative therapeutic target to prevent neurodegenerative disease is now an emerging area of study. This review will provide an update on our molecular understanding of endosomal trafficking events mediated by the SNX27/retromer complex on endosomes.

Non-BRAF Mutant Melanoma: Molecular Features and Therapeutical Implications

Melanoma is one of the most aggressive tumors of the skin, and its incidence is growing worldwide. Historically considered a drug resistant disease, since 2011 the therapeutic landscape of melanoma has radically changed. Indeed, the improved knowledge of the immune system and its interactions with the tumor, and the ever more thorough molecular characterization of the disease, has allowed the development of immunotherapy on the one hand, and molecular target therapies on the other. The increased availability of more performing technologies like Next-Generation Sequencing (NGS), and the availability of increasingly large genetic panels, allows the identification of several potential therapeutic targets. In light of this, numerous clinical and preclinical trials are ongoing, to identify new molecular targets. Here, we review the landscape of mutated non-BRAF skin melanoma, in light of recent data deriving from Whole-Exome Sequencing (WES) or Whole-Genome Sequencing (WGS) studies on melanoma cohorts for which information on the mutation rate of each gene was available, for a total of 10 NGS studies and 992 samples, focusing on available, or in experimentation, targeted therapies beyond those targeting mutated BRAF. Namely, we describe 33 established and candidate driver genes altered with frequency greater than 1.5%, and the current status of targeted therapy for each gene. Only 1.1% of the samples showed no coding mutations, whereas 30% showed at least one mutation in the RAS genes (mostly NRAS) and 70% showed mutations outside of the RAS genes, suggesting potential new roads for targeted therapy. Ongoing clinical trials are available for 33.3% of the most frequently altered genes.

Sorting nexin 17 (SNX17) links endosomal sorting to Eps15 homology domain protein 1 (EHD1)-mediated fission machinery

Following endocytosis, receptors that are internalized to sorting endosomes are sorted to different pathways, in part by sorting nexin (SNX) proteins. Notably, SNX17 interacts with a multitude of receptors in a sequence-specific manner to regulate their recycling. However, the mechanisms by which SNX17-labeled vesicles that contain sorted receptors bud and undergo vesicular fission from the sorting endosomes remain elusive. Recent studies suggest that a dynamin-homolog, Eps15 homology domain protein 1, catalyzes fission and releases endosome-derived vesicles for recycling to the plasma membrane. However, the mechanism by which EHD1 is coupled to various receptors and regulates their recycling remains unknown. Here we sought to characterize the mechanism by which EHD1 couples with SNX17 to regulate recycling of SNX17-interacting receptors. We hypothesized that SNX17 couples receptors to the EHD1 fission machinery in mammalian cells. Coimmunoprecipitation experiments and in vitro assays provided evidence that EHD1 and SNX17 directly interact. We also found that inducing internalization of a SNX17 cargo receptor, low-density lipoprotein receptor-related protein 1 (LRP1), led to recruitment of cytoplasmic EHD1 to endosomal membranes. Moreover, surface rendering and quantification of overlap volumes indicated that SNX17 and EHD1 partially colocalize on endosomes and that this overlap further increases upon LRP1 internalization. Additionally, SNX17-containing endosomes were larger in EHD1-depleted cells than in WT cells, suggesting that EHD1 depletion impairs SNX17-mediated endosomal fission. Our findings help clarify our current understanding of endocytic trafficking, providing significant additional insight into the process of endosomal fission and connecting the sorting and fission machineries.

SNX17 (Sorting Nexin 17) Mediates Atrial Fibrillation Onset Through Endocytic Trafficking of the Kv1.5 (Potassium Voltage-Gated Channel Subfamily A Member 5) Channel

BACKGROUND

Kv1.5 (Potassium voltage-gated channel subfamily A member 5) has been regarded as a promising target of interventions for atrial fibrillation (AF). SNX17 (sorting nexin 17), a member of the SNXs (sorting nexin family), regulates the intracellular trafficking of membrane proteins through its FERM (four-point-one, ezrin, radixin, moesin) domain. However, whether SNX17 regulates the trafficking process of Kv1.5 remains unknown.

