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Abebe EC, Mengstie MA, Seid MA, Malik T, Dejenie TA. The evolving roles of alarin in physiological and disease conditions, and its future potential clinical implications. Front Endocrinol (Lausanne) 2022; 13:1028982. [PMID: 36246892 PMCID: PMC9556965 DOI: 10.3389/fendo.2022.1028982] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/26/2022] [Accepted: 09/12/2022] [Indexed: 11/30/2022] Open
Abstract
Alarin is a member of the galanin family of neuropeptides that is widely expressed in the central nervous system and peripheral tissues in humans and rodents. It was initially isolated fifteen years ago in ganglionic cells of human neuroblastoma. Subsequently, it was demonstrated to be broadly distributed in the blood vessels, skin, eyes, peripheral and central nervous systems, thymus, gastrointestinal tract, and endocrine organs of different species. Alarin is a 25 amino acid neuropeptide derived from the alternative splicing of the GALP gene, missing exon 3. It is found to be involved in several physiological functions that include feeding behavior, energy homeostasis, glucose homeostasis, body temperature, and reproduction. It has also vasoactive, anti-inflammatory, anti-edema, and antimicrobial activities. However, the physiological effects of alarin have not been fully elucidated and the receptors that mediate these effects are not currently known. Unearthing the novel biological effects of alarin and its unidentified receptors will therefore be a task in future biomedical research. In addition, alarin is involved in various disease conditions, such as metabolic syndrome, obesity, insulin resistance, type 2 diabetes, diabetic retinopathy, hypertension, cardiac fibrosis, polycystic ovarian syndrome, and depression. Thus, alarin may serve as a promising tool for future pharmacological treatment and diagnosis. But further research is awaited to confirm whether alarin has a protective or pathological role in these diseases. This article provides a comprehensive review on the evolving implications of alarin in a variety of physiological and disease conditions, and its future perspectives.
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Affiliation(s)
- Endeshaw Chekol Abebe
- Department of Medical Biochemistry, College of Health Sciences, Debre Tabor University, Debre Tabor, Ethiopia
- *Correspondence: Endeshaw Chekol Abebe,
| | - Misganaw Asmamaw Mengstie
- Department of Medical Biochemistry, College of Health Sciences, Debre Tabor University, Debre Tabor, Ethiopia
| | - Mohammed Abdu Seid
- Department of Physiology, College of Health Sciences, Debre Tabor University, Debre Tabor, Ethiopia
| | - Tabarak Malik
- Department of Medical Biochemistry, College of Medicine and Health Sciences, University of Gondar, Gondar, Ethiopia
| | - Tadesse Asmamaw Dejenie
- Department of Medical Biochemistry, College of Medicine and Health Sciences, University of Gondar, Gondar, Ethiopia
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Abebe EC, Mengstie MA, Seid MA, Dejenie TA. Regulatory effects and potential therapeutic implications of alarin in depression, and arguments on its receptor. Front Psychiatry 2022; 13:1051235. [PMID: 36506414 PMCID: PMC9732279 DOI: 10.3389/fpsyt.2022.1051235] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/22/2022] [Accepted: 11/14/2022] [Indexed: 11/27/2022] Open
Abstract
Alarin is a pleiotropic peptide involved in a multitude of putative biological activities, notably, it has a regulatory effect on depression-like behaviors. Although further elucidating research is needed, animal-based cumulative evidence has shown the antidepressant-like effects of alarin. In light of its regulatory role in depression, alarin could be used as a promising antidepressant in future treatment for depression. Nevertheless, the available information is still insufficient and the therapeutic relevance of alarin in depression is still of concern. Moreover, a plethora of studies have reported that the actions of alarin, including antidepressant activities, are mediated by a separate yet unidentified receptor, highlighting the need for more extensive research. This review focuses on the current understanding of the regulatory effects and future therapeutic relevance of alarin on depression, and the arguments on its receptors.
