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Klein JA, Predeus AV, Greissl AR, Clark-Herrera MM, Cruz E, Cundiff JA, Haeberle AL, Howell M, Lele A, Robinson DJ, Westerman TL, Wrande M, Wright SJ, Green NM, Vallance BA, McClelland M, Mejia A, Goodman AG, Elfenbein JR, Knodler LA. Pathogenic diversification of the gut commensal Providencia alcalifaciens via acquisition of a second type III secretion system. Infect Immun 2024:e0031424. [PMID: 39254346 DOI: 10.1128/iai.00314-24] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/22/2024] [Accepted: 08/13/2024] [Indexed: 09/11/2024] Open
Abstract
Providencia alcalifaciens is a Gram-negative bacterium found in various water and land environments and organisms, including insects and mammals. Some P. alcalifaciens strains encode gene homologs of virulence factors found in pathogenic Enterobacterales members, such as Salmonella enterica serovar Typhimurium and Shigella flexneri. Whether these genes are pathogenic determinants in P. alcalifaciens is not known. In this study, we investigated P. alcalifaciens-host interactions at the cellular level, focusing on the role of two type III secretion systems (T3SS) belonging to the Inv-Mxi/Spa family. T3SS1b is widespread in Providencia spp. and encoded on the chromosome. A large plasmid that is present in a subset of P. alcalifaciens strains, primarily isolated from diarrheal patients, encodes for T3SS1a. We show that P. alcalifaciens 205/92 is internalized into eukaryotic cells, lyses its internalization vacuole, and proliferates in the cytosol. This triggers caspase-4-dependent inflammasome responses in gut epithelial cells. The requirement for the T3SS1a in entry, vacuole lysis, and cytosolic proliferation is host cell type-specific, playing a more prominent role in intestinal epithelial cells than in macrophages or insect cells. In a bovine ligated intestinal loop model, P. alcalifaciens colonizes the intestinal mucosa and induces mild epithelial damage with negligible fluid accumulation in a T3SS1a- and T3SS1b-independent manner. However, T3SS1b was required for the rapid killing of Drosophila melanogaster. We propose that the acquisition of two T3SS has allowed P. alcalifaciens to diversify its host range, from a highly virulent pathogen of insects to an opportunistic gastrointestinal pathogen of animals.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jessica A Klein
- Paul G. Allen School for Global Health, College of Veterinary Medicine, Washington State University, Pullman, Washington, USA
| | | | - Aimee R Greissl
- Paul G. Allen School for Global Health, College of Veterinary Medicine, Washington State University, Pullman, Washington, USA
| | - Mattie M Clark-Herrera
- Paul G. Allen School for Global Health, College of Veterinary Medicine, Washington State University, Pullman, Washington, USA
| | - Eddy Cruz
- Department of Pathobiological Sciences, School of Veterinary Medicine, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, Wisconsin, USA
| | - Jennifer A Cundiff
- Paul G. Allen School for Global Health, College of Veterinary Medicine, Washington State University, Pullman, Washington, USA
| | - Amanda L Haeberle
- Paul G. Allen School for Global Health, College of Veterinary Medicine, Washington State University, Pullman, Washington, USA
| | - Maya Howell
- Paul G. Allen School for Global Health, College of Veterinary Medicine, Washington State University, Pullman, Washington, USA
| | - Aaditi Lele
- Paul G. Allen School for Global Health, College of Veterinary Medicine, Washington State University, Pullman, Washington, USA
| | - Donna J Robinson
- Paul G. Allen School for Global Health, College of Veterinary Medicine, Washington State University, Pullman, Washington, USA
| | - Trina L Westerman
- Department of Pathobiological Sciences, School of Veterinary Medicine, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, Wisconsin, USA
- Department of Clinical Sciences, College of Veterinary Medicine, North Carolina State University, Raleigh, North Carolina, USA
| | - Marie Wrande
- Paul G. Allen School for Global Health, College of Veterinary Medicine, Washington State University, Pullman, Washington, USA
| | - Sarah J Wright
- Paul G. Allen School for Global Health, College of Veterinary Medicine, Washington State University, Pullman, Washington, USA
| | - Nicole M Green
- Public Health Laboratory, Los Angeles County Department of Public Health, Downey, California, USA
| | - Bruce A Vallance
- Division of Gastroenterology, Hepatology and Nutrition, BC Children's Hospital and the University of British Columbia, Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada
| | - Michael McClelland
