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de Sousa Leite L, de Rezende Feres VC, Scalize PS. Predictor Variables in the Spread of Chagas Disease in Rural Areas. Pathogens 2024; 13:394. [PMID: 38787245 PMCID: PMC11124446 DOI: 10.3390/pathogens13050394] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/19/2024] [Revised: 05/07/2024] [Accepted: 05/07/2024] [Indexed: 05/25/2024] Open
Abstract
Over a hundred years ago after the discovery of Chagas disease (CD) in Brazil, the World Health Organization estimates a number of 6 to 7 million people infected by Trypanosoma cruzi worldwide. Therefore, the goal of this work was to identify variables related to the spread of infection by T. cruzi in humans living in rural areas, seeking predictor variables. A systematic review of the literature has been conducted, with a search in the Scopus platform, using the search string "Chagas disease" and "rural", resulting in 85 valid and analyzed scientific studies (1977 and 2022). Twenty-seven predictor variables have been acquired, and 19 of them have been grouped, such as: socioeconomic and educational, housing, environmental, sanitary, and cultural; and 8 variables related to T. cruzi seropositive individuals. The predictor variables yielded significant results (p-value < 0.05) in 59.5% of the cases (195/328), with a median of 66.7%. In other words, studies relating to 50% of the 27 variables showed significance equal to or greater than 66.7% of the time. The independent variables with the highest proportion of significant data (p-value < 0.05) were Education (87.6%), Intradomicile building (70%), Domestic animals (69.6%), and Triatomines (69.2%) in the households. Some variables reached 100%; however, few articles were found, indicating the need for further research, especially for Sanitation and Culture. It has been concluded that, in the several contexts found, the social vulnerability and lack of information led the individual to living in environments where inhabitability is inadequate, to perform limited work activity and develop habits and behaviors which impair them in an environmental insalubrity situation, favorable to the access of vectors and pathogens of anthropozoonoses such as CD.
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Affiliation(s)
- Liziana de Sousa Leite
- Post-Graduation Program in Environmental Sciences (CIAMB), Federal University of Goiás, Goiania 74605-170, Brazil;
| | | | - Paulo Sérgio Scalize
- Post-Graduation Program in Environmental Sciences (CIAMB) and the Post-Graduation Program in Sanitary and Environmental Engineering (PPGEAS), Federal University of Goiás, Goiania 74605-170, Brazil
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2
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Pérez-Sánchez E, Montiel-Cruz R, Romero-Domínguez E, Pascacio-Bermúdez G, Báez-Hernández A, Díaz-del Castillo Flores G, Correa-Morales F, Vázquez-Prokopec G, ManriqueSaide P, Che-Mendoza A, Meneses-Ruiz G, López-Martínez I, Sánchez MJ. Seroprevalence of Trypanosoma cruzi among children from Veracruz, Mexico: Epidemiological baseline for a control model based on Chagas disease active transmission. BIOMEDICA : REVISTA DEL INSTITUTO NACIONAL DE SALUD 2024; 44:92-101. [PMID: 38648342 PMCID: PMC11204380 DOI: 10.7705/biomedica.7126] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/18/2023] [Accepted: 01/26/2024] [Indexed: 04/25/2024]
Abstract
Introduction. In 2021, the Secretaría de Salud de México and the Pan American Health Organization launched an initiative to interrupt intra-domiciliary vector transmission of Trypanosoma cruzi based on the prevalence of Chagas disease in children. The Mexican State of Veracruz was leading this initiative. Objective. To estimate the seroprevalence of T. cruzi infection among children under 15 years of age from rural areas of Veracruz, México. Materials and methods. We identified eight localities of high priority from the Municipality of Tempoal, Veracruz, for baseline serology. Blood samples were collected on filter paper from 817 individuals between June and August 2017, for screening with a third-generation enzyme immunoassay. Reactive cases were confirmed by indirect hemagglutination, enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay, and indirect immunofluorescence tests on peripheral blood serum samples. We calculated seroprevalence and 95% confidence intervals (CI). Results. We confirmed Chagas disease cases in children under 15 years of age with a seroprevalence of 1,9% (95 % CI = 1,12-3,16) in the localities of Citlaltepetl, Cornizuelo, Cruz de Palma and Rancho Nuevo. Conclusions. These results indicate recent transmission of T. cruzi in these communities and allow to establish an epidemiological baseline for the design and implementation of a model focused on geographical areas with active transmission to advance toward the elimination of intra-domiciliary vector transmission of this parasite in Mexico.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ernesto Pérez-Sánchez
- Servicios de Salud del Estado de Veracruz, Xalapa, MéxicoServicios de Salud del Estado de VeracruzServicios de Salud del Estado de VeracruzXalapaXalapa
| | - Raúl Montiel-Cruz
- Servicios de Salud del Estado de Veracruz, Xalapa, MéxicoServicios de Salud del Estado de VeracruzServicios de Salud del Estado de VeracruzXalapaXalapa
| | - Eréndira Romero-Domínguez
- Servicios de Salud del Estado de Veracruz, Xalapa, MéxicoServicios de Salud del Estado de VeracruzServicios de Salud del Estado de VeracruzXalapaXalapa
| | - Griselda Pascacio-Bermúdez
- Servicios de Salud del Estado de Veracruz, Xalapa, MéxicoServicios de Salud del Estado de VeracruzServicios de Salud del Estado de VeracruzXalapaXalapa
| | - Arturo Báez-Hernández
- Servicios de Salud del Estado de Veracruz, Xalapa, MéxicoServicios de Salud del Estado de VeracruzServicios de Salud del Estado de VeracruzXalapaXalapa
| | - Guadalupe Díaz-del Castillo Flores
- Servicios de Salud del Estado de Veracruz, Xalapa, MéxicoServicios de Salud del Estado de VeracruzServicios de Salud del Estado de VeracruzXalapaXalapa
| | - Fabián Correa-Morales
- Centro Nacional de Programas Preventivos y Control de Enfermedades, Secretaría de Salud, Ciudad de México, MéxicoCentro Nacional de Programas Preventivos y Control de EnfermedadesCentro Nacional de Programas Preventivos y Control de EnfermedadesCiudad de MéxicoCiudad de México
| | - Gonzalo Vázquez-Prokopec
- Department of Environmental Sciences, Emory University, Atlanta, GA, United States of AmericaEmory UniversityEmory UniversityAtlantaAtlanta
| | - Pablo ManriqueSaide
- Unidad Colaborativa para Bioensayos Entomológicos, Campus de Ciencias Biológicas y Agropecuarias, Universidad Autónoma de Yucatán, Mérida, MéxicoMéridaUniversidad Autónoma de YucatánMéridaUniversidad Autónoma de Yucatán
| | - Azael Che-Mendoza
- Unidad Colaborativa para Bioensayos Entomológicos, Campus de Ciencias Biológicas y Agropecuarias, Universidad Autónoma de Yucatán, Mérida, MéxicoMéridaUniversidad Autónoma de YucatánMéridaUniversidad Autónoma de Yucatán
| | - Gabriela Meneses-Ruiz
- Instituto de Diagnóstico y Referencia Epidemiológicos, Ciudad de México, MéxicoCiudad de MéxicoInstituto de Diagnóstico y Referencia EpidemiológicosCiudad de MéxicoInstituto de Diagnóstico y Referencia Epidemiológicos
| | - Irma López-Martínez
- Instituto de Diagnóstico y Referencia Epidemiológicos, Ciudad de México, MéxicoCiudad de MéxicoInstituto de Diagnóstico y Referencia EpidemiológicosCiudad de MéxicoInstituto de Diagnóstico y Referencia Epidemiológicos
| | - María Jesús Sánchez
- Organización Panamericana de la Salud, Ciudad de México, MéxicoCiudad de MéxicoOrganización Panamericana de la SaludCiudad de MéxicoOrganización Panamericana de la Salud
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Santos F, Magalhães-Junior JT, Carneiro IDO, Santos FLN, Silva ÂAO, Novais JMCB, Santos JSS, Ribeiro-Jr G, Reis MG, Franke CR. Eco-epidemiology of vectorial Trypanosoma cruzi transmission in a region of northeast Brazil. Acta Trop 2022; 225:106184. [PMID: 34637752 DOI: 10.1016/j.actatropica.2021.106184] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/09/2021] [Revised: 08/12/2021] [Accepted: 09/26/2021] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
Abstract
Chagas disease (CD) is a parasitic zoonosis endemic in Brazil. Despite virtual control of Triatoma infestans, the main domesticated vector of Trypanosoma cruzi, vectorial transmission by other triatomine species persists in some rural communities. This study aims to characterize triatomines role in transmitting T. cruzi to dogs and humans in the district of Santo Inácio, located in the northwest region of the state of Bahia, Brazil. It also describes environmental factors in housings associated with insect occurrence and assesses the perception, knowledge, and preventive practices adopted by the population regarding CD. Blood samples of humans and dogs, and biological samples of triatomines, were collected between November 2018 and February 2019 and subjected to the detection of T. cruzi by serological and molecular biology tests. Also, we applied a questionnaire to research the perception, knowledge, and local practices of people related to CD. The capture of triatomines in households was associated with exploratory variables of the questionnaires using multivariate logistic regression (p < 0.05). The 155 triatomines captured in the wild and domestic environment were of the species Triatoma sherlocki (n = 151), Panstrongylus sherlocki (n = 1) and Triatoma sordida (n = 3), and had a natural infection rate for T. cruzi by PCR of 18.5%, 100% and 0%, respectively. District residents (n = 126) were seronegative for T. cruzi, while 17.5% (7/40) of the dogs were seropositive. The fact that residents are aware that triatomines can "cause" CD was configured as a protection factor for residents according to the fitted logistic regression model (p = 0.04). However, respondents have limited perception and knowledge about the CD, prevention and control practices for triatomines in a household. The results suggest the existence of a domestic cycle of transmission of T. cruzi between triatomines and dogs, configuring a latent risk of infection to the human population of Santo Inácio. Studies that clarify the potential for the establishing of intrusive triatomines in households, surveillance actions for triatomines, and health education in rural communities are indispensable to prevent the reemergence of CD in vulnerable regions of Brazil and other American countries with similar epidemiological characteristics.
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Polonio R, López-Domínguez J, Herrera C, Dumonteil E. Molecular ecology of Triatoma dimidiata in southern Belize reveals risk for human infection and the local differentiation of Trypanosoma cruzi parasites. Int J Infect Dis 2021; 108:320-329. [PMID: 34098097 DOI: 10.1016/j.ijid.2021.05.083] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/21/2021] [Revised: 05/21/2021] [Accepted: 05/31/2021] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
OBJECTIVE In Belize, the main vector for Trypanosoma cruzi, the agent of Chagas disease, is Triatoma dimidiata, but transmission cycles and the risk for human infection are unclear. Therefore, the aim of this study was to identify T. dimidiata blood feeding sources and its parasite and microbial diversity, in order to reconstruct T. cruzi parasite transmission ecology in southern Belize. METHODS A metabarcoding approach based on deep sequencing of markers was used for bug taxonomy, blood meal sources, T. cruzi genotypes, and microbiota composition. Bugs were collected in 13 villages of Toledo district. RESULTS Bugs fed on at least 13 species, from domestic hosts such as humans, dogs, cows, and pigs, to synanthropic species such as mice, rats, and opossums, and sylvatic species such as deer, peccary, and kinkajou, in agreement with an opportunistic feeding behavior. Nonetheless, most feeding focused on a few species, including humans. Infection with T. cruzi was detected in 24 of 39 bugs (62%), and the analysis of 242 T. cruzi mini-exon sequences (average 10 ± 5 haplotypes per bug) indicated the presence of TcI and TcIV parasite discrete typing units (DTUs). However, for both DTUs, sequences from Belize mostly clustered apart from sequences from North and South America, suggesting the local differentiation of parasites. T. dimidiata also harbored a diverse bacterial microbiota, with ontogenic changes suggesting microbiota maturation during nymphal development. CONCLUSIONS Together, these results indicate a significant risk for T. cruzi infection in humans. They also highlight the need to better characterize the diversity of T. cruzi strains in the region and its impact on disease epidemiology.