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Affiliation(s)
- Endeshaw Chekol Abebe
- Department of Medical Biochemistry, College of Health Sciences, Debre Tabor University, Debre Tabor, Ethiopia
| | - Misganaw Asmamaw Mengstie
- Department of Medical Biochemistry, College of Health Sciences, Debre Tabor University, Debre Tabor, Ethiopia
| | - Mohammed Abdu Seid
- Department of Physiology, College of Health Sciences, Debre Tabor University, Debre Tabor, Ethiopia
| | - Tadesse Asmamaw Dejenie
- Department of Medical Biochemistry, College of Medicine and Health Sciences, University of Gondar, Gondar, Ethiopia
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Shen T, Liu Y, Dong S, Xu X, Wang X, Li Y, Zhou L. Alarin moderated myocardial hypertrophy via inhibiting cyclic adenosine monophosphate/protein kinase A signaling pathway to attenuate autophagy. Peptides 2021; 146:170669. [PMID: 34624429 DOI: 10.1016/j.peptides.2021.170669] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/21/2021] [Revised: 09/02/2021] [Accepted: 09/30/2021] [Indexed: 12/23/2022]
Abstract
Alarin could alleviate myocardial infarction-induced heart failure. The present study was to explore whether alarin could alleviate myocardial hypertrophy via inhibiting cyclic adenosine monophosphate/protein kinase A (cAMP/PKA) signaling pathway to attenuate autophagy. Myocardial hypertrophy was induced by angiotensin (Ang) II infusion in vivo in mice and by Ang II treatment of neonatal rat cardiomyocytes (NRCMs) in vitro. The Ang II-induced hypertrophy and fibrosis of the heart were alleviated after alarin administration in mice. The increased atrial natriuretic peptide (ANP), brain natriuretic peptide (BNP) and beta-myosin heavy chain (β-MHC), and the decreased alpha-myosin heavy chain (α-MHC) induced by Ang II were reversed by alarin treatment in NRCMs. Alarin inhibited the increases of cAMP and PKA in NRCMs. Treatment with cAMP or overexpression of PKA blocked the attenuating effects of alarin on Ang II-induced hypertrophy in NRCMs. Alarin reduced the Ang II-induced increases of LC3, Beclin 1, autophagy-related gene (Atg)3 and Atg5 in NRCMs. The overexpression of cAMP and PKA reversed the alleviating effects of alarin on the increased autophagy induced by Ang II in NRCMs. These results indicated that alarin could moderate cardiac remodeling. Alarin improved myocardial hypertrophy via inhibiting the cAMP/PKA signaling pathway to attenuate autophagy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tongtong Shen
- Department of Cardiology, Chuzhou Hospital Affiliated to Anhui Medical University, Chuzhou, China
| | - Yu Liu
- Department of Cardiology, Chuzhou Hospital Affiliated to Anhui Medical University, Chuzhou, China
| | - Shuangshuang Dong
- Department of Cardiology, Chuzhou Hospital Affiliated to Anhui Medical University, Chuzhou, China
| | - Xiaohong Xu
- Department of Cardiology, Chuzhou Hospital Affiliated to Anhui Medical University, Chuzhou, China
| | - Xinxin Wang
- Department of Cardiology, Chuzhou Hospital Affiliated to Anhui Medical University, Chuzhou, China
| | - Yong Li
- Department of Cardiology, The First Affiliated Hospital with Nanjing Medical University, Nanjing, China
| | - Limin Zhou
- Department of Cardiology, Chuzhou Hospital Affiliated to Anhui Medical University, Chuzhou, China.