- Department of Microbiology and Molecular Genetics, University of California, Irvine, California, USA
| | - Andres Mejia
- Comparative Pathology Laboratory, Research Animal Resources and Compliance, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, Wisconsin, USA
| | - Alan G Goodman
- Paul G. Allen School for Global Health, College of Veterinary Medicine, Washington State University, Pullman, Washington, USA
- School of Molecular Biosciences, College of Veterinary Medicine, Washington State University, Pullman, Washington, USA
| | - Johanna R Elfenbein
- Department of Pathobiological Sciences, School of Veterinary Medicine, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, Wisconsin, USA
- Department of Clinical Sciences, College of Veterinary Medicine, North Carolina State University, Raleigh, North Carolina, USA
| | - Leigh A Knodler
- Paul G. Allen School for Global Health, College of Veterinary Medicine, Washington State University, Pullman, Washington, USA
- Department of Microbiology and Molecular Genetics, Robert Larner College of Medicine at The University of Vermont, Burlington, Vermont, USA
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2
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Bulach D, Carter GP, Albert MJ. Enteropathogenic Providencia alcalifaciens: A Subgroup of P. alcalifaciens That Causes Diarrhea. Microorganisms 2024; 12:1479. [PMID: 39065247 PMCID: PMC11279119 DOI: 10.3390/microorganisms12071479] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/23/2024] [Revised: 07/12/2024] [Accepted: 07/17/2024] [Indexed: 07/28/2024] Open
Abstract
Despite being considered a normal flora, Providencia alcalifaciens can cause diarrhea. In a previous study, strain 2939/90, obtained from a diarrheal patient, caused invasion and actin condensation in mammalian cells, and diarrhea in a rabbit model. Four TnphoA mutants of 2939/90 produced negligible invasion and actin condensation in mammalian cells. Now, the parent strain and the mutants have been sequenced to locate TnphoA insertion sites and determine the effect on virulence. A TnphoA insertion was detected in the type three secretion system (T3SS) locus on a large plasmid and not in a T3SS locus on the chromosome. In 52 genomes of P. alcalifaciens surveyed, the chromosomal T3SS locus was present in all strains, including both P. alcalifaciens genomic clades, which we classified as group A and group B. Plasmid T3SS was present in 21 of 52 genomes, mostly in group A genomes, which included isolates from an outbreak of hemorrhagic diarrhea in dogs. The TnphoA insertion only in the plasmid T3SS locus affected the invasion phenotype, suggested that this locus is critical for causation of diarrhea. We conclude that a subgroup of P. alcalifaciens that possesses this plasmid-mediated T3SS is an enteric pathogen that can cause diarrheal disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dieter Bulach
- Microbiological Diagnostic Unit Public Health Laboratory, Peter Doherty Institute for Infection and Immunity, The University of Melbourne, Melbourne, VIC 3000, Australia;
- Melbourne Bioinformatics, The University of Melbourne, Parkville, VIC 3010, Australia
| | - Glen P. Carter
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Peter Doherty Institute for Infection and Immunity, The University of Melbourne, Melbourne, VIC 3000, Australia;
| | - M. John Albert
- Department of Microbiology, College of Medicine, Kuwait University, Jabriya P.O. Box 24923, Kuwait
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3
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Klein JA, Predeus AV, Greissl AR, Clark-Herrera MM, Cruz E, Cundiff JA, Haeberle AL, Howell M, Lele A, Robinson DJ, Westerman TL, Wrande M, Wright SJ, Green NM, Vallance BA, McClelland M, Mejia A, Goodman AG, Elfenbein JR, Knodler LA. Pathogenic diversification of the gut commensal Providencia alcalifaciens via acquisition of a second type III secretion system. BIORXIV : THE PREPRINT SERVER FOR BIOLOGY 2024:2024.06.07.595826. [PMID: 38895369 PMCID: PMC11185699 DOI: 10.1101/2024.06.07.595826] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/21/2024]
Abstract