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Affiliation(s)
- Roy Polonio
- University of Belize, Punta Gorda, Toledo, Belize
| | - Jaime López-Domínguez
- Department of Tropical Medicine, School of Public Health and Tropical Medicine, Vector-Borne and Infectious Disease Research Center, Tulane University, New Orleans, LA, USA; LADISER Inmunología y Biología Molecular, Facultad de Ciencias Químicas, Universidad Veracruzana, Orizaba, Veracruz, Mexico; Centro de Investigaciones Biomédicas, Universidad Veracruzana, Xalapa, Veracruz, Mexico
| | - Claudia Herrera
- Department of Tropical Medicine, School of Public Health and Tropical Medicine, Vector-Borne and Infectious Disease Research Center, Tulane University, New Orleans, LA, USA
| | - Eric Dumonteil
- Department of Tropical Medicine, School of Public Health and Tropical Medicine, Vector-Borne and Infectious Disease Research Center, Tulane University, New Orleans, LA, USA.
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Santana KH, Oliveira LGR, Barros de Castro D, Pereira M. Epidemiology of Chagas disease in pregnant women and congenital transmission of
Trypanosoma cruzi
in the Americas: systematic review and meta‐analysis. Trop Med Int Health 2020; 25:752-763. [DOI: 10.1111/tmi.13398] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/19/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Kaio Henrique Santana
- Center of Biological and Health Sciences Universidade Federal do Oeste da Bahia Barreiras Brazil
| | | | | | - Marcos Pereira
- Collective Health Institute Universidade Federal da Bahia Salvador Brazil
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Flores-Ferrer A, Waleckx E, Rascalou G, Dumonteil E, Gourbière S. Trypanosoma cruzi transmission dynamics in a synanthropic and domesticated host community. PLoS Negl Trop Dis 2019; 13:e0007902. [PMID: 31834879 PMCID: PMC6934322 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pntd.0007902] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/10/2019] [Revised: 12/27/2019] [Accepted: 11/04/2019] [Indexed: 12/26/2022] Open
Abstract
Trypanosoma cruzi is the causative agent of Chagas disease, a Neglected Tropical Disease affecting 8 million people in the Americas. Triatomine hematophagous vectors feed on a high diversity of vertebrate species that can be reservoirs or dead-end hosts, such as avian species refractory to T. cruzi. To understand its transmission dynamics in synanthropic and domesticated species living within villages is essential to quantify disease risk and assess the potential of zooprophylaxis. We developed a SI model of T. cruzi transmission in a multi-host community where vector reproduction and parasite transmission depend on a triatomine blood-feeding rate accounting for vector host preferences and interference while feeding. The model was parameterized to describe T. cruzi transmission in villages of the Yucatan peninsula, Mexico, using the information about Triatoma dimidiata vectors and host populations accumulated over the past 15 years. Extensive analyses of the model showed that dogs are key reservoirs and contributors to human infection, as compared to synanthropic rodents and cats, while chickens or other domesticated avian hosts dilute T. cruzi transmission despite increasing vector abundance. In this context, reducing the number of dogs or increasing avian hosts abundance decreases incidence in humans by up to 56% and 39%, respectively, while combining such changes reduces incidence by 71%. Although such effects are only reached over >10-years periods, they represent important considerations to be included in the design of cost-effective Integrated Vector Management. The concomitant reduction in T. cruzi vector prevalence estimated by simulating these zooprophylactic interventions could indeed complement the removal of colonies from the peridomiciles or the use of insect screens that lower vector indoor abundance by ~60% and ~80%. These new findings reinforce the idea that education and community empowerment to reduce basic risk factors is a cornerstone to reach and sustain the key objective of interrupting Chagas disease intra-domiciliary transmission.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alheli Flores-Ferrer
- UMR5096 ‘Laboratoire Génome et Développement des Plantes’, Université de Perpignan Via Domitia, Perpignan, France
| | - Etienne Waleckx
- Institut de Recherche pour le Développement, UMR INTERTRYP IRD, CIRAD, Université de Montpellier, Montpellier, France
- Laboratorio de Parasitología, Centro de Investigaciones Regionales ‘Dr. Hideyo Noguchi’, Universidad Autónoma deYucatán, Mérida, Yucatán, México
| | - Guilhem Rascalou
- UMR5096 ‘Laboratoire Génome et Développement des Plantes’, Université de Perpignan Via Domitia, Perpignan, France
| | - Eric Dumonteil
- Department of Tropical Medicine, School of Public Health and Tropical Medicine, and Vector-Borne and Infectious Disease Research Center, Tulane University, New Orleans, Louisiana, United States of America
| | - Sébastien Gourbière
- UMR5096 ‘Laboratoire Génome et Développement des Plantes’, Université de Perpignan Via Domitia, Perpignan, France
- Centre for the Study of Evolution, School of Life Sciences, University of Sussex, Brighton, United Kingdom
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Angheben A, Buonfrate D, Cruciani M, Jackson Y, Alonso-Padilla J, Gascon J, Gobbi F, Giorli G, Anselmi M, Bisoffi Z. Rapid immunochromatographic tests for the diagnosis of chronic Chagas disease in at-risk populations: A systematic review and meta-analysis. PLoS Negl Trop Dis 2019; 13:e0007271. [PMID: 31150377 PMCID: PMC6561601 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pntd.0007271] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/02/2018] [Revised: 06/12/2019] [Accepted: 02/28/2019] [Indexed: 01/18/2023] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Despite of a high disease burden, mainly in Latin America, Chagas disease (CD) is underdiagnosed and undertreated. Rapid diagnostic tests (RDTs) might improve the access to diagnosis. The aim of this study is to review the accuracy of commercially available RDTs used in field conditions for the diagnosis of chronic CD in populations at risk, in endemic and non-endemic countries. METHODS/PRINCIPAL FINDINGS We undertook a comprehensive search of the following databases: PubMed, SCOPUS, LILACS (last up-date on the 01st July, 2017), without language or date limits. Non-electronic sources have been also searched. This review included clinical studies with cohort recruitment of individuals at risk of T. cruzi exposure, without age limits; adequate reference standards for the diagnosis of CD. We excluded case-control studies and those testing RDTs during acute CD. Data on test accuracies were pooled through a bivariate random-effects model. Only one index test was evaluated separately. Geographical area, commercial brand, disease prevalence, study size, and risk of bias were explored as possible source of heterogeneity. Values of sensitivity and specificity were computed to obtain summary positive/negative likelihood ratios, and summary diagnostic odds ratio. Ten studies were included on six different immunochromatographic RDTs. The pooled sensitivity and specificity of the RDTs resulted 96.6% (95% CI 91.3-98.7%) and 99.3% (95% CI 98.4-99.7%), respectively. Test accuracy was particularly good in endemic areas (98.07%/99.03% of sensitivity/specificity, respectively). One test (Stat-Pak) showed an overall sensitivity of 97% (95% CI 87.6-99.3) and specificity of 99.4% (95% CI 98.6-99.8). CONCLUSIONS/SIGNIFICANCE RDTs demonstrated to be sufficiently accurate to recommend their use for screening in endemic areas, even as stand-alone tests. This approach might increase the accessibility to the diagnosis. However, an additional confirmatory test in case of positive result remains a prudent approach.
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Affiliation(s)
- Andrea Angheben
- Department of Infectious – Tropical Diseases and Microbiology, IRCCS Sacro Cuore - Don Calabria Hospital, Negrar, Verona, Italy
| | - Dora Buonfrate
- Department of Infectious – Tropical Diseases and Microbiology, IRCCS Sacro Cuore - Don Calabria Hospital, Negrar, Verona, Italy
| | - Mario Cruciani
- Infectious Diseases Unit, Azienda ULSS 9 Scaligera, Verona, Italy
| | - Yves Jackson
- Division of Primary Care Medicine, Geneva University Hospitals, Geneva, Switzerland
- Institute of Global Health, Geneva University, Geneva, Switzerland
| | | | - Joaquim Gascon
- ISGlobal, Hospital Clínic - Universitat de Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain
| | - Federico Gobbi
- Department of Infectious – Tropical Diseases and Microbiology, IRCCS Sacro Cuore - Don Calabria Hospital, Negrar, Verona, Italy
| | - Giovanni Giorli
- Department of Infectious – Tropical Diseases and Microbiology, IRCCS Sacro Cuore - Don Calabria Hospital, Negrar, Verona, Italy
| | - Mariella Anselmi
- Centro de Epidemiologia Comunitaria y Medicina Tropical (CECOMET), Esmeraldas, Ecuador
| | - Zeno Bisoffi
- Department of Infectious – Tropical Diseases and Microbiology, IRCCS Sacro Cuore - Don Calabria Hospital, Negrar, Verona, Italy
- Diagnostic and Public Health Department, University of Verona, Verona, Italy
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Arnal A, Waleckx E, Rico-Chávez O, Herrera C, Dumonteil E. Estimating the current burden of Chagas disease in Mexico: A systematic review and meta-analysis of epidemiological surveys from 2006 to 2017. PLoS Negl Trop Dis 2019; 13:e0006859. [PMID: 30964871 PMCID: PMC6474657 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pntd.0006859] [Citation(s) in RCA: 45] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/17/2018] [Revised: 04/19/2019] [Accepted: 03/15/2019] [Indexed: 11/22/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND In Mexico, estimates of Chagas disease prevalence and burden vary widely. Updating surveillance data is therefore an important priority to ensure that Chagas disease does not remain a barrier to the development of Mexico's most vulnerable populations. METHODOLOGY/PRINCIPAL FINDINGS The aim of this systematic review and meta-analysis was to analyze the literature on epidemiological surveys to estimate Chagas disease prevalence and burden in Mexico, during the period 2006 to 2017. A total of 2,764 articles were screened and 36 were retained for the final analysis. Epidemiological surveys have been performed in most of Mexico, but with variable study scale and geographic coverage. Based on studies reporting confirmed cases (i.e. using at least 2 serological tests), and taking into account the differences in sample sizes, the national estimated seroprevalence of Trypanosoma cruzi infection was 3.38% [95%CI 2.59-4.16], suggesting that there are 4.06 million cases in Mexico. Studies focused on pregnant women, which may transmit the parasite to their newborn during pregnancy, reported an estimated seroprevalence of 2.21% [95%CI 1.46-2.96], suggesting that there are 50,675 births from T. cruzi infected pregnant women per year, and 3,193 cases of congenitally infected newborns per year. Children under 18 years had an estimated seropositivity rate of 1.51% [95%CI 0.77-2.25], which indicate ongoing transmission. Cases of T. cruzi infection in blood donors have also been reported in most states, with a national estimated seroprevalence of 0.55% [95%CI 0.43-0.66]. CONCLUSIONS/SIGNIFICANCE Our analysis suggests a disease burden for T. cruzi infection higher than previously recognized, highlighting the urgency of establishing Chagas disease surveillance and control as a key national public health priority in Mexico, to ensure that it does not remain a major barrier to the economic and social development of the country's most vulnerable populations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Audrey Arnal
- Departamento de Ecología de la Biodiversidad, Instituto de Ecología, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, Ciudad de México, México
- Centro de Investigaciones Regionales Dr Hideyo Noguchi, Universidad Autónoma de Yucatán, calle 96 s/n x av. Jacinto Canek y calle 47, Col. Paseo de las Fuentes, CP 97225, Mérida, Yucatán, México
| | - Etienne Waleckx
- Centro de Investigaciones Regionales Dr Hideyo Noguchi, Universidad Autónoma de Yucatán, calle 96 s/n x av. Jacinto Canek y calle 47, Col. Paseo de las Fuentes, CP 97225, Mérida, Yucatán, México