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Li J, Ding H, Li Y, Zhou H, Wang W, Mei Y, Zhang R. Alarin alleviated cardiac fibrosis via attenuating oxidative stress in heart failure rats. Amino Acids 2021; 53:1079-1089. [PMID: 34089389 PMCID: PMC8241797 DOI: 10.1007/s00726-021-03005-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/04/2020] [Accepted: 05/15/2021] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
The present study was to explore whether alarin could alleviate heart failure (HF) and attenuate cardia fibrosis via inhibiting oxidative stress. The fibrosis of cardiac fibroblasts (CFs) was induced by angiotensin (Ang) II. HF models were induced by ligation of the left anterior descending artery to cause ischemia myocardial infarction (MI) in Sprague–Dawley rats. Alarin (1.0 nM/kg/d) was administrated by intraperitoneal injection for 28 days. The decreases of left ventricular (LV) ejection fraction (EF), fractional shortening (FS), the maximum of the first differentiation of LV pressure (LV ± dp/dtmax) and LV systolic pressure (LVSP), and the increases of LV volume in systole (LVVS), LV volume in diastole (LVVD), LV end-systolic diameter (LVESD) and LV end-diastolic diameter (LVEDD) in MI rats were improved by alarin treatment. The increases in the expression levels of collagen I, collagen III, and transforming growth factor (TGF)-β were inhibited by alarin treatment in CFs and in the hearts of MI rats. The levels of NADPH oxidase (Nox) activity, superoxide anions and malondialdehyde (MDA) levels were increased, and the level of superoxide dismutase (SOD) activity was reduced in Ang II-treated CFs, which were reversed by alarin. Nox1 overexpression reversed the effects of alarin on attenuating the increases of collagen I, collagen III and TGF-β expression levels induced by Ang II in CFs. These results indicated that alarin improved HF and cardiac fibrosis via inhibiting oxidative stress in HF rats. Nox1 played important roles in the regulation of alarin effects on attenuating CFs fibrosis induced by Ang II.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jinshuang Li
- Department of Cardiology, Suqian Hospital Affiliated of Xuzhou Medical University, 380 Huanghe South Road, Suqian, 223800, Jiangsu, China
| | - Hao Ding
- Department of Cardiology, Suqian Hospital Affiliated of Xuzhou Medical University, 380 Huanghe South Road, Suqian, 223800, Jiangsu, China
| | - Yong Li
- Department of Cardiology, The First Affiliated Hospital of Nanjing Medical University, Nanjing, 210029, Jiangsu, China
| | - Hao Zhou
- Department of Cardiology, Suqian Hospital Affiliated of Xuzhou Medical University, 380 Huanghe South Road, Suqian, 223800, Jiangsu, China
| | - Wanhong Wang
- Department of Cardiology, Suqian Hospital Affiliated of Xuzhou Medical University, 380 Huanghe South Road, Suqian, 223800, Jiangsu, China
| | - Yong Mei
- Department of Emergency Medicine, The First Affiliated Hospital of Nanjing Medical University, 300 Guangzhou Road, Nanjing, 210029, Jiangsu, China.
| | - Ronglin Zhang
- Department of Cardiology, Suqian Hospital Affiliated of Xuzhou Medical University, 380 Huanghe South Road, Suqian, 223800, Jiangsu, China. .,Department of Cardiology, Nanjing Drum Tower Hospital, The Affiliated Hospital of Nanjing University Medical School, Nanjing, 210008, Jiangsu, China.
