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Truong AD, Tran HTT, Chu NT, Nguyen HT, Phan L, Phan HT, Vu TH, Song KD, Lillehoj HS, Hong YH, Dang HV. Comprehensive genome‑wide analysis of the chicken heat shock protein family: identification, genomic organization, and expression profiles in indigenous chicken with highly pathogenic avian influenza infection. BMC Genomics 2023; 24:793. [PMID: 38124030 PMCID: PMC10734131 DOI: 10.1186/s12864-023-09908-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/01/2023] [Accepted: 12/14/2023] [Indexed: 12/23/2023] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Heat shock proteins (HSPs) function as molecular chaperones with critical roles in chicken embryogenesis, immune response to infectious diseases, and response to various environmental stresses. However, little is known on HSP genes in chicken. In this study, to understand the roles of chicken HSPs, we performed genome-wide identification, expression, and functional analyses of the HSP family genes in chicken. RESULTS A total of 76 HSP genes were identified in the chicken genome, which were further classified into eight distinct groups (I-VIII) based on phylogenetic tree analysis. The gene-structure analysis revealed that the members of each clade had the same or similar exon-intron structures. Chromosome mapping suggested that HSP genes were widely dispersed across the chicken genome, except in chromosomes 16, 18, 22, 25, 26, and 28-32, which lacked chicken HSP genes. On the other hand, the interactions among chicken HSPs were limited, indicating that the remaining functions of HSPs could be investigated in chicken. Moreover, KEGG pathway analysis showed that the HSP gene family was involved in the regulation of heat stress, apoptotic, intracellular signaling, and immune response pathways. Finally, RNA sequencing data revealed that, of the 76 chicken HSP genes, 46 were differentially expressed at 21 different growth stages in chicken embryos, and 72 were differentially expressed on post-infection day 3 in two indigenous Ri chicken lines infected with highly pathogenic avian influenza. CONCLUSIONS This study provides significant insights into the potential functions of HSPs in chicken, including the regulation of apoptosis, heat stress, chaperone activity, intracellular signaling, and immune response to infectious diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anh Duc Truong
- Department of Biochemistry and Immunology, National Institute of Veterinary Research, 86 Truong Chinh, Dong Da, Ha Noi, 100000, Vietnam
| | - Ha Thi Thanh Tran
- Department of Biochemistry and Immunology, National Institute of Veterinary Research, 86 Truong Chinh, Dong Da, Ha Noi, 100000, Vietnam
| | - Nhu Thi Chu
- Department of Biochemistry and Immunology, National Institute of Veterinary Research, 86 Truong Chinh, Dong Da, Ha Noi, 100000, Vietnam
| | - Huyen Thi Nguyen
- Department of Biochemistry and Immunology, National Institute of Veterinary Research, 86 Truong Chinh, Dong Da, Ha Noi, 100000, Vietnam
| | - Lanh Phan
- Department of Biochemistry and Immunology, National Institute of Veterinary Research, 86 Truong Chinh, Dong Da, Ha Noi, 100000, Vietnam
| | - Hoai Thi Phan
- Department of Biochemistry and Immunology, National Institute of Veterinary Research, 86 Truong Chinh, Dong Da, Ha Noi, 100000, Vietnam
| | - Thi Hao Vu
- Department of Biochemistry and Immunology, National Institute of Veterinary Research, 86 Truong Chinh, Dong Da, Ha Noi, 100000, Vietnam
- Department of Animal Science and Technology, Chung-Ang University, Anseong, 17546, Republic of Korea
| | - Ki-Duk Song
- The Animal Molecular Genetics and Breeding Center, Department of Animal Biotechnology, JeonBuk National University, Jeonju, 54896, Republic of Korea
| | - Hyun S Lillehoj
- Animal Biosciences and Biotechnology Laboratory, Agricultural Research Services, United States Department of Agriculture, Beltsville, MD, 20705, USA
| | - Yeong Ho Hong
- Department of Animal Science and Technology, Chung-Ang University, Anseong, 17546, Republic of Korea.
| | - Hoang Vu Dang
- Department of Biochemistry and Immunology, National Institute of Veterinary Research, 86 Truong Chinh, Dong Da, Ha Noi, 100000, Vietnam.