- Institut de Recherche pour le Développement, UMR INTERTRYP IRD, CIRAD, Université de Montpellier, Montpellier, France
| | - Oscar Rico-Chávez
- Departamento de Etología, Fauna Silvestre y Animales de Laboratorio, Facultad de Medicina Veterinaria Zootecnia, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, 04510 Ciudad de México, México
| | - Claudia Herrera
- Department of Tropical Medicine, School of Public Health and Tropical Medicine, and Vector-Borne and Infectious Disease Research Center, Tulane University, 1440 Canal St., New Orleans, LA 70112, United States of America
| | - Eric Dumonteil
- Department of Tropical Medicine, School of Public Health and Tropical Medicine, and Vector-Borne and Infectious Disease Research Center, Tulane University, 1440 Canal St., New Orleans, LA 70112, United States of America
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9
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Bartsch SM, Avelis CM, Asti L, Hertenstein DL, Ndeffo-Mbah M, Galvani A, Lee BY. The economic value of identifying and treating Chagas disease patients earlier and the impact on Trypanosoma cruzi transmission. PLoS Negl Trop Dis 2018; 12:e0006809. [PMID: 30395603 PMCID: PMC6237415 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pntd.0006809] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/03/2018] [Revised: 11/15/2018] [Accepted: 09/02/2018] [Indexed: 01/17/2023] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND The World Health Organization's 2020 Goals for Chagas disease include access to antiparasitic treatment and care of all infected/ill patients. Policy makers need to know the economic value of identifying and treating patients earlier. However, the economic value of earlier treatment to cure and prevent the Chagas' spread remains unknown. METHODS We expanded our existing Chagas disease transmission model to include identification and treatment of Chagas disease patients. We linked this to a clinical and economic model that translated chronic Chagas disease cases into health and economic outcomes. We evaluated the impact and economic outcomes (costs, cost-effectiveness, cost-benefit) of identifying and treating different percentages of patients in the acute and indeterminate disease states in a 2,000-person village in Yucatan, Mexico. RESULTS In the absence of early treatment, 50 acute and 22 new chronic cases occurred over 50 years. Identifying and treating patients in the acute stage averted 0.5-5.4 acute cases, 0.6-5.5 chronic cases, and 0.6-10.8 disability-adjusted life years (DALYs), saving $694-$7,419 and $6,976-$79,950 from the third-party payer and societal perspectives, respectively. Treating in the indeterminate stage averted 2.2-4.9 acute cases, 6.1-12.8 chronic cases, and 11.7-31.1 DALYs, saving $7,666-$21,938 from the third-party payer perspective and $90,530-$243,068 from the societal perspective. Treating patients in both stages averted ≤9 acute cases and ≤15 chronic cases. Identifying and treating patients early was always economically dominant compared to no treatment. Identifying and treating patients earlier resulted in a cumulative cost-benefit of $7,273-$224,981 at the current cost of identification and treatment. CONCLUSIONS Even when identifying and treating as little as 5% of cases annually, treating Chagas cases in the acute and indeterminate stages reduces transmission and provides economic and health benefits. This supports the need for improved diagnostics and access to safe and effective treatment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sarah M. Bartsch
- Public Health Computational and Operations Research, Johns Hopkins Bloomberg School of Public Health, Baltimore, MD, United States of America
- Global Obesity Prevention Center, Johns Hopkins Bloomberg School of Public Health, Baltimore, MD, United States of America
| | - Cameron M. Avelis
- Public Health Computational and Operations Research, Johns Hopkins Bloomberg School of Public Health, Baltimore, MD, United States of America
- Global Obesity Prevention Center, Johns Hopkins Bloomberg School of Public Health, Baltimore, MD, United States of America
| | - Lindsey Asti
- Public Health Computational and Operations Research, Johns Hopkins Bloomberg School of Public Health, Baltimore, MD, United States of America
- Global Obesity Prevention Center, Johns Hopkins Bloomberg School of Public Health, Baltimore, MD, United States of America
| | - Daniel L. Hertenstein
- Public Health Computational and Operations Research, Johns Hopkins Bloomberg School of Public Health, Baltimore, MD, United States of America
- Global Obesity Prevention Center, Johns Hopkins Bloomberg School of Public Health, Baltimore, MD, United States of America
| | - Martial Ndeffo-Mbah
- Center for Infectious Disease Modeling and Analysis, Yale School of Public Health, New Haven, CT, United States of America
| | - Alison Galvani
- Center for Infectious Disease Modeling and Analysis, Yale School of Public Health, New Haven, CT, United States of America
| | - Bruce Y. Lee
- Public Health Computational and Operations Research, Johns Hopkins Bloomberg School of Public Health, Baltimore, MD, United States of America
- Global Obesity Prevention Center, Johns Hopkins Bloomberg School of Public Health, Baltimore, MD, United States of America
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Waleckx E, Pérez-Carrillo S, Chávez-Lazo S, Pasos-Alquicira R, Cámara-Heredia M, Acuña-Lizama J, Collí-Balám F, Cámara-Mejía J, Ramírez-Sierra MJ, Cruz-Chan V, Rosado-Vallado M, Vázquez-Narvaez S, Najera-Vázquez R, Gourbière S, Dumonteil E. Non-randomized controlled trial of the long-term efficacy of an Ecohealth intervention against Chagas disease in Yucatan, Mexico. PLoS Negl Trop Dis 2018; 12:e0006605. [PMID: 29965992 PMCID: PMC6044551 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pntd.0006605] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/03/2018] [Revised: 07/13/2018] [Accepted: 06/12/2018] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Non-domiciliated intrusive triatomine vectors are responsible for a low but significant transmission of Trypanosoma cruzi to humans. Their control is a challenge as insecticide spraying is of limited usefulness, and alternative strategies need to be developed for a sustainable control. We performed a non-randomized controlled trial of an Ecohealth intervention based on window insect screens and community participation to reduce house infestation by Triatoma dimidiata in two rural villages in Yucatan, Mexico. Efficacy of the intervention was measured over a three years follow-up period and entomological indicators showed that the proportion of triatomines found inside houses was significantly reduced in houses with insect screens, which effectively kept more bugs on the outside of houses. Using a previously developed model linking entomological data to the prevalence of infection in human, we predicted that the intervention would lead to a 32% reduction in yearly incidence and in the prevalence of T. cruzi infection. The cost for the coverage of all the windows of a house was of comparable magnitude to what families currently spend on various domestic insecticide, and most screens were still in good conditions after three years. In conclusion, the Ecohealth approach proposed here is effective for the long-term and sustainable control of intrusive T. dimidiata vectors in the Yucatan peninsula, Mexico. This strategy may also be easily adapted to other intrusive triatomine species as well as other regions/countries with comparable eco-epidemiological settings, and would be an excellent component of a larger integrated program for the control of a variety of other vector-borne diseases, bringing additional benefits to the communities. Our results should encourage a further scaling-up of our implementation strategy in additional villages in the region.
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Affiliation(s)
- Etienne Waleckx
- Laboratorio de Parasitología, Centro de Investigaciones Regionales “Dr. Hideyo Noguchi”, Universidad Autónoma de Yucatán, Mérida, Yucatán, Mexico
| | - Silvia Pérez-Carrillo
- Laboratorio de Parasitología, Centro de Investigaciones Regionales “Dr. Hideyo Noguchi”, Universidad Autónoma de Yucatán, Mérida, Yucatán, Mexico
| | - Samuel Chávez-Lazo
- Laboratorio de Parasitología, Centro de Investigaciones Regionales “Dr. Hideyo Noguchi”, Universidad Autónoma de Yucatán, Mérida, Yucatán, Mexico
| | - Rafael Pasos-Alquicira
- Laboratorio de Parasitología, Centro de Investigaciones Regionales “Dr. Hideyo Noguchi”, Universidad Autónoma de Yucatán, Mérida, Yucatán, Mexico
| | - María Cámara-Heredia
- Laboratorio de Parasitología, Centro de Investigaciones Regionales “Dr. Hideyo Noguchi”, Universidad Autónoma de Yucatán, Mérida, Yucatán, Mexico
| | - Jesús Acuña-Lizama
- Laboratorio de Parasitología, Centro de Investigaciones Regionales “Dr. Hideyo Noguchi”, Universidad Autónoma de Yucatán, Mérida, Yucatán, Mexico
| | - Fernando Collí-Balám
- Laboratorio de Parasitología, Centro de Investigaciones Regionales “Dr. Hideyo Noguchi”, Universidad Autónoma de Yucatán, Mérida, Yucatán, Mexico
| | - Javier Cámara-Mejía
- Laboratorio de Parasitología, Centro de Investigaciones Regionales “Dr. Hideyo Noguchi”, Universidad Autónoma de Yucatán, Mérida, Yucatán, Mexico
| | - Maria Jesús Ramírez-Sierra
- Laboratorio de Parasitología, Centro de Investigaciones Regionales “Dr. Hideyo Noguchi”, Universidad Autónoma de Yucatán, Mérida, Yucatán, Mexico
| | - Vladimir Cruz-Chan
- Laboratorio de Parasitología, Centro de Investigaciones Regionales “Dr. Hideyo Noguchi”, Universidad Autónoma de Yucatán, Mérida, Yucatán, Mexico
| | - Miguel Rosado-Vallado
- Laboratorio de Parasitología, Centro de Investigaciones Regionales “Dr. Hideyo Noguchi”, Universidad Autónoma de Yucatán, Mérida, Yucatán, Mexico
| | - Santos Vázquez-Narvaez
- Departamento de Control de Vectores, Servicios de Salud de Yucatán, Mérida, Yucatán, Mexico
| | - Rosario Najera-Vázquez
- Departamento de Control de Vectores, Servicios de Salud de Yucatán, Mérida, Yucatán, Mexico
| | - Sébastien Gourbière
- UMR 5096 ‘Laboratoire Génome et Développement des Plantes’, Université de Perpignan Via Domitia, Perpignan, France
| | - Eric Dumonteil
- Laboratorio de Parasitología, Centro de Investigaciones Regionales “Dr. Hideyo Noguchi”, Universidad Autónoma de Yucatán, Mérida, Yucatán, Mexico
- Department of Tropical Medicine, Vector-Borne and Infectious Disease Research Center, School of Public Health and Tropical Medicine, Tulane University, New Orleans, LA, United States of America
- * E-mail:
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11
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Lee BY, Bartsch SM, Skrip L, Hertenstein DL, Avelis CM, Ndeffo-Mbah M, Tilchin C, Dumonteil EO, Galvani A. Are the London Declaration's 2020 goals sufficient to control Chagas disease?: Modeling scenarios for the Yucatan Peninsula. PLoS Negl Trop Dis 2018; 12:e0006337. [PMID: 29554086 PMCID: PMC5875875 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pntd.0006337] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/29/2017] [Revised: 03/29/2018] [Accepted: 02/22/2018] [Indexed: 01/03/2023] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND The 2020 Sustainable Development goals call for 100% certified interruption or control of the three main forms of Chagas disease transmission in Latin America. However, how much will achieving these goals to varying degrees control Chagas disease; what is the potential impact of missing these goals and if they are achieved, what may be left? METHODS We developed a compartmental simulation model that represents the triatomine, human host, and non-human host populations and vector-borne, congenital, and transfusional T. cruzi transmission between them in the domestic and peridomestic settings to evaluate the impact of limiting transmission in a 2,000 person virtual village in Yucatan, Mexico. RESULTS Interruption of domestic vectorial transmission had the largest impact on T. cruzi transmission and prevalence in all populations. Most of the gains were achieved within the first few years. Controlling vectorial transmission resulted in a 46.1-83.0% relative reduction in the number of new acute Chagas cases for a 50-100% interruption in domestic vector-host contact. Only controlling congenital transmission led to a 2.4-8.1% (30-100% interruption) relative reduction in the total number of new acute cases and reducing only transfusional transmission led to a 0.1-0.3% (30-100% reduction). Stopping all three forms of transmission resulted in 0.5 total transmission events over five years (compared to 5.0 with no interruption); interrupting all forms by 30% resulted in 3.4 events over five years per 2,000 persons. CONCLUSIONS While reducing domestic vectorial, congenital, and transfusional transmission can successfully reduce transmission to humans (up to 82% in one year), achieving the 2020 goals would still result in 0.5 new acute cases per 2,000 over five years. Even if the goals are missed, major gains can be achieved within the first few years. Interrupting transmission should be combined with other efforts such as a vaccine or improved access to care, especially for the population of already infected individuals.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bruce Y. Lee