Providencia alcalifaciens is a Gram-negative bacterium found in a wide variety of water and land environments and organisms. It has been isolated as part of the gut microbiome of animals and insects, as well as from stool samples of patients with diarrhea. Specific P. alcalifaciens strains encode gene homologs of virulence factors found in other pathogenic members of the same Enterobacterales order, such as Salmonella enterica serovar Typhimurium and Shigella flexneri. Whether these genes are also pathogenic determinants in P. alcalifaciens is not known. Here we have used P. alcalifaciens 205/92, a clinical isolate, with in vitro and in vivo infection models to investigate P. alcalifaciens -host interactions at the cellular level. Our particular focus was the role of two type III secretion systems (T3SS) belonging to the Inv-Mxi/Spa family. T3SS 1b is widespread in Providencia spp. and encoded on the chromosome. T3SS 1a is encoded on a large plasmid that is present in a subset of P. alcalifaciens strains, which are primarily isolates from diarrheal patients. Using a combination of electron and fluorescence microscopy and gentamicin protection assays we show that P. alcalifaciens 205/92 is internalized into eukaryotic cells, rapidly lyses its internalization vacuole and proliferates in the cytosol. This triggers caspase-4 dependent inflammasome responses in gut epithelial cells. The requirement for the T3SS 1a in entry, vacuole lysis and cytosolic proliferation is host-cell type specific, playing a more prominent role in human intestinal epithelial cells as compared to macrophages. In a bovine ligated intestinal loop model, P. alcalifaciens colonizes the intestinal mucosa, inducing mild epithelial damage with negligible fluid accumulation. No overt role for T3SS 1a or T3SS 1b was seen in the calf infection model. However, T3SS 1b was required for the rapid killing of Drosophila melanogaster . We propose that the acquisition of two T3SS by horizontal gene transfer has allowed P. alcalifaciens to diversify its host range, from a highly virulent pathogen of insects to an opportunistic gastrointestinal pathogen of animals.
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Zhang Z, Zhao L, Song M, Luo J, Liu H, Xue K, Huang C, Chen H, Ge J. Providencia heimbachae Associated with Post-weaning Diarrhea in Piglets: Identification, Phenotype, and Pathogenesis. Curr Microbiol 2021; 79:1. [PMID: 34878563 DOI: 10.1007/s00284-021-02697-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/31/2021] [Accepted: 11/18/2021] [Indexed: 01/21/2023]
Abstract
Despites Providencia heimbachae has been isolated from human, penguin, and bovine fetus, relatively little information is available regarding the pathogenicity and biologic characteristics of P. heimbachae. Here, we report that investigation of post-weaning diarrhea yielded bacterial isolates identified as P. heimbachae based on the biochemical tests and 16S ribosomal DNA sequence analysis. The two isolates were positive for utilization of Malonate, no gas production from glucose, and non-fermentation of D-mannitol, D-Galactose, and L-Rhamnose that were different from those of the type strain, and both of them have the ability of adhesion and invasion to IPEC-J2 cells, and were resistant to 21 out of the 41 antibiotics tested. In addition, the isolate 99101 was highly pathogenic to mice and piglets. Histopathology studies on nerve tissue of piglets that developed hindlimb paralysis showed microglia cell infiltration and neuron damage in the spinal cord. Notably, the strains could grow under low temperature (4 °C), which raise attention of a new risk factor for food safety. To the best of our knowledge, this is the first report of P. heimbachae strain caused post-weaning diarrhea in piglets in both natural and experimental conditions. These findings extended the knowledge of P. heimbachae as an important zoonotic agent, which should be given more attention during surveillance and diagnostics.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zhuo Zhang
- College of Veterinary Medicine, Northeast Agricultural University, Harbin, 150030, China
| | - Lili Zhao
- State Key Laboratory of Veterinary Biotechnology, Heilongjiang Provincial Key Laboratory of Laboratory Animal and Comparative Medicine, Harbin Veterinary Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Harbin, 150069, China
| | - Manman Song
- College of Veterinary Medicine, Northeast Agricultural University, Harbin, 150030, China
| | - Jilong Luo
- College of Veterinary Medicine, Northeast Agricultural University, Harbin, 150030, China
| | - Hanghang Liu
- College of Veterinary Medicine, Northeast Agricultural University, Harbin, 150030, China
| | - Kun Xue
- College of Veterinary Medicine, Northeast Agricultural University, Harbin, 150030, China
| | - Chengshi Huang
- College of Veterinary Medicine, Northeast Agricultural University, Harbin, 150030, China
| | - Hongyan Chen
- State Key Laboratory of Veterinary Biotechnology, Heilongjiang Provincial Key Laboratory of Laboratory Animal and Comparative Medicine, Harbin Veterinary Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Harbin, 150069, China
| | - Junwei Ge
- College of Veterinary Medicine, Northeast Agricultural University, Harbin, 150030, China.