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Nawaz AH, Amoah K, Leng QY, Zheng JH, Zhang WL, Zhang L. Poultry Response to Heat Stress: Its Physiological, Metabolic, and Genetic Implications on Meat Production and Quality Including Strategies to Improve Broiler Production in a Warming World. Front Vet Sci 2021; 8:699081. [PMID: 34368284 PMCID: PMC8342923 DOI: 10.3389/fvets.2021.699081] [Citation(s) in RCA: 55] [Impact Index Per Article: 18.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/22/2021] [Accepted: 06/24/2021] [Indexed: 12/21/2022] Open
Abstract
The continuous increase in poultry production over the last decades to meet the high growing demand and provide food security has attracted much concern due to the recent negative impacts of the most challenging environmental stressor, heat stress (HS), on birds. The poultry industry has responded by adopting different environmental strategies such as the use of environmentally controlled sheds and modern ventilation systems. However, such strategies are not long-term solutions and it cost so much for farmers to practice. The detrimental effects of HS include the reduction in growth, deterioration of meat quality as it reduces water-holding capacity, pH and increases drip loss in meat consequently changing the normal color, taste and texture of chicken meat. HS causes poor meat quality by impairing protein synthesis and augmenting undesirable fat in meat. Studies previously conducted show that HS negatively affects the skeletal muscle growth and development by changing its effects on myogenic regulatory factors, insulin growth factor-1, and heat-shock proteins. The focus of this article is in 3-fold: (1) to identify the mechanism of heat stress that causes meat production and quality loss in chicken; (2) to discuss the physiological, metabolic and genetic changes triggered by HS causing setback to the world poultry industry; (3) to identify the research gaps to be addressed in future studies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ali H Nawaz
- College of Coastal Agricultural Sciences, Guangdong Ocean University, Zhanjiang, China
| | - Kwaku Amoah
- Aquatic Animals Precision Nutrition and High-Efficiency Feed Engineering Research Center of Guangdong Province, Zhanjiang, China
| | - Qi Y Leng
- College of Coastal Agricultural Sciences, Guangdong Ocean University, Zhanjiang, China
| | - Jia H Zheng
- College of Coastal Agricultural Sciences, Guangdong Ocean University, Zhanjiang, China
| | - Wei L Zhang
- College of Coastal Agricultural Sciences, Guangdong Ocean University, Zhanjiang, China
| | - Li Zhang
- College of Coastal Agricultural Sciences, Guangdong Ocean University, Zhanjiang, China
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Effect of Post-Hatch Heat-Treatment in Heat-Stressed Transylvanian Naked Neck Chicken. Animals (Basel) 2021; 11:ani11061575. [PMID: 34072238 PMCID: PMC8227715 DOI: 10.3390/ani11061575] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/26/2021] [Revised: 05/11/2021] [Accepted: 05/20/2021] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
Simple Summary Heat stress due to high environmental temperature negatively influences animal productivity. Extensive studies have been carried out to evaluate the mechanisms of heat stress in chickens. It was shown that the expression level of heat-shock factors (HSFs) and heat-shock proteins (HSPs) were affected. Tissue-specific responses to the thermal challenge were also found in the heart, liver and muscle. Our study examined the changes in primary production parameters and four heat-shock factor and two heat-shock protein expression profiles in chicken gonads. In the first experiment, 24 h after hatching, 80 Transylvanian Naked Neck chickens were heat-treated at 38.5 °C ambient temperature with 60% humidity for 12 h. In this experiment, we studied the primary productivity parameters of matured chickens after the performed heat stress. In the second experiment, the heat treatment was the same, and we examined the expression pattern of heat-shock factors and heat-shock proteins in the control and treated gonads. We collected the samples immediately after