METHODS

A SNX17 knockout rat line was generated to test the role of SNX17 in atrial electrophysiology. The protein expression of SNX17 and membrane ion channels was detected by Western blotting. Electrophysiology changes in the atrial tissue and myocytes were analyzed by optical mapping and patch clamp, respectively. Acetylcholine and electrical stimulation were used to induce AF, and ECG recording was adopted to assess the influence of SNX17 deficiency on AF susceptibility. The spatial relationship between Kv1.5 and SNX17 was evaluated by immunostaining and confocal scanning, and the functional region of SNX17 regulating Kv1.5 trafficking was identified using plasmids with truncated SNX17 domains.

RESULTS

Embryonic death occurred in homozygous SNX17 knockout rats. SNX17 heterozygous rats survived, and the level of the SNX17 protein in the atrium was decreased by ≈50%. SNX17 deficiency increased the membrane expression of Kv1.5 and atria-specific ultrarapid delayed rectifier outward potassium current ( I_Kur) density, resulting in a shortened action potential duration, and eventually contributing to AF susceptibility. Mechanistically, SNX17 facilitated the endocytic sorting of Kv1.5 from the plasma membrane to early endosomes via the FERM domain.

CONCLUSIONS

SNX17 mediates susceptibility to AF by regulating endocytic sorting of the Kv1.5 channel through the FERM domain. SNX17 could be a potential target for the development of new drugs for AF.

NMR structure of a non-conjugatable, ADP-ribosylation associated, ubiquitin-like domain from Tetrahymena thermophila polyubiquitin locus

BACKGROUND

Ubiquitin-like domains (UbLs), in addition to being post-translationally conjugated to the target through the E1-E2-E3 enzymatic cascade, can be translated as a part of the protein they ought to regulate. As integral UbLs coexist with the rest of the protein, their structural properties can differ from canonical ubiquitin, depending on the protein context and how they interact with it. In this work, we investigate T.th-ubl5, a UbL present in a polyubiquitin locus of Tetrahymena thermophila, which is integral to an ADP-ribosyl transferase protein. Only one other co-occurrence of these two domains within the same protein has been reported.

METHODS

NMR, multiple sequence alignment, MD simulations and SPR have been used to characterize the structure of T.th-ubl5, identify putative binders and experimentally test the interaction, respectively.

RESULTS

Molecular dynamics simulations showed that T.th-ubl5 is unable to bind the proteasome like ubiquitin due to the lack of the conserved hydrophobic patch. Of other integral UbLs identified by structural and sequence alignment, T.th-ubl5 showed high structural and sequence resemblance with the Ras-binding epitope of FERM UbLs. SPR experiments confirmed that a strong and specific interaction occurs between T.th-ubl5 and T.th-Ras.

CONCLUSION

Data indicate that T.th-ubl5 does not interact with the proteasome like ubiquitin but acts as a decoy for the recruitment of Ras protein by the ADP-ribosyl transferase domain.

GENERAL SIGNIFICANCE

Mono-ADP-ribosylation of Ras proteins is known as a prerogative of bacterial toxins. T.th-ubl5 mediated recruitment of Ras highlights the possibility of an unprecedented post-translational modification with interesting implication for signalling pathways.

Interaction of the Human Papillomavirus E6 Oncoprotein with Sorting Nexin 27 Modulates Endocytic Cargo Transport Pathways

A subset of high-risk Human Papillomaviruses (HPVs) are the causative agents of a large number of human cancers, of which cervical is the most common. Two viral oncoproteins, E6 and E7, contribute directly towards the development and maintenance of malignancy. A characteristic feature of the E6 oncoproteins from cancer-causing HPV types is the presence of a PDZ binding motif (PBM) at its C-terminus, which confers interaction with cellular proteins harbouring PDZ domains. Here we show that this motif allows E6 interaction with Sorting Nexin 27 (SNX27), an essential component of endosomal recycling pathways. This interaction is highly conserved across E6 proteins from multiple high-risk HPV types and is mediated by a classical PBM-PDZ interaction but unlike many E6 targets, SNX27 is not targeted for degradation by E6. Rather, in HPV-18 positive cell lines the association of SNX27 with components of the retromer complex and the endocytic transport machinery is altered in an E6 PBM-dependent manner. Analysis of a SNX27 cargo, the glucose transporter GLUT1, reveals an E6-dependent maintenance of GLUT1 expression and alteration in its association with components of the endocytic transport machinery. Furthermore, knockdown of E6 in HPV-18 positive cervical cancer cells phenocopies the loss of SNX27, both in terms of GLUT1 expression levels and its vesicular localization, with a concomitant marked reduction in glucose uptake, whilst loss of SNX27 results in slower cell proliferation in low nutrient conditions. These results demonstrate that E6 interaction with SNX27 can alter the recycling of cargo molecules, one consequence of which is modulation of nutrient availability in HPV transformed tumour cells.