- Public Health Computational and Operations Research, Johns Hopkins Bloomberg School of Public Health, Baltimore, MD, United States of America
- Global Obesity Prevention Center, Johns Hopkins Bloomberg School of Public Health, Baltimore, MD, United States of America
- * E-mail:
| | - Sarah M. Bartsch
- Public Health Computational and Operations Research, Johns Hopkins Bloomberg School of Public Health, Baltimore, MD, United States of America
- Global Obesity Prevention Center, Johns Hopkins Bloomberg School of Public Health, Baltimore, MD, United States of America
| | - Laura Skrip
- Center for Infectious Disease Modeling and Analysis, Yale School of Public Health, New Haven, CT, United States of America
| | - Daniel L. Hertenstein
- Public Health Computational and Operations Research, Johns Hopkins Bloomberg School of Public Health, Baltimore, MD, United States of America
- Global Obesity Prevention Center, Johns Hopkins Bloomberg School of Public Health, Baltimore, MD, United States of America
| | - Cameron M. Avelis
- Public Health Computational and Operations Research, Johns Hopkins Bloomberg School of Public Health, Baltimore, MD, United States of America
- Global Obesity Prevention Center, Johns Hopkins Bloomberg School of Public Health, Baltimore, MD, United States of America
| | - Martial Ndeffo-Mbah
- Center for Infectious Disease Modeling and Analysis, Yale School of Public Health, New Haven, CT, United States of America
| | - Carla Tilchin
- Public Health Computational and Operations Research, Johns Hopkins Bloomberg School of Public Health, Baltimore, MD, United States of America
- Global Obesity Prevention Center, Johns Hopkins Bloomberg School of Public Health, Baltimore, MD, United States of America
| | - Eric O. Dumonteil
- Department of Tropical Medicine, School of Public Health and Tropical Medicine, Tulane University, New Orleans, LA, United States of America
| | - Alison Galvani
- Center for Infectious Disease Modeling and Analysis, Yale School of Public Health, New Haven, CT, United States of America
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12
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Alterations in Placental Gene Expression of Pregnant Women with Chronic Chagas Disease. THE AMERICAN JOURNAL OF PATHOLOGY 2018; 188:1345-1353. [PMID: 29545200 DOI: 10.1016/j.ajpath.2018.02.011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/10/2018] [Revised: 02/15/2018] [Accepted: 02/20/2018] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
Abstract
Trypanosoma cruzi infection in women of reproductive age is associated with congenital transmission and adverse pregnancy outcomes. The placenta is a key barrier to infection. Gene expression profiles of term placental environment from T. cruzi-seropositive (SP) and -seronegative (SN) mothers were characterized by RNA-Seq. Nine pools of placental RNA paired samples were used: three from SN and six from SP tissues. Each pool consisted of female/male newborns and vaginal/cesarean delivery binomials. No newborn was congenitally infected. T. cruzi satellite DNA quantitative PCR in placental tissues and maternal and neonatal blood, and parasite 18S quantitative RT-PCR from placental RNA were negative, except in three SP women's bloodstream. To identify pathways associated with maternal T. cruzi infection, a gene-set association analysis was implemented: SP placental samples showed overexpression of inflammatory response and lymphocytic activation, whereas numerous biosynthetic processes were down-regulated. About 42 genes showed a significant fold-change between SP and SN groups. KISS1 and CGB5 were down-regulated, whereas KIF12, HLA-G, PRG2, TAC3, FN1, and ATXN3L were up-regulated. Several expressed genes in SP placentas encode proteins associated with preeclampsia and miscarriage. This first transcriptomics study in human term placental environment shows a placental response that may affect the fetus while protecting it from parasite infection; this host response could be responsible for the low rate of congenital transmission in chronic Chagas disease.
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13
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Buekens P, Cafferata ML, Alger J, Althabe F, Belizán JM, Bustamante N, Carlier Y, Ciganda A, Del Cid JH, Dumonteil E, Gamboa-León R, García JA, Gibbons L, Graiff O, Maldonado JG, Herrera C, Howard E, Lara LS, López B, Matute ML, Ramírez-Sierra MJ, Robles MC, Sosa-Estani S, Truyens C, Valladares C, Wesson DM, Zúniga C, For The Congenital Chagas Working Group. Congenital Transmission of Trypanosoma cruzi in Argentina, Honduras, and Mexico: An Observational Prospective Study. Am J Trop Med Hyg 2017; 98:478-485. [PMID: 29210352 DOI: 10.4269/ajtmh.17-0516] [Citation(s) in RCA: 43] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/07/2022] Open
Abstract
Compared with South America, there is a lack of epidemiologic studies about the risk of congenital transmission of Trypanosoma cruzi in Central America and Mexico. It has been suggested that T. cruzi genotypes might differ by region and that congenital transmission might vary according to the parasite's genotype. Our objective was to compare T. cruzi congenital transmission rates in three countries. We performed an observational prospective study in 2011-2014 enrolling women at delivery in one hospital in Argentina, two hospitals in Honduras, and two hospitals in Mexico. Congenital T. cruzi infection was defined as the presence of one or more of the following criteria: presence of parasites in cord blood (direct parasitological microscopic examination) with positive polymerase chain reaction (PCR) in cord blood, presence of parasites in infant's blood at 4-8 weeks (direct parasitological microscopic examination), and persistence of T. cruzi-specific antibodies at 10 months, as measured by at least two tests. Among 28,145 enrolled women, 347 had at least one antibody rapid test positive in cord blood and a positive enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay in maternal blood. PCR in maternal blood was positive in 73.2% of the cases, and genotyping identified a majority of non-TcI in the three countries. We found no (0.0%; 95% confidence interval [CI]: 0.0, 2.0) confirmed congenital case in Honduras. Congenital transmission was 6.6% (95% CI: 3.1, 12.2) in Argentina and 6.3% (95% CI: 0.8, 20.8) in Mexico. Trypanosoma cruzi non-TcI predominated and risks of congenital transmission were similar in Argentina and Mexico.
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Affiliation(s)
- Pierre Buekens
- Tulane University School of Public Health and Tropical Medicine, New Orleans, Louisiana
| | - María Luisa Cafferata
- Unidad de Investigación Clínica y Epidemiológica Montevideo (UNICEM), Montevideo, Uruguay
| | - Jackeline Alger
- Hospital Escuela Universitario, Facultad de Ciencias Médicas, UNAH, Tegucigalpa, Honduras
| | - Fernando Althabe
- Instituto de Efectividad Clínica y Sanitaria (IECS), Buenos Aires, Argentina
| | - José M Belizán
- Instituto de Efectividad Clínica y Sanitaria (IECS), Buenos Aires, Argentina
| | | | - Yves Carlier
- Laboratory of Parasitology, Faculty of Medicine, Université Libre de Bruxelles (ULB), Brussels, Belgium.,Tulane University School of Public Health and Tropical Medicine, New Orleans, Louisiana
| | - Alvaro Ciganda
- Unidad de Investigación Clínica y Epidemiológica Montevideo (UNICEM), Montevideo, Uruguay
| | | | - Eric Dumonteil
- Tulane University School of Public Health and Tropical Medicine, New Orleans, Louisiana
| | | | - Jorge A García
- Hospital Escuela Universitario, Facultad de Ciencias Médicas, UNAH, Tegucigalpa, Honduras
| | - Luz Gibbons
- Instituto de Efectividad Clínica y Sanitaria (IECS), Buenos Aires, Argentina
| | - Olga Graiff
- Instituto de Maternidad y Ginecología Nuestra Señora de las Mercedes, San Miguel de Tucumán, Argentina
| | - Jesús Gurubel Maldonado
- Centro de Investigaciones Regionales "Dr. Hideyo Noguchi," Universidad Autónoma de Yucatán, Mérida, México
| | - Claudia Herrera
- Tulane University School of Public Health and Tropical Medicine, New Orleans, Louisiana
| | - Elizabeth Howard
- Tulane University School of Public Health and Tropical Medicine, New Orleans, Louisiana
| | - Laura Susana Lara
- Instituto de Maternidad y Ginecología Nuestra Señora de las Mercedes, San Miguel de Tucumán, Argentina
| | | | - María Luisa Matute
- Laboratorio Nacional de Vigilancia de la Salud, Secretaría de Salud de Honduras, Tegucigalpa, Honduras
| | - María Jesús Ramírez-Sierra
- Centro de Investigaciones Regionales "Dr. Hideyo Noguchi," Universidad Autónoma de Yucatán, Mérida, México
| | - María Cecilia Robles
- Instituto de Maternidad y Ginecología Nuestra Señora de las Mercedes, San Miguel de Tucumán, Argentina
| | - Sergio Sosa-Estani
- Instituto Nacional de Parasitología "Dr. Mario Fatala Chaben," CONICET, ANLIS, Buenos Aires, Argentina.,Instituto de Efectividad Clínica y Sanitaria (IECS), Buenos Aires, Argentina
| | - Carine Truyens
- Laboratory of Parasitology, Faculty of Medicine, Université Libre de Bruxelles (ULB), Brussels, Belgium
| | - Christian Valladares
- Laboratorio Nacional de Vigilancia de la Salud, Secretaría de Salud de Honduras, Tegucigalpa, Honduras
| | - Dawn M Wesson
- Tulane University School of Public Health and Tropical Medicine, New Orleans, Louisiana
| | - Concepción Zúniga
- Hospital Escuela Universitario, Facultad de Ciencias Médicas, UNAH, Tegucigalpa, Honduras
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Montes-Rincón LM, Galaviz-Silva L, González-Bravo FE, Molina-Garza ZJ. Trypanosoma cruzi seroprevalence in pregnant women and screening by PCR and microhaematocrit in newborns from Guanajuato, Mexico. Acta Trop 2016; 164:100-106. [PMID: 27596439 DOI: 10.1016/j.actatropica.2016.08.029] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/09/2016] [Revised: 07/21/2016] [Accepted: 08/31/2016] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
Abstract
Chagas disease is caused by an infection with the protozoan hemoflagellate Trypanosoma cruzi, and it is a major endemic health problem in Latin America. The congenital route is one of the main non-vectorial pathways of transmission, which can arise either in the chronic or acute phase of maternal infection. Serological screening of T. cruzi infection was performed in 520 pregnant women and newborns at the Hospital General Regional de León, Guanajuato, Mexico, between 2014 and 2015. Anti-T. cruzi antibodies were detected in 20 mothers (4%) by ELISA and HIA with four PCR-positive newborn cases. Risk factors were identified according to an epidemiological survey, and the most significant (P<0.050) factors associated with T. cruzi infection were the building materials of dwellings, the presence of pets and dwellings located in rural areas. This study constitutes the first systematic study on congenital Chagas disease and the epidemiological risk factors in Guanajuato. Our results represent the probability of an incidence of 770 cases per 100,000 births during a period of 12 months, with a vertical transmission rate by 0.8%, which highlights the necessity to establish reliable serological and PCR tests in pregnant women to prevent vertical transmission. However, it is also important to follow-up the newborns from seropositive mothers for one year, which is necessary, as many children yielded negative results.