the heat-treatment in case of half of the treated and control group. We found a significant difference in egg production, and increased expression level of HSP90 and HSF4 in heat-treated female gonads. Abstract Although numerous studies reported the effects of heat stress in chickens, it was not investigated in the Transylvanian Naked Neck breed. In our research, Transylvanian Naked Neck chickens, 24 h after hatching, were heat-treated at 38.5 °C for 12 h. We compared the control and heat-treated adult chickens’ productivity parameters following 12 weeks of heat-stress at 30 °C. We found that the heat-treated layers had significantly higher egg production in heat stress, but in cockerels, the sperm quality did not differ significantly between the two groups. To detect the effect of heat-treatment on a molecular level, the expression of two heat-shock proteins and four heat-shock factors were analysed in the gonads of control and heat-treated chickens. We found that the expression level of HSP90 and HSF4 increased significantly in heat-treated female chicken gonads. Still, in adult females, the expression of HSF2 and HSF3 were substantially lower compared to the control. In adult heat-treated males, the HSP70, HSF1 and HSF3 expression levels showed a significant increase in both gonads compared to the control. We think that the presented significant differences in egg production might be related to the increased expression level of HSP90 and HSF4 in heat-treated female gonads.
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Patra AK, Kar I. Heat stress on microbiota composition, barrier integrity, and nutrient transport in gut, production performance, and its amelioration in farm animals. JOURNAL OF ANIMAL SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY 2021; 63:211-247. [PMID: 33987600 PMCID: PMC8071753 DOI: 10.5187/jast.2021.e48] [Citation(s) in RCA: 45] [Impact Index Per Article: 15.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/02/2021] [Revised: 02/17/2021] [Accepted: 02/19/2021] [Indexed: 12/18/2022]
Abstract
Livestock species experience several stresses, particularly weaning,
transportation, overproduction, crowding, temperature, and diseases in their
life. Heat stress (HS) is one of the most stressors, which is encountered in
livestock production systems throughout the world, especially in the tropical
regions and is likely to be intensified due to global rise in environmental
temperature. The gut has emerged as one of the major target organs affected by
HS. The alpha- and beta-diversity of gut microbiota composition are altered due
to heat exposure to animals with greater colonization of pathogenic microbiota
groups. HS also induces several changes in the gut including damages of
microstructures of the mucosal epithelia, increased oxidative insults, reduced
immunity, and increased permeability of the gut to toxins and pathogens.
Vulnerability of the intestinal barrier integrity leads to invasion of
pathogenic microbes and translocation of antigens to the blood circulations,
which ultimately may cause systematic inflammations and immune responses.
Moreover, digestion of nutrients in the guts may be impaired due to reduced
enzymatic activity in the digesta, reduced surface areas for absorption and
injury to the mucosal structure and altered expressions of the nutrient
transport proteins and genes. The systematic hormonal changes due to HS along
with alterations in immune and inflammatory responses often cause reduced feed
intake and production performance in livestock and poultry. The altered
microbiome likely orchestrates to the hosts for various relevant biological
phenomena occurring in the body, but the exact mechanisms how functional
communications occur between the microbiota and HS responses are yet to be
elucidated. This review aims to discuss the effects of HS on microbiota
composition, mucosal structure, oxidant-antioxidant balance mechanism, immunity,
and barrier integrity in the gut, and production performance of farm animals
along with the dietary ameliorations of HS. Also, this review attempts to
explain the mechanisms how these biological responses are affected by HS.