- Northeastern Science Inspection Station, China Ministry of Agriculture Key Laboratory of Animal Pathogen Biology, Harbin, 150030, China.
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Jørgensen HJ, Valheim M, Sekse C, Bergsjø BA, Wisløff H, Nørstebø SF, Skancke E, Lagesen K, Haaland AH, Rodriguez-Campos S, Sjurseth SK, Hofshagen M, Jarp J, Tronerud OH, Johannessen GS, Heggelund M, Rygg S, Christensen E, Boye M, Gjerset B, Sandvik M, Soltvedt EM, Wolff C. An Official Outbreak Investigation of Acute Haemorrhagic Diarrhoea in Dogs in Norway Points to Providencia alcalifaciens as a Likely Cause. Animals (Basel) 2021; 11:3201. [PMID: 34827932 PMCID: PMC8614335 DOI: 10.3390/ani11113201] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/16/2021] [Revised: 11/01/2021] [Accepted: 11/02/2021] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
Abstract
An outbreak investigation was initiated in September 2019, following a notification to the Norwegian Food Safety Authority (NFSA) of an unusually high number of dogs with acute haemorrhagic diarrhoea (AHD) in Oslo. Diagnostic testing by reporting veterinarians had not detected a cause. The official investigation sought to identify a possible common cause, the extent of the outbreak and prevent spread. Epidemiological data were collected through a survey to veterinarians and interviews with dog owners. Diagnostic investigations included necropsies and microbiological, parasitological and toxicological analysis of faecal samples and food. In total, 511 dogs with acute haemorrhagic diarrhoea were registered between 1 August and 1 October. Results indicated a common point source for affected dogs, but were inconclusive with regard to common exposures. A notable finding was that 134 of 325 faecal samples (41%) cultured positive for Providencia alcalifaciens. Whole genome sequencing (WGS) of 75 P. alcalifaciens isolates from 73 dogs revealed that strains from 51 dogs belonged to the same WGS clone. Findings point to P. alcalifaciens as implicated in the outbreak, but investigations are needed to reveal the pathogenic potential of P. alcalifaciens in dogs and its epidemiology.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hannah Joan Jørgensen
- Norwegian Veterinary Institute, PB 64, 1431 Ås, Norway; (M.V.); (C.S.); (B.A.B.); (H.W.); (K.L.); (S.K.S.); (M.H.); (J.J.); (G.S.J.); (E.C.); (M.B.); (B.G.); (M.S.); (C.W.)
| | - Mette Valheim
- Norwegian Veterinary Institute, PB 64, 1431 Ås, Norway; (M.V.); (C.S.); (B.A.B.); (H.W.); (K.L.); (S.K.S.); (M.H.); (J.J.); (G.S.J.); (E.C.); (M.B.); (B.G.); (M.S.); (C.W.)
| | - Camilla Sekse
- Norwegian Veterinary Institute, PB 64, 1431 Ås, Norway; (M.V.); (C.S.); (B.A.B.); (H.W.); (K.L.); (S.K.S.); (M.H.); (J.J.); (G.S.J.); (E.C.); (M.B.); (B.G.); (M.S.); (C.W.)
| | - Bjarne Asbjørn Bergsjø
- Norwegian Veterinary Institute, PB 64, 1431 Ås, Norway; (M.V.); (C.S.); (B.A.B.); (H.W.); (K.L.); (S.K.S.); (M.H.); (J.J.); (G.S.J.); (E.C.); (M.B.); (B.G.); (M.S.); (C.W.)
| | - Helene Wisløff
- Norwegian Veterinary Institute, PB 64, 1431 Ås, Norway; (M.V.); (C.S.); (B.A.B.); (H.W.); (K.L.); (S.K.S.); (M.H.); (J.J.); (G.S.J.); (E.C.); (M.B.); (B.G.); (M.S.); (C.W.)