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Affiliation(s)
- Laura Mayela Montes-Rincón
- Universidad Autónoma de Nuevo León, Facultad de Ciencias Biológicas, Laboratorio de Patología Molecular y Experimental, Ave. Universidad SN, Cd. Universitaria, San Nicolás de los Garza, Nuevo León 66451, Mexico
| | - Lucio Galaviz-Silva
- Universidad Autónoma de Nuevo León, Facultad de Ciencias Biológicas, Laboratorio de Patología Molecular y Experimental, Ave. Universidad SN, Cd. Universitaria, San Nicolás de los Garza, Nuevo León 66451, Mexico
| | | | - Zinnia Judith Molina-Garza
- Universidad Autónoma de Nuevo León, Facultad de Ciencias Biológicas, Laboratorio de Patología Molecular y Experimental, Ave. Universidad SN, Cd. Universitaria, San Nicolás de los Garza, Nuevo León 66451, Mexico.
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Waleckx E, Pasos-Alquicira R, Ramírez-Sierra MJ, Dumonteil E. Sleeping habits affect access to host by Chagas disease vector Triatoma dimidiata. Parasit Vectors 2016; 9:568. [PMID: 27809930 PMCID: PMC5093973 DOI: 10.1186/s13071-016-1852-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/04/2016] [Accepted: 10/19/2016] [Indexed: 12/16/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Chagas disease, caused by the parasite Trypanosoma cruzi, is mainly transmitted by blood-sucking bugs called triatomines. In the Yucatán Peninsula, Mexico, the main vector of T. cruzi is Triatoma dimidiata. While this species may colonize houses in other regions, it is mostly intrusive in Yucatán: it generally lives in sylvan and peridomestic areas, and frequently enters inside homes, likely attracted by potential vertebrate hosts, without establishing colonies. Bugs collected inside homes have a low nutritional status, suggesting that they cannot efficiently feed inside these houses. We hypothesized that this low nutritional status and limited colonization may be associated, at least in part, with the local practice in Mayan communities to sleep in hammocks instead of beds, as this sleeping habit could be an obstacle for triatomines to easily reach human hosts, particularly for nymphal instars which are unable to fly. METHODS We used an experimental chamber in which we placed a miniature bed in one side and a miniature hammock on the other side. After placing a mouse enclosed in a small cage on the bed and another one in the hammock as baits, T. dimidiata bugs were released in the chamber and their activity was video recorded during the night. RESULTS T. dimidiata adults and nymphs were able to reach the mouse in bed significantly more often than the mouse in hammock (Binomial test, P < 0.0001). Moreover, females reached the mice twice as often as did males. Most of the adult bugs reached the mouse in bed by walking, while they reached the mouse in hammock by flying. Nymphs presented a host-seeking index ten times lower than adult bugs and were also able, on a few occasions (4/132 released bugs), to reach the mouse in hammock. CONCLUSIONS We conclude that sleeping in hammocks, as done in rural Yucatán, makes human hosts less accessible to the bugs. This, combined with other factors (e.g. absence of domestic animals sleeping inside houses), may explain, at least in part, the low nutritional status of bugs collected inside homes and the limited colonization of houses by T. dimidiata in the region. Nevertheless, while this sleeping habit limits contact with the bugs, it does not confer complete protection as adult bugs as well as some nymphs were still able to reach the host in hammock in our study.
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Affiliation(s)
- Etienne Waleckx
- Laboratorio de Parasitología, Centro de Investigaciones Regionales “Dr Hideyo Noguchi”, Universidad Autónoma de Yucatán, Mérida, México
| | - Rafael Pasos-Alquicira
- Laboratorio de Parasitología, Centro de Investigaciones Regionales “Dr Hideyo Noguchi”, Universidad Autónoma de Yucatán, Mérida, México
| | - María Jesús Ramírez-Sierra
- Laboratorio de Parasitología, Centro de Investigaciones Regionales “Dr Hideyo Noguchi”, Universidad Autónoma de Yucatán, Mérida, México
| | - Eric Dumonteil
- Laboratorio de Parasitología, Centro de Investigaciones Regionales “Dr Hideyo Noguchi”, Universidad Autónoma de Yucatán, Mérida, México
- Department of Tropical Medicine, Tulane University, School of Public Health and Tropical Medicine, New Orleans, LA USA
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Péneau J, Nguyen A, Flores-Ferrer A, Blanchet D, Gourbière S. Amazonian Triatomine Biodiversity and the Transmission of Chagas Disease in French Guiana: In Medio Stat Sanitas. PLoS Negl Trop Dis 2016; 10:e0004427. [PMID: 26867025 PMCID: PMC4750908 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pntd.0004427] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/20/2015] [Accepted: 01/12/2016] [Indexed: 12/22/2022] Open
Abstract
The effects of biodiversity on the transmission of infectious diseases now stand as a cornerstone of many public health policies. The upper Amazonia and Guyana shield are hot-spots of biodiversity that offer genuine opportunities to explore the relationship between the risk of transmission of Chagas disease and the diversity of its triatomine vectors. Over 730 triatomines were light-trapped in four geomorphological landscapes shaping French-Guiana, and we determined their taxonomic status and infection by Trypanosoma cruzi. We used a model selection approach to unravel the spatial and temporal variations in species abundance, diversity and infection. The vector community in French-Guiana is typically made of one key species (Panstrongylus geniculatus) that is more abundant than three secondary species combined (Rhodnius pictipes, Panstrongylus lignarius and Eratyrus mucronatus), and four other species that complete the assemblage. Although the overall abundance of adult triatomines does not vary across French-Guiana, their diversity increases along a coastal-inland gradient. These variations unravelled a non-monotonic relationship between vector biodiversity and the risk of transmission of Chagas disease, so that intermediate biodiversity levels are associated with the lowest risks. We also observed biannual variations in triatomine abundance, representing the first report of a biannual pattern in the risk of Chagas disease transmission. Those variations were highly and negatively correlated with the average monthly rainfall. We discuss the implications of these patterns for the transmission of T. cruzi by assemblages of triatomine species, and for the dual challenge of controlling Amazonian vector communities that are made of both highly diverse and mostly intrusive species.
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Affiliation(s)
- Julie Péneau
- UMR 228 ESPACE-DEV-IMAGES, ‘Institut de Modélisation et d'Analyses en Géo-Environnement et Santé’, Université de Perpignan Via Domitia, Perpignan, France
- Laboratoire de Parasitologie-Mycologie, Centre Hospitalier de Cayenne and Faculté de Médecine, Equipe « Ecosystèmes Amazoniens et Pathologie Tropicale » (EA3593), Université de Antilles et de la Guyane, Cayenne, French Guiana
| | - Anne Nguyen
- UMR 228 ESPACE-DEV-IMAGES, ‘Institut de Modélisation et d'Analyses en Géo-Environnement et Santé’, Université de Perpignan Via Domitia, Perpignan, France
| | - Alheli Flores-Ferrer
- UMR 228 ESPACE-DEV-IMAGES, ‘Institut de Modélisation et d'Analyses en Géo-Environnement et Santé’, Université de Perpignan Via Domitia, Perpignan, France
| | - Denis Blanchet
- Laboratoire de Parasitologie-Mycologie, Centre Hospitalier de Cayenne and Faculté de Médecine, Equipe « Ecosystèmes Amazoniens et Pathologie Tropicale » (EA3593), Université de Antilles et de la Guyane, Cayenne, French Guiana
| | - Sébastien Gourbière
- UMR 228 ESPACE-DEV-IMAGES, ‘Institut de Modélisation et d'Analyses en Géo-Environnement et Santé’, Université de Perpignan Via Domitia, Perpignan, France
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17
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López-Cancino SA, Tun-Ku E, De la Cruz-Felix HK, Ibarra-Cerdeña CN, Izeta-Alberdi A, Pech-May A, Mazariegos-Hidalgo CJ, Valdez-Tah A, Ramsey JM. Landscape ecology of Trypanosoma cruzi in the southern Yucatan Peninsula. Acta Trop 2015. [PMID: 26219998 DOI: 10.1016/j.actatropica.2015.07.021] [Citation(s) in RCA: 48] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/06/2023]
Abstract
Landscape interactions of Trypanosoma cruzi (Tc) with Triatoma dimidiata (Td) depend on the presence and relative abundance of mammal hosts. This study analyzed a landscape adjacent to the Calakmul Biosphere Reserve, composed of conserved areas, crop and farming areas, and the human community of Zoh Laguna with reported Chagas disease cases. Sylvatic mammals of the Chiroptera, Rodentia, and Marsupialia orders were captured, and livestock and pets were sampled along with T. dimidiata in all habitats. Infection by T. cruzi was analyzed using mtDNA markers, while lineage and DTU was analyzed using the mini-exon. 303 sylvatic specimens were collected, corresponding to 19 species during the rainy season and 114 specimens of 18 species during dry season. Five bats Artibeus jamaicensis, Artibeus lituratus, Sturnira lilium, Sturnira ludovici, Dermanura phaeotis (Dp) and one rodent Heteromys gaumeri were collected in the three habitats. All but Dp, and including Carollia brevicauda and Myotis keaysi, were infected with predominately TcI in the sylvatic habitat and TcII in the ecotone. Sigmodon hispidus was the rodent with the highest prevalence of infection by T. cruzi I and II in ecotone and domestic habitats. Didelphis viginiana was infected only with TcI in both domestic and sylvatic habitats; the only two genotyped human cases were TcII. Two main clades of T. cruzi, lineages I (DTU Ia) and II (DTU VI), were found to be sympatric (all habitats and seasons) in the Zoh-Laguna landscape, suggesting that no species-specific interactions occur between the parasite and any mammal host, in any habitat. We have also found mixed infections of the two principal T. cruzi clades in individuals across modified habitats, particularly in livestock and pets, and in both haplogroups of T. dimidiata. Results are contradictory to the dilution hypothesis, although we did find that most resilient species had an important role as T. cruzi hosts. Our study detected some complex trends in parasite transmission related to lineage sorting within the matrix. Intriguingly, TcIa is dominant in terrestrial small wildlife in the sylvatic habitat and is the only parasite DTU found in D. virginiana in the domestic habitat, although its frequency remained constant in sylvatic and ecotone vectors. Bats have a key role in TcVI dispersal from the sylvatic habitat, while dogs, sheep, and humans are drivers of TcVI between domestic and ecotone habitats. Overall, our results allow us to conclude that T. cruzi transmission is dependent on host availability within a highly permeable landscape in Zoh Laguna.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sury Antonio López-Cancino
- Centro Regional de Investigación en Salud Pública, Instituto Nacional de Salud Pública, Tapachula, Chiapas, Mexico
| | - Ezequiel Tun-Ku
- Centro Regional de Investigación en Salud Pública, Instituto Nacional de Salud Pública, Tapachula, Chiapas, Mexico
| | | | - Carlos Napoleón Ibarra-Cerdeña
- Centro de Investigacion y de Estudios Avanzados del IPN (Cinvestav), Unidad Merida, Departamento de Ecología Humana, Mérida, Yucatán, Mexico
| | - Amaia Izeta-Alberdi
- Centro Regional de Investigación en Salud Pública, Instituto Nacional de Salud Pública, Tapachula, Chiapas, Mexico
| | - Angélica Pech-May
- Centro Regional de Investigación en Salud Pública, Instituto Nacional de Salud Pública, Tapachula, Chiapas, Mexico; Instituto Nacional de Medicina Tropical, Ministerio de Salud de la Nación, CONICET, Jujuy y Neuquén s/n, 3370, Puerto Iguazú, Misiones, Argentina
| | | | - Alba Valdez-Tah
- El Colegio de la Frontera Sur, Departamento de Sociedad y Cultura, Campeche, Campeche, Mexico
| | - Janine M Ramsey
- Centro Regional de Investigación en Salud Pública, Instituto Nacional de Salud Pública, Tapachula, Chiapas, Mexico.