Phosphoinositide binding by the SNX27 FERM domain regulates its localization at the immune synapse of activated T-cells

Sorting nexin 27 (SNX27) controls the endosomal-to-cell-surface recycling of diverse transmembrane protein cargos. Crucial to this function is the recruitment of SNX27 to endosomes which is mediated by the binding of phosphatidylinositol-3-phosphate (PtdIns3P) by its phox homology (PX) domain. In T-cells, SNX27 localizes to the immunological synapse in an activation-dependent manner, but the molecular mechanisms underlying SNX27 translocation remain to be clarified. Here, we examined the phosphoinositide-lipid-binding capabilities of full-length SNX27, and discovered a new PtdInsP-binding site within the C-terminal 4.1, ezrin, radixin, moesin (FERM) domain. This binding site showed a clear preference for bi- and tri-phosphorylated phophoinositides, and the interaction was confirmed through biophysical, mutagenesis and modeling approaches. At the immunological synapse of activated T-cells, cell signaling regulates phosphoinositide dynamics, and we find that perturbing phosphoinositide binding by the SNX27 FERM domain alters the SNX27 distribution in both endosomal recycling compartments and PtdIns(3,4,5)P3-enriched domains of the plasma membrane during synapse formation. Our results suggest that SNX27 undergoes dynamic partitioning between different membrane domains during immunological synapse assembly, and underscore the contribution of unique lipid interactions for SNX27 orchestration of cargo trafficking.

A role for novel lipid interactions in the dynamic recruitment of SNX27 to the T-cell immune synapse

SNX27 is a member of the sorting nexin family that plays an important role in the recycling of receptors from endosomes to the cell surface. In addition to a PX (Phox homology) domain that regulates its endosomal localization, SNX27 has a unique PDZ (Psd-95/Dlg/ZO1) domain and an atypical FERM (4.1, ezrin, radixin, moesin) domain that both function to bind short peptide sequence motifs in the cytoplasmic domains of the cargo receptors. Using the T cell immune synapse (IS) as a model for polarized protein recycling, we recently identified an additional mechanism that enhances SNX27 localization to the endosomal recycling compartment (ERC). Our study defined a phosphoinositide (PI) lipid-binding site within the SNX27 FERM domain, with a clear preference for bi- and triphosphorylated PIs, which may promote SNX27 localization to phosphatidylinositol-4,5-bisphosphate (PtdIns(4,5)P2) and/or PtdIns(3,4,5)P3-enriched membrane domains. Using fluorescently tagged lipid-binding probes, we studied the kinetics of distinct PIs in living T cells during IS formation. Our results suggest that PtdIns(3,4,5)P3 accumulates at the contact site simultaneously with early SNX27 recruitment to the plasma membrane (PM), and this is partly controlled by by lipid binding through the FERM domain. These studies define 2 independent binding sites for PtdIns-derived lipids in SNX27, that contribute to the dynamic recruitment of SNX27 to distinct membranes during T cell activation.

Structural determinants for binding of sorting nexin 17 (SNX17) to the cytoplasmic adaptor protein Krev interaction trapped 1 (KRIT1)

Sorting nexin 17 (SNX17) is a member of the family of cytoplasmic sorting nexin adaptor proteins that regulate endosomal trafficking of cell surface proteins. SNX17 localizes to early endosomes where it directly binds NPX(Y/F) motifs in the cytoplasmic tails of its target receptors to mediate their rates of endocytic internalization, recycling, and/or degradation. SNX17 has also been implicated in mediating cell signaling and can interact with cytoplasmic proteins. KRIT1 (Krev interaction trapped 1), a cytoplasmic adaptor protein associated with cerebral cavernous malformations, has previously been shown to interact with SNX17. Here, we demonstrate that SNX17 indeed binds directly to KRIT1 and map the binding to the second Asn-Pro-Xaa-Tyr/Phe (NPX(Y/F)) motif in KRIT1. We further characterize the interaction as being mediated by the FERM domain of SNX17. We present the co-crystal structure of SNX17-FERM with the KRIT1-NPXF2 peptide to 3.0 Å resolution and demonstrate that the interaction is highly similar in structure and binding affinity to that between SNX17 and P-selectin. We verify the molecular details of the interaction by site-directed mutagenesis and pulldown assay and thereby confirm that the major binding site for SNX17 is confined to the NPXF2 motif in KRIT1. Taken together, our results verify a direct interaction between SNX17 and KRIT1 and classify KRIT1 as a SNX17 binding partner.