| | - Simen Foyn Nørstebø
- Bacteriology and Mycology Unit, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Norwegian University of Life Sciences, PB 5003, 1432 Ås, Norway; (S.F.N.); (S.R.-C.); (E.M.S.)
| | - Ellen Skancke
- University Animal Hospital, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Norwegian University of Life Sciences, PB 5003, 1432 Ås, Norway; (E.S.); (A.H.H.)
| | - Karin Lagesen
- Norwegian Veterinary Institute, PB 64, 1431 Ås, Norway; (M.V.); (C.S.); (B.A.B.); (H.W.); (K.L.); (S.K.S.); (M.H.); (J.J.); (G.S.J.); (E.C.); (M.B.); (B.G.); (M.S.); (C.W.)
| | - Anita Haug Haaland
- University Animal Hospital, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Norwegian University of Life Sciences, PB 5003, 1432 Ås, Norway; (E.S.); (A.H.H.)
| | - Sabrina Rodriguez-Campos
- Bacteriology and Mycology Unit, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Norwegian University of Life Sciences, PB 5003, 1432 Ås, Norway; (S.F.N.); (S.R.-C.); (E.M.S.)
| | - Siri Kulberg Sjurseth
- Norwegian Veterinary Institute, PB 64, 1431 Ås, Norway; (M.V.); (C.S.); (B.A.B.); (H.W.); (K.L.); (S.K.S.); (M.H.); (J.J.); (G.S.J.); (E.C.); (M.B.); (B.G.); (M.S.); (C.W.)
| | - Merete Hofshagen
- Norwegian Veterinary Institute, PB 64, 1431 Ås, Norway; (M.V.); (C.S.); (B.A.B.); (H.W.); (K.L.); (S.K.S.); (M.H.); (J.J.); (G.S.J.); (E.C.); (M.B.); (B.G.); (M.S.); (C.W.)
| | - Jorun Jarp
- Norwegian Veterinary Institute, PB 64, 1431 Ås, Norway; (M.V.); (C.S.); (B.A.B.); (H.W.); (K.L.); (S.K.S.); (M.H.); (J.J.); (G.S.J.); (E.C.); (M.B.); (B.G.); (M.S.); (C.W.)
| | | | - Gro Skøien Johannessen
- Norwegian Veterinary Institute, PB 64, 1431 Ås, Norway; (M.V.); (C.S.); (B.A.B.); (H.W.); (K.L.); (S.K.S.); (M.H.); (J.J.); (G.S.J.); (E.C.); (M.B.); (B.G.); (M.S.); (C.W.)
| | | | - Sasja Rygg
- Anicura Norway, Hoffsveien 70c, 0377 Oslo, Norway;
| | - Ellen Christensen
- Norwegian Veterinary Institute, PB 64, 1431 Ås, Norway; (M.V.); (C.S.); (B.A.B.); (H.W.); (K.L.); (S.K.S.); (M.H.); (J.J.); (G.S.J.); (E.C.); (M.B.); (B.G.); (M.S.); (C.W.)
| | - Mette Boye
- Norwegian Veterinary Institute, PB 64, 1431 Ås, Norway; (M.V.); (C.S.); (B.A.B.); (H.W.); (K.L.); (S.K.S.); (M.H.); (J.J.); (G.S.J.); (E.C.); (M.B.); (B.G.); (M.S.); (C.W.)
| | - Britt Gjerset
- Norwegian Veterinary Institute, PB 64, 1431 Ås, Norway; (M.V.); (C.S.); (B.A.B.); (H.W.); (K.L.); (S.K.S.); (M.H.); (J.J.); (G.S.J.); (E.C.); (M.B.); (B.G.); (M.S.); (C.W.)
| | - Morten Sandvik
- Norwegian Veterinary Institute, PB 64, 1431 Ås, Norway; (M.V.); (C.S.); (B.A.B.); (H.W.); (K.L.); (S.K.S.); (M.H.); (J.J.); (G.S.J.); (E.C.); (M.B.); (B.G.); (M.S.); (C.W.)
| | - Eiril Moen Soltvedt
- Bacteriology and Mycology Unit, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Norwegian University of Life Sciences, PB 5003, 1432 Ås, Norway; (S.F.N.); (S.R.-C.); (E.M.S.)
| | - Cecilia Wolff
- Norwegian Veterinary Institute, PB 64, 1431 Ås, Norway; (M.V.); (C.S.); (B.A.B.); (H.W.); (K.L.); (S.K.S.); (M.H.); (J.J.); (G.S.J.); (E.C.); (M.B.); (B.G.); (M.S.); (C.W.)