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Guzmán-Gómez D, López-Monteon A, de la Soledad Lagunes-Castro M, Álvarez-Martínez C, Hernández-Lutzon MJ, Dumonteil E, Ramos-Ligonio A. Highly discordant serology against Trypanosoma cruzi in central Veracruz, Mexico: role of the antigen used for diagnostic. Parasit Vectors 2015; 8:466. [PMID: 26384317 PMCID: PMC4573690 DOI: 10.1186/s13071-015-1072-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 49] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/29/2015] [Accepted: 09/04/2015] [Indexed: 12/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Chagas disease is a parasitic disease caused by the protozoan parasite Trypanosoma cruzi. In Mexico, the burden of the disease is difficult to estimate and improving surveillance for Chagas disease is an important priority. We aimed here at determining the seroprevalence of T. cruzi infection in humans in a rural community in Veracruz. Methods Serum samples (196) were analyzed for T. cruzi infection using five enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) tests: two in-house tests based on crude parasite extract and three commercial ELISA kits. Because of highly discordant results, we further explored the importance of parasite antigens and strains by western-blot analysis. Results A total of 74 samples (37.7 %) were reactive with at least one ELISA, but discordance among tests was very high. The best agreement was between Chagatest recombinant and Chagatek ELISA (Kappa index = 0.798). The agreement between other combinations of tests ranged from 0.038 to 0.518. Discordant samples were confirmed by western-blot analysis using up to nine parasite strains, giving a seroprevalence of 33.7 %. Conclusions Commercial tests had a very limited ability to detect T. cruzi infection in the study population. In-house tests based on crude parasite antigens showed a greater sensitivity but were still unable to detect all cases of T. cruzi infection, even when based on a local parasite strain. The high seroprevalence confirmed the hyper-endemicity of T. cruzi infection in the region. Reliable epidemiological surveillance of Chagas disease will require the development of improved diagnostic tests. Electronic supplementary material The online version of this article (doi:10.1186/s13071-015-1072-2) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.
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Affiliation(s)
- Daniel Guzmán-Gómez
- Doctorado en Ciencias Biomédicas, Universidad Veracruzana, Xalapa, Veracruz, Mexico. .,LADISER Inmunología y Biología Molecular, Facultad de Ciencias Químicas, Universidad Veracruzana, Orizaba, Veracruz, Mexico.
| | - Aracely López-Monteon
- LADISER Inmunología y Biología Molecular, Facultad de Ciencias Químicas, Universidad Veracruzana, Orizaba, Veracruz, Mexico. .,Centro de Investigaciones Biomédicas, Universidad Veracruzana, Xalapa, Veracruz, Mexico.
| | - María de la Soledad Lagunes-Castro
- Doctorado en Ciencias Biomédicas, Universidad Veracruzana, Xalapa, Veracruz, Mexico. .,LADISER Inmunología y Biología Molecular, Facultad de Ciencias Químicas, Universidad Veracruzana, Orizaba, Veracruz, Mexico.
| | - Carolina Álvarez-Martínez
- LADISER Inmunología y Biología Molecular, Facultad de Ciencias Químicas, Universidad Veracruzana, Orizaba, Veracruz, Mexico.
| | - Manuel Jesús Hernández-Lutzon
- LADISER Inmunología y Biología Molecular, Facultad de Ciencias Químicas, Universidad Veracruzana, Orizaba, Veracruz, Mexico.
| | - Eric Dumonteil
- Laboratorio de Parasitología, Centro de Investigaciones Regionales "Dr. Hideyo Noguchi", Universidad Autónoma de Yucatán, Mérida, Yucatán, Mexico. .,Department of Tropical Medicine, Tulane University, School of Public Health and Tropical Medicine, New Orleans, LA, USA.
| | - Angel Ramos-Ligonio
- LADISER Inmunología y Biología Molecular, Facultad de Ciencias Químicas, Universidad Veracruzana, Orizaba, Veracruz, Mexico. .,Centro de Investigaciones Biomédicas, Universidad Veracruzana, Xalapa, Veracruz, Mexico.
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Waleckx E, Camara-Mejia J, Ramirez-Sierra MJ, Cruz-Chan V, Rosado-Vallado M, Vazquez-Narvaez S, Najera-Vazquez R, Gourbière S, Dumonteil E. An innovative ecohealth intervention for Chagas disease vector control in Yucatan, Mexico. Trans R Soc Trop Med Hyg 2015; 109:143-9. [PMID: 25604765 PMCID: PMC4299525 DOI: 10.1093/trstmh/tru200] [Citation(s) in RCA: 42] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Non-domiciliated (intrusive) triatomine vectors remain a challenge for the sustainability of Chagas disease vector control as these triatomines are able to transiently (re-)infest houses. One of the best-characterized examples is Triatoma dimidiata from the Yucatan peninsula, Mexico, where adult insects seasonally infest houses between March and July. Methods We focused our study on three rural villages in the state of Yucatan, Mexico, in which we performed a situation analysis as a first step before the implementation of an ecohealth (ecosystem approach to health) vector control intervention. Results The identification of the key determinants affecting the transient invasion of human dwellings by T. dimidiata was performed by exploring associations between bug presence and qualitative and quantitative variables describing the ecological, biological and social context of the communities. We then used a participatory action research approach for implementation and evaluation of a control strategy based on window insect screens to reduce house infestation by T. dimidiata. Conclusions This ecohealth approach may represent a valuable alternative to vertically-organized insecticide spraying. Further evaluation may confirm that it is sustainable and provides effective control (in the sense of limiting infestation of human dwellings and vector/human contacts) of intrusive triatomines in the region.
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Affiliation(s)
- Etienne Waleckx
- Laboratorio de Parasitología, Centro de Investigaciones Regionales "Dr. Hideyo Noguchi", Universidad Autónoma de Yucatán, Mérida, Yucatán, Mexico
| | - Javier Camara-Mejia
- Laboratorio de Parasitología, Centro de Investigaciones Regionales "Dr. Hideyo Noguchi", Universidad Autónoma de Yucatán, Mérida, Yucatán, Mexico
| | - Maria Jesus Ramirez-Sierra
- Laboratorio de Parasitología, Centro de Investigaciones Regionales "Dr. Hideyo Noguchi", Universidad Autónoma de Yucatán, Mérida, Yucatán, Mexico
| | - Vladimir Cruz-Chan
- Laboratorio de Parasitología, Centro de Investigaciones Regionales "Dr. Hideyo Noguchi", Universidad Autónoma de Yucatán, Mérida, Yucatán, Mexico
| | - Miguel Rosado-Vallado
- Laboratorio de Parasitología, Centro de Investigaciones Regionales "Dr. Hideyo Noguchi", Universidad Autónoma de Yucatán, Mérida, Yucatán, Mexico
| | - Santos Vazquez-Narvaez
- Departamento de Control de Vectores, Servicios de Salud de Yucatán, Mérida, Yucatán, Mexico
| | - Rosario Najera-Vazquez
- Departamento de Control de Vectores, Servicios de Salud de Yucatán, Mérida, Yucatán, Mexico
| | - Sébastien Gourbière
- EA 4218 Institut de Modélisation et d'Analyses en Géo-Environnement et Santé, Université de Perpignan Via Domitia, Perpignan, France
| | - Eric Dumonteil
- Laboratorio de Parasitología, Centro de Investigaciones Regionales "Dr. Hideyo Noguchi", Universidad Autónoma de Yucatán, Mérida, Yucatán, Mexico
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Carrera Vargas C, Narváez AO, Muzzio Aroca J, Shiguango G, Robles LM, Herrera C, Dumonteil E. Seroprevalence of Trypanosoma cruzi Infection in Schoolchildren and in Pregnant Women from an Amazonian Region in Orellana Province, Ecuador. Am J Trop Med Hyg 2015; 93:774-8. [PMID: 26283751 DOI: 10.4269/ajtmh.14-0807] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/16/2014] [Accepted: 04/22/2015] [Indexed: 12/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Chagas disease is a parasitic disease caused by the protozoan parasite Trypanosoma cruzi and about 230,000 persons are estimated to be infected in Ecuador. However, limited studies have been performed in the Amazon region, on the eastern side of the country. We evaluated here the seroprevalence of Trypanosoma cruzi infection in 12 rural villages of the Loreto canton, Orellana Province in schoolchildren aged 5-15 years and in pregnant women. A total of 1,649 blood samples were tested for Trypanosoma cruzi antibodies by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay and indirect hemaglutination, and discordant samples were tested by indirect immunofluorescence assay. We detected a seroprevalence of anti-Trypanosoma cruzi antibodies of 1.3% in schoolchildren aged 5-15 years, indicating the persistence of a constant and active vectorial transmission in the Loreto County and confirming the need of the implementation of nonconventional vector control. We also observed a seroprevalence of 3.8% in pregnant women, indicating a clear risk of congenital transmission. Further studies should help define this risk more precisely and implement current international guidelines for the diagnosis, treatment, and care of these cases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Caty Carrera Vargas
- Subproceso de Parasitología, Instituto Nacional de Investigación en Salud Pública, Guayaquil, Ecuador; Laboratorio de Parasitología, Centro de Investigaciones Regionales "Dr. Hideyo Noguchi," Universidad Autonoma de Yucatán, Merida, Yucatan, Mexico; Ministry of Public Health, Orellana, Ecuador; Department of Tropical Medicine, Vector-Borne Infectious Disease Research Center, School of Public Health and Tropical Medicine, Tulane University, New Orleans, Louisiana
| | - Alberto Orlando Narváez
- Subproceso de Parasitología, Instituto Nacional de Investigación en Salud Pública, Guayaquil, Ecuador; Laboratorio de Parasitología, Centro de Investigaciones Regionales "Dr. Hideyo Noguchi," Universidad Autonoma de Yucatán, Merida, Yucatan, Mexico; Ministry of Public Health, Orellana, Ecuador; Department of Tropical Medicine, Vector-Borne Infectious Disease Research Center, School of Public Health and Tropical Medicine, Tulane University, New Orleans, Louisiana
| | - Jenny Muzzio Aroca
- Subproceso de Parasitología, Instituto Nacional de Investigación en Salud Pública, Guayaquil, Ecuador; Laboratorio de Parasitología, Centro de Investigaciones Regionales "Dr. Hideyo Noguchi," Universidad Autonoma de Yucatán, Merida, Yucatan, Mexico; Ministry of Public Health, Orellana, Ecuador; Department of Tropical Medicine, Vector-Borne Infectious Disease Research Center, School of Public Health and Tropical Medicine, Tulane University, New Orleans, Louisiana
| | - Gonzalo Shiguango
- Subproceso de Parasitología, Instituto Nacional de Investigación en Salud Pública, Guayaquil, Ecuador; Laboratorio de Parasitología, Centro de Investigaciones Regionales "Dr. Hideyo Noguchi," Universidad Autonoma de Yucatán, Merida, Yucatan, Mexico; Ministry of Public Health, Orellana, Ecuador; Department of Tropical Medicine, Vector-Borne Infectious Disease Research Center, School of Public Health and Tropical Medicine, Tulane University, New Orleans, Louisiana
| | - Luiggi Martini Robles
- Subproceso de Parasitología, Instituto Nacional de Investigación en Salud Pública, Guayaquil, Ecuador; Laboratorio de Parasitología, Centro de Investigaciones Regionales "Dr. Hideyo Noguchi," Universidad Autonoma de Yucatán, Merida, Yucatan, Mexico; Ministry of Public Health, Orellana, Ecuador; Department of Tropical Medicine, Vector-Borne Infectious Disease Research Center, School of Public Health and Tropical Medicine, Tulane University, New Orleans, Louisiana
| | - Claudia Herrera
- Subproceso de Parasitología, Instituto Nacional de Investigación en Salud Pública, Guayaquil, Ecuador; Laboratorio de Parasitología, Centro de Investigaciones Regionales "Dr. Hideyo Noguchi," Universidad Autonoma de Yucatán, Merida, Yucatan, Mexico; Ministry of Public Health, Orellana, Ecuador; Department of Tropical Medicine, Vector-Borne Infectious Disease Research Center, School of Public Health and Tropical Medicine, Tulane University, New Orleans, Louisiana
| | - Eric Dumonteil
- Subproceso de Parasitología, Instituto Nacional de Investigación en Salud Pública, Guayaquil, Ecuador; Laboratorio de Parasitología, Centro de Investigaciones Regionales "Dr. Hideyo Noguchi," Universidad Autonoma de Yucatán, Merida, Yucatan, Mexico; Ministry of Public Health, Orellana, Ecuador; Department of Tropical Medicine, Vector-Borne Infectious Disease Research Center, School of Public Health and Tropical Medicine, Tulane University, New Orleans, Louisiana
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Sasagawa E, Aiga H, Corado Soriano EY, Cuyuch Marroquín BL, Hernández Ramírez MA, Guevara de Aguilar AV, Romero Chévez JE, Ramos Hernández HM, Cedillos RA, Misago C, Kita K. Mother-to-Child Transmission of Chagas Disease in El Salvador. Am J Trop Med Hyg 2015; 93:326-33. [PMID: 26123959 DOI: 10.4269/ajtmh.14-0425] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/08/2014] [Accepted: 05/06/2015] [Indexed: 11/07/2022] Open
Abstract
To estimate the incidence (any mother to child) and rate (from seropositive mother to child) of mother-to-child transmission of Trypanosoma cruzi, a serological census was conducted, targeting pregnant women and infants born to seropositive mothers, in four municipalities of El Salvador. Of 943 pregnant women, 36 (3.8%) were seropositive for T. cruzi. Of 36, 32 proceeded to serological tests of their infants when they became 6-8 months of age. Six infants seropositive at the age of 6-8 months further proceeded to second-stage serological test at the age of 9-16 months. As the result, one infant was congenitally infected. Thus, serological tests at the age of 6-8 months produced five false positives. To ensure earlier effective medication only for true positives, identification of seropositive infants at the age of 9-16 months is crucial. Incidence and rate of mother-to-child transmission were 0.14 (per 100 person-years) and 4.0%, respectively. Estimated number of children infected through mother-to-child transmission in El Salvador (170 per year) was much higher than that of human immunodeficiency virus (HIV; seven per year). It is recommended that serological testing for T. cruzi be integrated into those for HIV and syphilis as part of antenatal care package.