CLIC proteins, ezrin, radixin, moesin and the coupling of membranes to the actin cytoskeleton: a smoking gun?

The CLIC proteins are a highly conserved family of metazoan proteins with the unusual ability to adopt both soluble and integral membrane forms. The physiological functions of CLIC proteins may include enzymatic activity in the soluble form and anion channel activity in the integral membrane form. CLIC proteins are associated with the ERM proteins: ezrin, radixin and moesin. ERM proteins act as cross-linkers between membranes and the cortical actin cytoskeleton. Both CLIC and ERM proteins are controlled by Rho family small GTPases. CLIC proteins, ERM and Rho GTPases act in a concerted manner to control active membrane processes including the maintenance of microvillar structures, phagocytosis and vesicle trafficking. All of these processes involve the interaction of membranes with the underlying cortical actin cytoskeleton. The relationships between Rho GTPases, CLIC proteins, ERM proteins and the membrane:actin cytoskeleton interface are reviewed. Speculative models are proposed involving the formation of localised multi-protein complexes on the membrane surface that assemble via multiple weak interactions. This article is part of a Special Issue entitled: Reciprocal influences between cell cytoskeleton and membrane channels, receptors and transporters. Guest Editor: Jean Claude Hervé.

Structural basis for endosomal trafficking of diverse transmembrane cargos by PX-FERM proteins

Transit of proteins through the endosomal organelle following endocytosis is critical for regulating the homeostasis of cell-surface proteins and controlling signal transduction pathways. However, the mechanisms that control these membrane-transport processes are poorly understood. The Phox-homology (PX) domain-containing proteins sorting nexin (SNX) 17, SNX27, and SNX31 have emerged recently as key regulators of endosomal recycling and bind conserved Asn-Pro-Xaa-Tyr-sorting signals in transmembrane cargos via an atypical band, 4.1/ezrin/radixin/moesin (FERM) domain. Here we present the crystal structure of the SNX17 FERM domain bound to the sorting motif of the P-selectin adhesion protein, revealing both the architecture of the atypical FERM domain and the molecular basis for recognition of these essential sorting sequences. We further show that the PX-FERM proteins share a promiscuous ability to bind a wide array of putative cargo molecules, including receptor tyrosine kinases, and propose a model for their coordinated molecular interactions with membrane, cargo, and regulatory proteins.

Insights into the PX (phox-homology) domain and SNX (sorting nexin) protein families: structures, functions and roles in disease

The mammalian genome encodes 49 proteins that possess a PX (phox-homology) domain, responsible for membrane attachment to organelles of the secretory and endocytic system via binding of phosphoinositide lipids. The PX domain proteins, most of which are classified as SNXs (sorting nexins), constitute an extremely diverse family of molecules that play varied roles in membrane trafficking, cell signalling, membrane remodelling and organelle motility. In the present review, we present an overview of the family, incorporating recent functional and structural insights, and propose an updated classification of the proteins into distinct subfamilies on the basis of these insights. Almost all PX domain proteins bind PtdIns3P and are recruited to early endosomal membranes. Although other specificities and localizations have been reported for a select few family members, the molecular basis for binding to other lipids is still not clear. The PX domain is also emerging as an important protein–protein interaction domain, binding endocytic and exocytic machinery, transmembrane proteins and many other molecules. A comprehensive survey of the molecular interactions governed by PX proteins highlights the functional diversity of the family as trafficking cargo adaptors and membrane-associated scaffolds regulating cell signalling. Finally, we examine the mounting evidence linking PX proteins to different disorders, in particular focusing on their emerging importance in both pathogen invasion and amyloid production in Alzheimer's disease.