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Affiliation(s)
- Amlan Kumar Patra
- Department of Animal Nutrition, West Bengal University of Animal and Fishery Sciences, Kolkata, West Bengal 700037, India
| | - Indrajit Kar
- Department of Avian Sciences, West Bengal University of Animal and Fishery Sciences, Kolkata, West Bengal 700037, India
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Hua QY, Zhang MH, Wang L, Bai LL, Li L, He H, Mustafa A, Liu HH, Song CL. Temperature-sensitive pathways may be involved in duck embryonic developmental recovery from blastoderm dormancy during hatching. Br Poult Sci 2020; 61:366-374. [PMID: 32290702 DOI: 10.1080/00071668.2020.1752910] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/24/2022]
Abstract
1. Birds' newly oviposited blastoderms can survive several weeks in a dormant state during low-temperature storage. Previous studies demonstrated that there is a critical temperature range from 19 to 27°C for chicken embryos. Within this range, the embryo will diapause in a dormant state; once the temperature rises above this range, the blastoderm will break dormancy. 2. Clarifying the mechanism that initiates duck embryo developmental recovery from blastoderm dormancy will be helpful to change temperature control to improve hatching in poultry production. It was hypothesised that there might be some temperature-sensitive genes involved in initiating duck embryo developmental recovery from blastoderm dormancy. 3. To test this hypothesis, the transcriptome of the newly oviposited duck blastoderm and duck embryo (incubated for 48 hours) were sequenced to screen for differentially expressed genes with functions that had been predicted by bioinformatics. 4. The results showed that there were 2416 differentially expressed genes between the two groups, 53 of which were involved in temperature-sensitive pathways. The protein-protein interaction network combined these 53 temperature-sensitive genes and another group of 65 genes, which enriched the development pathway. These results suggested that temperature-sensitive genes may be involved in growth and development related pathways.
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Affiliation(s)
- Q Y Hua
- Farm Animal Genetic Resources Exploration and Innovation Key Laboratory of Sichuan Province, Sichuan Agricultural University , Chengdu, Sichuan, P.R China
| | - M H Zhang
- Farm Animal Genetic Resources Exploration and Innovation Key Laboratory of Sichuan Province, Sichuan Agricultural University , Chengdu, Sichuan, P.R China
| | - L Wang
- Farm Animal Genetic Resources Exploration and Innovation Key Laboratory of Sichuan Province, Sichuan Agricultural University , Chengdu, Sichuan, P.R China
| | - L L Bai
- Farm Animal Genetic Resources Exploration and Innovation Key Laboratory of Sichuan Province, Sichuan Agricultural University , Chengdu, Sichuan, P.R China
| | - L Li
- Farm Animal Genetic Resources Exploration and Innovation Key Laboratory of Sichuan Province, Sichuan Agricultural University , Chengdu, Sichuan, P.R China
| | - H He
- Farm Animal Genetic Resources Exploration and Innovation Key Laboratory of Sichuan Province, Sichuan Agricultural University , Chengdu, Sichuan, P.R China
| | - A Mustafa
- Farm Animal Genetic Resources Exploration and Innovation Key Laboratory of Sichuan Province, Sichuan Agricultural University , Chengdu, Sichuan, P.R China
| | - H H Liu
- Farm Animal Genetic Resources Exploration and Innovation Key Laboratory of Sichuan Province, Sichuan Agricultural University , Chengdu, Sichuan, P.R China
| | - C L Song
- Farm Animal Genetic Resources Exploration and Innovation Key Laboratory of Sichuan Province, Sichuan Agricultural University , Chengdu, Sichuan, P.R China
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Radwan LM. Genetic improvement of egg laying traits in Fayoumi chickens bred under conditions of heat stress through selection and gene expression studies. J Therm Biol 2020; 89:102546. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jtherbio.2020.102546] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/30/2019] [Revised: 02/14/2020] [Accepted: 02/14/2020] [Indexed: 12/18/2022]