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Affiliation(s)
- Emi Sasagawa
- Department of Biomedical Chemistry, School of International Health, Graduate School of Medicine, The University of Tokyo, Tokyo, Japan; Human Development Department, Japan International Cooperation Agency (JICA), Tokyo, Japan; Department of Global Health, Milken Institute School of Public Health, The George Washington University, Washington, District of Columbia; Sección de Epidemiología, SIBASI Sonsonate, Ministerio de Salud de El Salvador (MINSAL), Sonsonate, El Salvador; Programa de Materno Infantil, Dirección Regional de Salud Zona Occidente, Ministerio de Salud de El Salvador (MINSAL), Santa Ana, El Salvador; Unidad de Vigilancia Laboratorial, Ministerio de Salud de El Salvador (MINSAL), San Salvador, El Salvador; Unidad de Vigilancia de Enfermedades Vectorizadas, Ministerio de Salud de El Salvador (MINSAL), San Salvador, El Salvador; Dirección de Vigilancia Sanitaria, Ministerio de Salud de El Salvador (MINSAL), San Salvador, El Salvador; Consejo de Investigaciones Científicas (CIC-UES), Universidad de El Salvador, San Salvador, El Salvador; Department of International and Cultural Studies, Tsuda College, Tokyo, Japan
| | - Hirotsugu Aiga
- Department of Biomedical Chemistry, School of International Health, Graduate School of Medicine, The University of Tokyo, Tokyo, Japan; Human Development Department, Japan International Cooperation Agency (JICA), Tokyo, Japan; Department of Global Health, Milken Institute School of Public Health, The George Washington University, Washington, District of Columbia; Sección de Epidemiología, SIBASI Sonsonate, Ministerio de Salud de El Salvador (MINSAL), Sonsonate, El Salvador; Programa de Materno Infantil, Dirección Regional de Salud Zona Occidente, Ministerio de Salud de El Salvador (MINSAL), Santa Ana, El Salvador; Unidad de Vigilancia Laboratorial, Ministerio de Salud de El Salvador (MINSAL), San Salvador, El Salvador; Unidad de Vigilancia de Enfermedades Vectorizadas, Ministerio de Salud de El Salvador (MINSAL), San Salvador, El Salvador; Dirección de Vigilancia Sanitaria, Ministerio de Salud de El Salvador (MINSAL), San Salvador, El Salvador; Consejo de Investigaciones Científicas (CIC-UES), Universidad de El Salvador, San Salvador, El Salvador; Department of International and Cultural Studies, Tsuda College, Tokyo, Japan
| | - Edith Yanira Corado Soriano
- Department of Biomedical Chemistry, School of International Health, Graduate School of Medicine, The University of Tokyo, Tokyo, Japan; Human Development Department, Japan International Cooperation Agency (JICA), Tokyo, Japan; Department of Global Health, Milken Institute School of Public Health, The George Washington University, Washington, District of Columbia; Sección de Epidemiología, SIBASI Sonsonate, Ministerio de Salud de El Salvador (MINSAL), Sonsonate, El Salvador; Programa de Materno Infantil, Dirección Regional de Salud Zona Occidente, Ministerio de Salud de El Salvador (MINSAL), Santa Ana, El Salvador; Unidad de Vigilancia Laboratorial, Ministerio de Salud de El Salvador (MINSAL), San Salvador, El Salvador; Unidad de Vigilancia de Enfermedades Vectorizadas, Ministerio de Salud de El Salvador (MINSAL), San Salvador, El Salvador; Dirección de Vigilancia Sanitaria, Ministerio de Salud de El Salvador (MINSAL), San Salvador, El Salvador; Consejo de Investigaciones Científicas (CIC-UES), Universidad de El Salvador, San Salvador, El Salvador; Department of International and Cultural Studies, Tsuda College, Tokyo, Japan
| | - Blanca Leticia Cuyuch Marroquín
- Department of Biomedical Chemistry, School of International Health, Graduate School of Medicine, The University of Tokyo, Tokyo, Japan; Human Development Department, Japan International Cooperation Agency (JICA), Tokyo, Japan; Department of Global Health, Milken Institute School of Public Health, The George Washington University, Washington, District of Columbia; Sección de Epidemiología, SIBASI Sonsonate, Ministerio de Salud de El Salvador (MINSAL), Sonsonate, El Salvador; Programa de Materno Infantil, Dirección Regional de Salud Zona Occidente, Ministerio de Salud de El Salvador (MINSAL), Santa Ana, El Salvador; Unidad de Vigilancia Laboratorial, Ministerio de Salud de El Salvador (MINSAL), San Salvador, El Salvador; Unidad de Vigilancia de Enfermedades Vectorizadas, Ministerio de Salud de El Salvador (MINSAL), San Salvador, El Salvador; Dirección de Vigilancia Sanitaria, Ministerio de Salud de El Salvador (MINSAL), San Salvador, El Salvador; Consejo de Investigaciones Científicas (CIC-UES), Universidad de El Salvador, San Salvador, El Salvador; Department of International and Cultural Studies, Tsuda College, Tokyo, Japan
| | - Marta Alicia Hernández Ramírez
- Department of Biomedical Chemistry, School of International Health, Graduate School of Medicine, The University of Tokyo, Tokyo, Japan; Human Development Department, Japan International Cooperation Agency (JICA), Tokyo, Japan; Department of Global Health, Milken Institute School of Public Health, The George Washington University, Washington, District of Columbia; Sección de Epidemiología, SIBASI Sonsonate, Ministerio de Salud de El Salvador (MINSAL), Sonsonate, El Salvador; Programa de Materno Infantil, Dirección Regional de Salud Zona Occidente, Ministerio de Salud de El Salvador (MINSAL), Santa Ana, El Salvador; Unidad de Vigilancia Laboratorial, Ministerio de Salud de El Salvador (MINSAL), San Salvador, El Salvador; Unidad de Vigilancia de Enfermedades Vectorizadas, Ministerio de Salud de El Salvador (MINSAL), San Salvador, El Salvador; Dirección de Vigilancia Sanitaria, Ministerio de Salud de El Salvador (MINSAL), San Salvador, El Salvador; Consejo de Investigaciones Científicas (CIC-UES), Universidad de El Salvador, San Salvador, El Salvador; Department of International and Cultural Studies, Tsuda College, Tokyo, Japan
| | - Ana Vilma Guevara de Aguilar
- Department of Biomedical Chemistry, School of International Health, Graduate School of Medicine, The University of Tokyo, Tokyo, Japan; Human Development Department, Japan International Cooperation Agency (JICA), Tokyo, Japan; Department of Global Health, Milken Institute School of Public Health, The George Washington University, Washington, District of Columbia; Sección de Epidemiología, SIBASI Sonsonate, Ministerio de Salud de El Salvador (MINSAL), Sonsonate, El Salvador; Programa de Materno Infantil, Dirección Regional de Salud Zona Occidente, Ministerio de Salud de El Salvador (MINSAL), Santa Ana, El Salvador; Unidad de Vigilancia Laboratorial, Ministerio de Salud de El Salvador (MINSAL), San Salvador, El Salvador; Unidad de Vigilancia de Enfermedades Vectorizadas, Ministerio de Salud de El Salvador (MINSAL), San Salvador, El Salvador; Dirección de Vigilancia Sanitaria, Ministerio de Salud de El Salvador (MINSAL), San Salvador, El Salvador; Consejo de Investigaciones Científicas (CIC-UES), Universidad de El Salvador, San Salvador, El Salvador; Department of International and Cultural Studies, Tsuda College, Tokyo, Japan
| | - José Eduardo Romero Chévez
- Department of Biomedical Chemistry, School of International Health, Graduate School of Medicine, The University of Tokyo, Tokyo, Japan; Human Development Department, Japan International Cooperation Agency (JICA), Tokyo, Japan; Department of Global Health, Milken Institute School of Public Health, The George Washington University, Washington, District of Columbia; Sección de Epidemiología, SIBASI Sonsonate, Ministerio de Salud de El Salvador (MINSAL), Sonsonate, El Salvador; Programa de Materno Infantil, Dirección Regional de Salud Zona Occidente, Ministerio de Salud de El Salvador (MINSAL), Santa Ana, El Salvador; Unidad de Vigilancia Laboratorial, Ministerio de Salud de El Salvador (MINSAL), San Salvador, El Salvador; Unidad de Vigilancia de Enfermedades Vectorizadas, Ministerio de Salud de El Salvador (MINSAL), San Salvador, El Salvador; Dirección de Vigilancia Sanitaria, Ministerio de Salud de El Salvador (MINSAL), San Salvador, El Salvador; Consejo de Investigaciones Científicas (CIC-UES), Universidad de El Salvador, San Salvador, El Salvador; Department of International and Cultural Studies, Tsuda College, Tokyo, Japan
| | - Hector Manuel Ramos Hernández
- Department of Biomedical Chemistry, School of International Health, Graduate School of Medicine, The University of Tokyo, Tokyo, Japan; Human Development Department, Japan International Cooperation Agency (JICA), Tokyo, Japan; Department of Global Health, Milken Institute School of Public Health, The George Washington University, Washington, District of Columbia; Sección de Epidemiología, SIBASI Sonsonate, Ministerio de Salud de El Salvador (MINSAL), Sonsonate, El Salvador; Programa de Materno Infantil, Dirección Regional de Salud Zona Occidente, Ministerio de Salud de El Salvador (MINSAL), Santa Ana, El Salvador; Unidad de Vigilancia Laboratorial, Ministerio de Salud de El Salvador (MINSAL), San Salvador, El Salvador; Unidad de Vigilancia de Enfermedades Vectorizadas, Ministerio de Salud de El Salvador (MINSAL), San Salvador, El Salvador; Dirección de Vigilancia Sanitaria, Ministerio de Salud de El Salvador (MINSAL), San Salvador, El Salvador; Consejo de Investigaciones Científicas (CIC-UES), Universidad de El Salvador, San Salvador, El Salvador; Department of International and Cultural Studies, Tsuda College, Tokyo, Japan
| | - Rafael Antonio Cedillos
- Department of Biomedical Chemistry, School of International Health, Graduate School of Medicine, The University of Tokyo, Tokyo, Japan; Human Development Department, Japan International Cooperation Agency (JICA), Tokyo, Japan; Department of Global Health, Milken Institute School of Public Health, The George Washington University, Washington, District of Columbia; Sección de Epidemiología, SIBASI Sonsonate, Ministerio de Salud de El Salvador (MINSAL), Sonsonate, El Salvador; Programa de Materno Infantil, Dirección Regional de Salud Zona Occidente, Ministerio de Salud de El Salvador (MINSAL), Santa Ana, El Salvador; Unidad de Vigilancia Laboratorial, Ministerio de Salud de El Salvador (MINSAL), San Salvador, El Salvador; Unidad de Vigilancia de Enfermedades Vectorizadas, Ministerio de Salud de El Salvador (MINSAL), San Salvador, El Salvador; Dirección de Vigilancia Sanitaria, Ministerio de Salud de El Salvador (MINSAL), San Salvador, El Salvador; Consejo de Investigaciones Científicas (CIC-UES), Universidad de El Salvador, San Salvador, El Salvador; Department of International and Cultural Studies, Tsuda College, Tokyo, Japan