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Hoorzook KB, Pieterse A, Heine L, Barnard TG, van Rensburg NJ. Soul of the Jukskei River: The Extent of Bacterial Contamination in the Jukskei River in Gauteng Province, South Africa. INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH AND PUBLIC HEALTH 2021; 18:8537. [PMID: 34444286 PMCID: PMC8392637 DOI: 10.3390/ijerph18168537] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/17/2021] [Revised: 07/26/2021] [Accepted: 07/28/2021] [Indexed: 01/18/2023]
Abstract
River water quality is an important health issue as the water is utilised for drinking, domestic and agricultural use in developing countries. This study aimed to investigate the effect water from a major city has on the water quality of the Jukskei River that daylights in Johannesburg, South Africa. The river water samples were analysed for physio-chemical properties, microbiology, antibiotic resistance of bacterial isolates, genetic markers, and potentially toxic metals. Data analysis revealed increased electrical conductivity, total dissolved solids, and turbidity since 2010. Total Coliform and Escherichia coli detected were above the South African water quality guidelines for domestic, recreational, and irrigation purposes. Additionally, sodium, zinc, nickel, lithium, and lead exceeded the guidelines in domestic, recreational, and irrigation water. Pathogenic strains of E. coli (aEPEC, EHEC, EIEC, and EAEC) were isolated from the water. Various other potentially pathogenic organisms that have been implicated as causes of gastro-intestinal, and a wide range of other diseases, were also detected and demonstrated multiple levels of resistance to antibiotics tested. The results show that the river water is a potential health threat to downstream users. These results will feed into the environmental management action plan for Water for the Future (NGO group).
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Affiliation(s)
- Kousar Banu Hoorzook
- Process Energy Environment Technology Station (PEETS), Faculty of Engineering and Built Environment, University of Johannesburg, P.O. Box 17011, Doornfontein, Johannesburg 2028, South Africa;
- Water and Health Research Centre, Faculty of Health Sciences, University of Johannesburg, P.O. Box 17011, Doornfontein, Johannesburg 2028, South Africa; (A.P.); (L.H.); (T.G.B.)
| | - Anton Pieterse
- Water and Health Research Centre, Faculty of Health Sciences, University of Johannesburg, P.O. Box 17011, Doornfontein, Johannesburg 2028, South Africa; (A.P.); (L.H.); (T.G.B.)
| | - Lee Heine
- Water and Health Research Centre, Faculty of Health Sciences, University of Johannesburg, P.O. Box 17011, Doornfontein, Johannesburg 2028, South Africa; (A.P.); (L.H.); (T.G.B.)
| | - Tobias George Barnard
- Water and Health Research Centre, Faculty of Health Sciences, University of Johannesburg, P.O. Box 17011, Doornfontein, Johannesburg 2028, South Africa; (A.P.); (L.H.); (T.G.B.)
| | - Nickey Janse van Rensburg
- Process Energy Environment Technology Station (PEETS), Faculty of Engineering and Built Environment, University of Johannesburg, P.O. Box 17011, Doornfontein, Johannesburg 2028, South Africa;
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7
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The Changing Face of the Family Enterobacteriaceae (Order: " Enterobacterales"): New Members, Taxonomic Issues, Geographic Expansion, and New Diseases and Disease Syndromes. Clin Microbiol Rev 2021; 34:34/2/e00174-20. [PMID: 33627443 DOI: 10.1128/cmr.00174-20] [Citation(s) in RCA: 75] [Impact Index Per Article: 25.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
The family Enterobacteriaceae has undergone significant morphogenetic changes in its more than 85-year history, particularly during the past 2 decades (2000 to 2020). The development and introduction of new and novel molecular methods coupled with innovative laboratory techniques have led to many advances. We now know that the global range of enterobacteria is much more expansive than previously recognized, as they play important roles in the environment in vegetative processes and through widespread environmental distribution through insect vectors. In humans, many new species have been described, some associated with specific disease processes. Some established species are now observed in new infectious disease settings and syndromes. The results of molecular taxonomic and phylogenetics studies suggest that the current family Enterobacteriaceae should possibly be divided into seven or more separate families. The logarithmic explosion in the number of enterobacterial species described brings into question the relevancy, need, and mechanisms to potentially identify these taxa. This review covers the progression, transformation, and morphogenesis of the family from the seminal Centers for Disease Control and Prevention publication (J. J. Farmer III, B. R. Davis, F. W. Hickman-Brenner, A. McWhorter, et al., J Clin Microbiol 21:46-76, 1985, https://doi.org/10.1128/JCM.21.1.46-76.1985) to the present.