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Hajati H, Zaghari M, Oliveira HC. Arthrospira (Spirulina) Platensis Can Be Considered as a Probiotic Alternative to Reduce Heat Stress in Laying Japanese Quails. BRAZILIAN JOURNAL OF POULTRY SCIENCE 2020. [DOI: 10.1590/1806-9061-2018-0977] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
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Zhang X, Zhang M, Su Y, Wang Z, Zhao Q, Zhu H, Qian Z, Xu J, Tang S, Wu D, Lin Y, Kemper N, Hartung J, Bao E. Inhibition of heat stress-related apoptosis of chicken myocardial cells through inducing Hsp90 expression by aspirin administration in vivo. Br Poult Sci 2018; 59:308-317. [PMID: 29557194 DOI: 10.1080/00071668.2018.1454585] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
Abstract
1. This experiment investigated the anti-apoptosis effects and the mechanism of aspirin action in the heat shock response of chicken myocardial cells in vivo, via changes in the heat stress (HS) protein Hsp90 and the rate of apoptosis. Broiler chickens were administered aspirin (1 mg/kg body weight) 2 h before exposure to HS, and then exposed to 40 ± 1°C for 0, 1, 2, 3, 5, 7, 10, 15 and 24 h. 2. The induction and consumption of the HS factor heat shock factor (HSF)-1, and reductions of HSF-2 and HSF-3 induced by HS led to a delay in Hsp90 expression. HSF-1, 2 and 3 regulation of hsp90 expression in turn inhibited the synthesis and activation of protein kinase β (Akt), which resulted in a significant increase in caspase-3 at 2 and 10 h, caspase-9 from 1 to 7 h (except at 5 h), and the heat-stressed apoptosis of the myocardial cells. 3. Administration of aspirin changed the expression patterns of HSF-1, 2 and 3 such that the expression of Hsp90 protein was significantly upregulated (by 2.3-4.1 times compared with that of the non-treated cells). The resultant increase in Akt expression and activation, compared with the HS group, inhibited caspase-3 and caspase-9 activities and reduced the myocardial cells apoptosis rate (by 2.14-2.56 times). 4. Aspirin administration could inhibit heat-stressed apoptosis of myocardial cells in vivo and may be closely associated with its promotion of HS response of chicken hearts, especially Hsp90 expression.
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Affiliation(s)
- X Zhang
- a College of Veterinary Medicine, Nanjing Agricultural University , Nanjing , China
| | - M Zhang
- b College of Animal Science and Technology , Jinling Institute of Technology , Nanjing , China
| | - Y Su
- a College of Veterinary Medicine, Nanjing Agricultural University , Nanjing , China
| | - Z Wang
- a College of Veterinary Medicine, Nanjing Agricultural University , Nanjing , China
| | - Q Zhao
- a College of Veterinary Medicine, Nanjing Agricultural University , Nanjing , China
| | - H Zhu
- a College of Veterinary Medicine, Nanjing Agricultural University , Nanjing , China
| | - Z Qian
- a College of Veterinary Medicine, Nanjing Agricultural University , Nanjing , China
| | - J Xu
- a College of Veterinary Medicine, Nanjing Agricultural University , Nanjing , China
| | - S Tang
- a College of Veterinary Medicine, Nanjing Agricultural University , Nanjing , China
| | - D Wu
- a College of Veterinary Medicine, Nanjing Agricultural University , Nanjing , China
| | - Y Lin
- a College of Veterinary Medicine, Nanjing Agricultural University , Nanjing , China
| | - N Kemper
- c Institute for Animal Hygiene, Animal Welfare and Farm Animal Behaviour , University of Veterinary Medicine Hannover , Hannover , Germany
| | - J Hartung
- c Institute for Animal Hygiene, Animal Welfare and Farm Animal Behaviour , University of Veterinary Medicine Hannover , Hannover , Germany
| | - E Bao
- a College of Veterinary Medicine, Nanjing Agricultural University , Nanjing , China
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Huang S. Upregulation of TLR4 mRNA Expression Levels in Broiler Chickens Under Acute Heat Stress. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2017. [DOI: 10.1590/1806-9061-2016-0344] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/24/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- S Huang