| | - Chizuru Misago
- Department of Biomedical Chemistry, School of International Health, Graduate School of Medicine, The University of Tokyo, Tokyo, Japan; Human Development Department, Japan International Cooperation Agency (JICA), Tokyo, Japan; Department of Global Health, Milken Institute School of Public Health, The George Washington University, Washington, District of Columbia; Sección de Epidemiología, SIBASI Sonsonate, Ministerio de Salud de El Salvador (MINSAL), Sonsonate, El Salvador; Programa de Materno Infantil, Dirección Regional de Salud Zona Occidente, Ministerio de Salud de El Salvador (MINSAL), Santa Ana, El Salvador; Unidad de Vigilancia Laboratorial, Ministerio de Salud de El Salvador (MINSAL), San Salvador, El Salvador; Unidad de Vigilancia de Enfermedades Vectorizadas, Ministerio de Salud de El Salvador (MINSAL), San Salvador, El Salvador; Dirección de Vigilancia Sanitaria, Ministerio de Salud de El Salvador (MINSAL), San Salvador, El Salvador; Consejo de Investigaciones Científicas (CIC-UES), Universidad de El Salvador, San Salvador, El Salvador; Department of International and Cultural Studies, Tsuda College, Tokyo, Japan
| | - Kiyoshi Kita
- Department of Biomedical Chemistry, School of International Health, Graduate School of Medicine, The University of Tokyo, Tokyo, Japan; Human Development Department, Japan International Cooperation Agency (JICA), Tokyo, Japan; Department of Global Health, Milken Institute School of Public Health, The George Washington University, Washington, District of Columbia; Sección de Epidemiología, SIBASI Sonsonate, Ministerio de Salud de El Salvador (MINSAL), Sonsonate, El Salvador; Programa de Materno Infantil, Dirección Regional de Salud Zona Occidente, Ministerio de Salud de El Salvador (MINSAL), Santa Ana, El Salvador; Unidad de Vigilancia Laboratorial, Ministerio de Salud de El Salvador (MINSAL), San Salvador, El Salvador; Unidad de Vigilancia de Enfermedades Vectorizadas, Ministerio de Salud de El Salvador (MINSAL), San Salvador, El Salvador; Dirección de Vigilancia Sanitaria, Ministerio de Salud de El Salvador (MINSAL), San Salvador, El Salvador; Consejo de Investigaciones Científicas (CIC-UES), Universidad de El Salvador, San Salvador, El Salvador; Department of International and Cultural Studies, Tsuda College, Tokyo, Japan
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22
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Waleckx E, Gourbière S, Dumonteil E. Intrusive versus domiciliated triatomines and the challenge of adapting vector control practices against Chagas disease. Mem Inst Oswaldo Cruz 2015; 110:324-38. [PMID: 25993504 PMCID: PMC4489470 DOI: 10.1590/0074-02760140409] [Citation(s) in RCA: 91] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/31/2014] [Accepted: 03/09/2015] [Indexed: 11/22/2022] Open
Abstract
Chagas disease prevention remains mostly based on triatomine vector control to reduce or eliminate house infestation with these bugs. The level of adaptation of triatomines to human housing is a key part of vector competence and needs to be precisely evaluated to allow for the design of effective vector control strategies. In this review, we examine how the domiciliation/intrusion level of different triatomine species/populations has been defined and measured and discuss how these concepts may be improved for a better understanding of their ecology and evolution, as well as for the design of more effective control strategies against a large variety of triatomine species. We suggest that a major limitation of current criteria for classifying triatomines into sylvatic, intrusive, domiciliary and domestic species is that these are essentially qualitative and do not rely on quantitative variables measuring population sustainability and fitness in their different habitats. However, such assessments may be derived from further analysis and modelling of field data. Such approaches can shed new light on the domiciliation process of triatomines and may represent a key tool for decision-making and the design of vector control interventions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Etienne Waleckx
- Laboratorio de Parasitología, Centro de Investigaciones Regionales Dr
Hideyo Noguchi, Universidad Autónoma de Yucatán, Mérida, Yucatán, Mexico
| | - Sébastien Gourbière
- Institut de Modélisation et d’Analyses en Géo-Environnement et Santé,
Université de Perpignan Via Domitia, Perpignan, France
| | - Eric Dumonteil
- Laboratorio de Parasitología, Centro de Investigaciones Regionales Dr
Hideyo Noguchi, Universidad Autónoma de Yucatán, Mérida, Yucatán, Mexico
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23
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Carlier Y, Sosa-Estani S, Luquetti AO, Buekens P. Congenital Chagas disease: an update. Mem Inst Oswaldo Cruz 2015; 110:363-8. [PMID: 25760448 PMCID: PMC4489473 DOI: 10.1590/0074-02760140405] [Citation(s) in RCA: 97] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/31/2014] [Accepted: 02/10/2015] [Indexed: 12/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Congenital infection with Trypanosoma cruzi is a global problem, occurring on average
in 5% of children born from chronically infected mothers in endemic areas, with
variations depending on the region. This presentation aims to focus on and update
epidemiological data, research methods, involved factors, control strategy and
possible prevention of congenital infection with T. cruzi. Considering that
etiological treatment of the child is always effective if performed before one year
of age, the diagnosis of infection in pregnant women and their newborns has to become
the standard of care and integrated into the surveillance programs of syphilis and
human immunodeficiency virus. In addition to the standard tests, polymerase chain
reaction performed on blood of neonates of infected mothers one month after birth
might improve the diagnosis of congenital infection. Recent data bring out that its
transmission can be prevented through treatment of infected women before they become
pregnant. The role of parasite genotypes and host genetic factors in parasite
transmission and development of infection in foetuses/neonates has to be more
investigated in order to better estimate the risk factors and impact on health of
congenital infection with T. cruzi.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yves Carlier
- Faculté de Médecine, Université Libre de Bruxelles, Bruxelles, Belgique
| | - Sergio Sosa-Estani
- Instituto Nacional de Parasitología Dr Mario Fatala Chaben, Ministry of Health, Buenos Aires, Argentina
| | | | - Pierre Buekens
- School of Public Health and Tropical Medicine, Tulane University, New Orleans, LA, USA
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Hotez PJ, Bottazzi ME, Dumonteil E, Buekens P. The Gulf of Mexico: a "hot zone" for neglected tropical diseases? PLoS Negl Trop Dis 2015; 9:e0003481. [PMID: 25719411 PMCID: PMC4342336 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pntd.0003481] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/18/2022] Open
Affiliation(s)
- Peter J. Hotez
- Sabin Vaccine Institute and Texas Children’s Hospital Center for Vaccine Development, National School of Tropical Medicine, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, Texas, United States of America
- Department of Biology, Baylor University, Waco, Texas, United States of America
- James A. Baker III Institute for Public Policy, Rice University, Houston, Texas, United States of America
- * E-mail: (PJH); (PB)
| | - Maria Elena Bottazzi
- Sabin Vaccine Institute and Texas Children’s Hospital Center for Vaccine Development, National School of Tropical Medicine, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, Texas, United States of America
- Department of Biology, Baylor University, Waco, Texas, United States of America
| | - Eric Dumonteil
- Laboratorio de Parasitología, Centro de Investigaciones Regionales "Dr. Hideyo Noguchi", Universidad Autónoma de Yucatán, Mérida, Yucatán, Mexico
- School of Public Health and Tropical Medicine, Tulane University, New Orleans, Louisiana, United States of America
| | - Pierre Buekens
- School of Public Health and Tropical Medicine, Tulane University, New Orleans, Louisiana, United States of America
- * E-mail: (PJH); (PB)
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25
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Sasagawa E, Aiga H, Corado EY, Cuyuch BL, Hernández MA, Guevara AV, Romero JE, Ramos HM, Cedillos RA, Misago C, Kita K. Risk factors for Chagas disease among pregnant women in El Salvador. Trop Med Int Health 2014; 20:268-76. [DOI: 10.1111/tmi.12440] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Emi Sasagawa
- Department of Biomedical Chemistry; School of International Health; Graduate School of Medicine; The University of Tokyo; Tokyo Japan
| | - Hirotsugu Aiga
- Japan International Cooperation Agency; Vietnam Country Office; Hanoi Vietnam
- Department of Global Health; The George Washington University; Washington DC USA
| | - Edith Y. Corado
- Sección de Epidemiología; Ministerio de Salud; Sonsonate El Salvador
| | - Blanca L. Cuyuch
- Programa de Materno Infantil; Ministerio de Salud; Santa Ana El Salvador
| | - Marta A. Hernández
- Unidad de Vigilancia Laboratorial de Enfermedades Vectorizadas; Ministerio de Salud; San Salvador El Salvador
| | - Ana V. Guevara
- Unidad de Vigilancia Laboratorial de Enfermedades Vectorizadas; Ministerio de Salud; San Salvador El Salvador
| | - José E. Romero
- Unidad de Vigilancia Laboratorial de Enfermedades Vectorizadas; Ministerio de Salud; San Salvador El Salvador
| | - Hector M. Ramos
- Dirección de Vigilancia Sanitaria; Ministerio de Salud; San Salvador El Salvador
| | - Rafael A. Cedillos
- Consejo de Investigaciones Científicas; Universidad de El Salvador; San Salvador El Salvador
| | - Chizuru Misago
- Department of International and Cultural Studies; Tsuda College; Tokyo Japan
| | - Kiyoshi Kita
- Department of Biomedical Chemistry; School of International Health; Graduate School of Medicine; The University of Tokyo; Tokyo Japan
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