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8
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Wei X, Li Y, Jiang S, Shi H, Zhao R, Yuan Z, Bai Y, Li Y, Feng Q, Zhao X. Sensitive and rapid detection of cytolethal distending toxin encoding genes in Providencia alcalifaciens. J Microbiol Methods 2021; 181:106143. [PMID: 33428969 DOI: 10.1016/j.mimet.2021.106143] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/20/2020] [Revised: 01/05/2021] [Accepted: 01/06/2021] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
Abstract
Cytolethal distending toxins (CDTs) produced by P. alcalifaciens are considered as potential virulence factors. A loop-mediated isothermal amplification (LAMP) method for the detection of cdtA, cdtB, and cdtC genes was established which showed high specificity and strong sensitivity. The LAMP assay showed a detection threshold was 3.13 pg/μl within 40 min.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xiao Wei
- Centers for Disease Control and Prevention of PLA, No. 20 Dongda Street, Fengtai District, 100071 Beijing, China
| | - Yan Li
- Centers for Disease Control and Prevention of PLA, No. 20 Dongda Street, Fengtai District, 100071 Beijing, China
| | - Shan Jiang
- Centers for Disease Control and Prevention of PLA, No. 20 Dongda Street, Fengtai District, 100071 Beijing, China
| | - Hua Shi
- Centers for Disease Control and Prevention of PLA, No. 20 Dongda Street, Fengtai District, 100071 Beijing, China
| | - Rongtao Zhao
- Centers for Disease Control and Prevention of PLA, No. 20 Dongda Street, Fengtai District, 100071 Beijing, China
| | - Zhengquan Yuan
- Centers for Disease Control and Prevention of PLA, No. 20 Dongda Street, Fengtai District, 100071 Beijing, China
| | - Ying Bai
- No. 518 Hospital of PLA, Shanxi, Xi'an 710043, China
| | - Yan Li
- No. 518 Hospital of PLA, Shanxi, Xi'an 710043, China
| | - Qunling Feng
- No. 518 Hospital of PLA, Shanxi, Xi'an 710043, China.
| | - Xiangna Zhao
- Centers for Disease Control and Prevention of PLA, No. 20 Dongda Street, Fengtai District, 100071 Beijing, China.
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9
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Isolation and Molecular Identification and Antimicrobial Susceptibility of Providencia spp. from Raw Cow's Milk in Baghdad, Iraq. Vet Med Int 2020; 2020:8874747. [PMID: 33456748 PMCID: PMC7787866 DOI: 10.1155/2020/8874747] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/20/2020] [Revised: 09/24/2020] [Accepted: 10/28/2020] [Indexed: 12/05/2022] Open
Abstract
A total of sixty raw milk samples were collected from (street vendors and shops) from Baghdad city, Iraq. The samples were inoculated into peptone water and, then, subcultured onto MacConkey agar and Blood agar. Identification of isolates was confirmed by microscopic examination, cultural characteristic, biochemical tests, Vitek (VITEK®2 system), and Biolog GN substrate reactions followed by 16S rRNA and specific genes sequencing. Of 60 raw cow's milk samples, Providencia spp. were identified only in 4 samples (6.67%) and P. rettgeri was the most common, 2/4 (50%), followed by P. stuartii and P. vermicola, 1/4 (25%). Antimicrobial susceptibility tests were conducted against ten antibiotics by the disc diffusion method. All Providencia isolates showed multidrug resistance (MDR), and the absolute resistant was 100% to tetracycline, erythromycin, and doxycycline and 50% against ampicillin\sulbactam and amoxicillin/clavulanic acid. They were highly susceptible (100%) to trimethoprim, imipenem, and chloramphenicol. These findings indicate that milk might be contaminated with Providencia spp. leading to transmission to humans causing poisoning, diarrhea, and other infections. This is the first study of isolated Providencia spp. from raw cow's milk.