- Henan Agricultural University, China
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10
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Surai PF, Kochish II. Antioxidant Systems and Vitagenes in Poultry Biology: Heat Shock Proteins. HEAT SHOCK PROTEINS 2017. [DOI: 10.1007/978-3-319-73377-7_5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
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Varasteh S, Braber S, Akbari P, Garssen J, Fink-Gremmels J. Differences in Susceptibility to Heat Stress along the Chicken Intestine and the Protective Effects of Galacto-Oligosaccharides. PLoS One 2015; 10:e0138975. [PMID: 26402906 PMCID: PMC4581695 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0138975] [Citation(s) in RCA: 153] [Impact Index Per Article: 17.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/30/2015] [Accepted: 09/07/2015] [Indexed: 01/13/2023] Open
Abstract
High ambient temperatures negatively affect the human well-being as well as animal welfare and production. The gastrointestinal tract is predominantly responsive to heat stress. The currently available information about the multifaceted response to heat stress within different parts of the intestine is limited, especially in avian species. Hence, this study aims to evaluate the heat stress-induced sequence of events in the intestines of chickens. Furthermore, the gut health-promoting effect of dietary galacto-oligosaccharides (GOS) was investigated in these heat stress-exposed chickens. Chickens were fed a control diet or diet supplemented with 1% or 2.5% GOS (6 days) prior to and during a temperature challenge for 5 days (38-39°C, 8h per day). The parameters measured in different parts of the intestines included the genes (qPCR) HSF1, HSF3, HSP70, HSP90, E-cadherin, claudin-1, claudin-5, ZO-1, occludin, TLR-2, TLR-4, IL-6, IL-8, HO-1, HIF-1α) and their associated proteins HSP70, HSP90 and pan-cadherin (western blots). In addition, IL-6 and IL-8 plasma concentrations were measured by ELISA. In the jejunum, HSF3, HSP70, HSP90, E-cadherin, claudin-5, ZO-1, TLR-4, IL-6 and IL-8 mRNA expression and HSP70 protein expression were increased after heat stress exposure and a more pronounced increase in gene expression was observed in ileum after heat stress exposure, and in addition HSF1, claudin-1 and HIF-1α mRNA levels were upregulated. Furthermore, the IL-8 plasma levels were decreased in chickens exposed to heat stress. Interestingly, the heat stress-related effects in the jejunum were prevented in chickens fed a GOS diet, while dietary GOS did not alter these effects in ileum. In conclusion, our results demonstrate the differences in susceptibility to heat stress along the intestine, where the most obvious modification in gene expression is observed in ileum, while dietary GOS only prevent the heat stress-related changes in jejunum.
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Affiliation(s)
- Soheil Varasteh
- Division of Veterinary Pharmacy, Pharmacology and Toxicology, Utrecht University, Utrecht, The Netherlands; Division of Pharmacology, Utrecht Institute for Pharmaceutical Sciences, Faculty of Science, Utrecht University, Utrecht, The Netherlands
| | - Saskia Braber
- Division of Veterinary Pharmacy, Pharmacology and Toxicology, Utrecht University, Utrecht, The Netherlands
| | - Peyman Akbari
- Division of Veterinary Pharmacy, Pharmacology and Toxicology, Utrecht University, Utrecht, The Netherlands; Division of Pharmacology, Utrecht Institute for Pharmaceutical Sciences, Faculty of Science, Utrecht University, Utrecht, The Netherlands
| | - Johan Garssen
- Division of Pharmacology, Utrecht Institute for Pharmaceutical Sciences, Faculty of Science, Utrecht University, Utrecht, The Netherlands; Nutricia Research, Utrecht, The Netherlands
| | - Johanna Fink-Gremmels
- Division of Veterinary Pharmacy, Pharmacology and Toxicology, Utrecht University, Utrecht, The Netherlands
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