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Zhou X, Luo M, Zhou S, Cheng Z, Chen Z, Yu X. Plasma Alarin Level and Its Influencing Factors in Obese Newly Diagnosed Type 2 Diabetes Patients. Diabetes Metab Syndr Obes 2021; 14:379-385. [PMID: 33536771 PMCID: PMC7850453 DOI: 10.2147/dmso.s290072] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/02/2020] [Accepted: 12/22/2020] [Indexed: 12/25/2022] Open
Abstract
OBJECTIVE To investigate the plasma alarin level in newly diagnosed obese type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM) and its correlation with glucose and lipid metabolism and insulin resistance. METHODS From October 2018 to June 2020, 239 newly diagnosed T2DM patients were collected. According to obesity, patients were divided into T2DM obese group (n=135) and T2DM non-obese group (n =104). Gender, age, body mass index (BMI), blood lipids, blood glucose, glycosylated hemoglobin A1c (HbA1c), fasting insulin (FINS), plasma alarin concentration, homeostasis model assessment for insulin resistance (HOMA-IR), homeostasis model assessment for β-cell function (HOMA-β) and other clinical data were collected and analyzed. RESULTS BMI, triacylglycerol (TG), total cholesterol (TC), low-density lipoprotein-cholesterol (LDL-C), fasting blood glucose (FPG), HbA1c, FINS, plasma alarin levels and HOMA-IR in the control group, T2DM non-obese group and T2DM obese group increased sequentially, and high-density lipoprotein-cholesterol (HDL-L) and HOMA-β decreased sequentially (P<0.05). Correlation analysis results showed that plasma alarin levels in T2DM patients were positively correlated with waistline, BMI, TC, LDL-C, FPG, HbA1c, FINS and HOMA-IR (P<0.05), and negatively correlated with HDL-C and HOMA-β (P <0.05), and the correlation coefficient of T2DM obese group was significantly higher than that of T2DM non-obese group (P<0.05). Multiple linear stepwise regression analysis showed that BMI, FPG, HbA1c, HOMA-β, and HOMA-IR were independent factors related to plasma alarin levels in T2DM non-obese and T2DM obese patients, and the correlation coefficient of the T2DM obese group was significantly higher than that of the T2DM non-obese group (P <0.05). CONCLUSION Plasma alarin levels increase in newly diagnosed T2DM and obese T2DM patients, which are affected by TC, BMI, FPG, HbA1c, HOMA-β and HOMA-IR, and may be involved in development of T2DM.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xin Zhou
- Department of Endocrinology, Chongqing Traditional Chinese Medicine Hospital, Chongqing400000, People’s Republic of China
| | - Mei Luo
- Department of Endocrinology, Chongqing Traditional Chinese Medicine Hospital, Chongqing400000, People’s Republic of China
| | - Sha Zhou
- Department of Endocrinology, Chongqing Traditional Chinese Medicine Hospital, Chongqing400000, People’s Republic of China
| | - Zhiling Cheng
- Department of Endocrinology, Chongqing Traditional Chinese Medicine Hospital, Chongqing400000, People’s Republic of China
| | - Zhongpei Chen
- Department of Endocrinology, Chongqing Traditional Chinese Medicine Hospital, Chongqing400000, People’s Republic of China
| | - Xiaoxia Yu
- Department of Endocrinology, Chongqing Traditional Chinese Medicine Hospital, Chongqing400000, People’s Republic of China
- Correspondence: Xiaoxia Yu Department of Endocrinology, Chongqing Traditional Chinese Medicine Hospital, Chongqing400000, People’s Republic of China Tel/Fax +86 2363842760 Email
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Jabari S, Schrödl F, Kaser-Eichberger A, Kofler B, Brehmer A. Alarin in different human intestinal epithelial cell types. Histochem Cell Biol 2019; 151:513-520. [PMID: 30612153 DOI: 10.1007/s00418-018-1763-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 12/18/2018] [Indexed: 12/18/2022]
Abstract
Alarin (AL), a new member of the galanin family, has been localized in various CNS regions, mainly in rodents. Among other effects, it modulates food intake. Therefore, we analyzed the immunohistochemical distribution pattern of AL in human intestinal epithelia. Cryosections of 12 human bowel samples were immunohistochemically double-stained for AL and α-defensin 5 (αD; first set). Two further sets of sections were quadruple-stained either (second set) for AL, chromogranin (CG), synaptophysin (SY), and somatostatin (SO) or (third set) for AL, CG, Peptide Y (PY), and 5-hydroxytryptamine (5-HT). Slides were digitized and quantitative analysis of co-localization rates was undertaken. Small bowel: most of AL-positive cells (56%) were αD-positive Paneth cells located within the base of the crypts (first set). In the second set, about 27% of AL-labeled cells were co-reactive for SY and CG, likely representing entero-endocrine cells. In the third set, the largest subpopulation of AL-positive cells was not co-reactive for other markers applied (89%); most of them were likely Paneth cells. Large bowel: co-localization of AL with αD was not detected (first set). In the second set, AL was frequently co-localized with the other three markers applied (68%). In the third set, AL was frequently co-localized with 5-HT and CG (31%) as well as with PY and 5-HT (22%). Due to its presence in various enteroendocrine as well as Paneth cells, AL may be involved in different physiological and pathological processes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Samir Jabari
- Institute of Neuropathology, Friedrich-Alexander University Erlangen-Nürnberg, Erlangen, Germany.
| | - Falk Schrödl
- Department of Ophthalmology/Optometry, Research Program Experimental Ophthalmology, Paracelsus Medical University, Salzburg, Austria.,Department of Anatomy, Paracelsus Medical University, Salzburg, Austria
| | - Alexandra Kaser-Eichberger
- Department of Ophthalmology/Optometry, Research Program Experimental Ophthalmology, Paracelsus Medical University, Salzburg, Austria.,Department of Anatomy, Paracelsus Medical University, Salzburg, Austria
| | - Barbara Kofler
- Research Program for Receptor Biochemistry and Tumor Metabolism, Department of Pediatrics, Paracelsus Medical University, Salzburg, Austria
| | - Axel Brehmer
- Institute of Anatomy and Cell Biology, Friedrich-Alexander University Erlangen-Nürnberg, Erlangen, Germany
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Affiliation(s)
- Alexandre A Steiner
- Instituto de Ciências Biomédicas, Universidade de São Paulo, Av. Prof. Lineu Prestes, 1730 São Paulo, SP 05508-000, Brazil
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Mikó A, Füredi N, Tenk J, Rostás I, Soós S, Solymár M, Székely M, Balaskó M, Brunner SM, Kofler B, Pétervári E. Acute central effects of alarin on the regulation on energy homeostasis. Neuropeptides 2017; 64:117-122. [PMID: 27625299 DOI: 10.1016/j.npep.2016.09.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/29/2016] [Accepted: 09/04/2016] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
Abstract
Hypothalamic neuropeptides influence the main components of energy balance: metabolic rate, food intake, body weight as well as body temperature, by exerting either an overall anabolic or catabolic effect. The contribution of alarin, the most recently discovered member of the galanin peptide family to the regulation of energy metabolism has been suggested. Our aim was to analyze the complex thermoregulatory and food intake-related effects of alarin in rats. Adult male Wistar rats received different doses of alarin (0.3; 1; 3 and 15μg corresponding approximately to 0.1, 0.33, 1, and 5 nmol, respectively) intracerebroventricularly. Regarding thermoregulatory analysis, oxygen consumption (indicating metabolic rate), core temperature and heat loss (assessed by tail skin temperature) were recorded in an Oxymax indirect calorimeter system complemented with thermocouples and Benchtop thermometer. In order to investigate potential prostaglandin-mediated mechanisms of the hyperthermic effect of alarin, effects of intraperitoneally applied non-selective (indomethacin, 2mg/kg) or selective cyclooxygenase inhibitor (COX-2 inhibitor meloxicam, 1; 2mg/kg) were tested. Effects of alarin on daytime and nighttime spontaneous food intake, as well as, 24-h fasting-induced re-feeding were recorded in an automated FeedScale system. Alarin increased oxygen consumption with simultaneous suppression of heat loss leading to a slow coordinated rise in core temperature. Both applied COX-inhibitors suppressed this action. Alarin failed to induce daytime food intake, but suppressed spontaneous nighttime and also fasting-induced re-feeding food intake. Alarin appears to elicit a slow anorexigenic and prostaglandin-mediated, fever-like hyperthermic response in rats. Such a combination would characterize a catabolic mediator. The potential involvement of alarin in sickness behavior may be assumed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alexandra Mikó
- Institute for Translational Medicine, Medical School, University of Pécs, Hungary
| | - Nóra Füredi
- Institute for Translational Medicine, Medical School, University of Pécs, Hungary
| | - Judit Tenk
- Institute for Translational Medicine, Medical School, University of Pécs, Hungary
| | - Ildikó Rostás
- Institute for Translational Medicine, Medical School, University of Pécs, Hungary
| | - Szilvia Soós
- Institute for Translational Medicine, Medical School, University of Pécs, Hungary
| | - Margit Solymár
- Institute for Translational Medicine, Medical School, University of Pécs, Hungary
| | - Miklós Székely
- Institute for Translational Medicine, Medical School, University of Pécs, Hungary
| | - Márta Balaskó
- Institute for Translational Medicine, Medical School, University of Pécs, Hungary
| | - Susanne M Brunner
- Laura Bassi Centre of Expertise - THERAPEP, Research Program for Receptor Biochemistry and Tumor Metabolism, Department of Pediatrics, Paracelsus Medical University, Salzburg, Austria
| | - Barbara Kofler
- Laura Bassi Centre of Expertise - THERAPEP, Research Program for Receptor Biochemistry and Tumor Metabolism, Department of Pediatrics, Paracelsus Medical University, Salzburg, Austria.
| | - Erika Pétervári
- Institute for Translational Medicine, Medical School, University of Pécs, Hungary.
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Horowitz M, Kenny GP, McAllen RM, van Marken Lichtenbelt WD. Thermal physiology in a changing thermal world. Temperature (Austin) 2015; 2:22-6. [PMID: 27226998 PMCID: PMC4843882 DOI: 10.1080/23328940.2015.1017088] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/27/2015] [Revised: 02/04/2015] [Accepted: 02/04/2015] [Indexed: 12/04/2022] Open
Abstract
This editorial focuses on articles submitted to the Temperature call "Thermal Physiology in a Changing Thermal World." It highlights an array of topics related to thermoregulatory and metabolic functions in adverse environments, and the complexity and adaptability of the systems to changing climatic conditions, at various levels of body organization.
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Affiliation(s)
- Michal Horowitz
- Laboratory of Environmental Physiology; Faculty of Dentistry; The Hebrew University of Jerusalem; Israel
| | - Glen P Kenny
- Human Environmental Physiological Research Unit; University of Ottawa; Canada
| | - Robin M McAllen
- The Florey Institute of Neuroscience and Mental Health; University of Melbourne; Melbourne, VIC Australia
- Department of Anatomy & Neuroscience; University Of Melbourne; Melbourne, VIC Australia
| | - Wouter D van Marken Lichtenbelt
- Department of Human Biology; NUTRIM School for Nutrition, Toxicology and Metabolism of Maastricht University Medical Center; The Netherlands
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Roth J. A paradoxical role for alarin in the nervous control of energy homeostasis and thermoregulation: orexigenic but hypermetabolic. Temperature (Austin) 2014; 2:49-50. [PMID: 27226993 PMCID: PMC4843887 DOI: 10.4161/23328940.2014.989794] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/03/2014] [Revised: 11/14/2014] [Accepted: 11/14/2014] [Indexed: 02/03/2023] Open
Abstract
Alarin is a lately discovered member of the galanin family of peptides. Although it has orexigenic effects in the brain, alarin induces thermoregulatory responses, which promote an increase of core temperature in rats. With some delay intracerebroventricular injections of alarin causes a 15% rise in metabolic rate at an ambient temperature of 25°C and a pronounced fall in tail skin temperature, i.e. peripheral vasoconstriction, at 28°C.
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Affiliation(s)
- Joachim Roth
- Department of Veterinary-Physiology and -Biochemistry; Justus-Liebig University of Giessen ; Giessen, Germany
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