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10
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Shah MM, Odoyo E, Ichinose Y. Epidemiology and Pathogenesis of Providencia alcalifaciens Infections. Am J Trop Med Hyg 2020; 101:290-293. [PMID: 31218997 DOI: 10.4269/ajtmh.18-0376] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/07/2022] Open
Abstract
Providencia alcalifaciens is a member of the family Enterobacteriaceae that has been commonly implicated as a causative agent of diarrheal infection in humans and animals. Recent outbreaks of P. alcalifaciens in both developing and developed countries have raised public health concerns. Several studies have suggested that P. alcalifaciens can cause diarrhea by invading the intestinal mucosa, although its pathogenicity has not been well established. Often routine laboratory investigations that seek etiological agents of diarrhea do not actively pursue P. alcalifaciens detection. Therefore, routine laboratory diagnosis should be given more attention for better understanding the epidemiology and pathogenicity of P. alcalifaciens.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mohammad Monir Shah
- Centre for Infectious Disease Research in Asia and Africa, Nagasaki University Institute of Tropical Medicine, Nagasaki, Japan.,Nagasaki University Institute of Tropical Medicine-Kenya Medical Research Institute Project, Nairobi, Kenya
| | - Erick Odoyo
- Nagasaki University Institute of Tropical Medicine-Kenya Medical Research Institute Project, Nairobi, Kenya
| | - Yoshio Ichinose
- Centre for Infectious Disease Research in Asia and Africa, Nagasaki University Institute of Tropical Medicine, Nagasaki, Japan.,Nagasaki University Institute of Tropical Medicine-Kenya Medical Research Institute Project, Nairobi, Kenya
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11
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The C. difficile toxin B membrane translocation machinery is an evolutionarily conserved protein delivery apparatus. Nat Commun 2020; 11:432. [PMID: 31974369 PMCID: PMC6978384 DOI: 10.1038/s41467-020-14306-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/24/2019] [Accepted: 12/19/2019] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Large Clostridial Toxins (LCTs) are a family of six homologous protein toxins that are implicated in severe disease. LCTs infiltrate host cells using a translocation domain (LCT-T) that contains both cell-surface receptor binding sites and a membrane translocation apparatus. Despite much effort, LCT translocation remains poorly understood. Here we report the identification of 1104 LCT-T homologs, with 769 proteins from bacteria outside of clostridia. Sequences are widely distributed in pathogenic and host-associated species, in a variety of contexts and architectures. Consistent with these homologs being functional toxins, we show that a distant LCT-T homolog from Serratia marcescens acts as a pH-dependent translocase to deliver its effector into host cells. Based on evolutionary footprinting of LCT-T homologs, we further define an evolutionarily conserved translocase region that we show is an autonomous translocase capable of delivering heterologous cargo into host cells. Our work uncovers a broad class of translocating toxins and provides insights into LCT translocation. Large Clostridial toxins infiltrate host cells using a translocation domain (LCT-T). Here, using a genomics-driven approach and functional assays, the authors uncover the presence of distant LCT-T homologs in bacteria outside clostridia and provide evidence for a toxic effector function in the gammaproteobacterium Serratia marcescens.
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12
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Behera A, Kulkarni SS. Chemical Synthesis of Rare, Deoxy-Amino Sugars Containing Bacterial Glycoconjugates as Potential Vaccine Candidates. Molecules 2018; 23:molecules23081997. [PMID: 30103434 PMCID: PMC6222762 DOI: 10.3390/molecules23081997] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/10/2018] [Revised: 08/04/2018] [Accepted: 08/08/2018] [Indexed: 12/30/2022] Open
Abstract
Bacteria often contain rare deoxy amino sugars which are absent in the host cells. This structural difference can be harnessed for the development of vaccines. Over the last fifteen years, remarkable progress has been made toward the development of novel and efficient protocols for obtaining the rare sugar building blocks and their stereoselective assembly to construct conjugation ready bacterial glycans. In this review, we discuss the total synthesis of a variety of rare sugar containing bacterial glycoconjugates which are potential vaccine candidates.
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Affiliation(s)
- Archanamayee Behera
- Department of Chemistry, Indian Institute of Technology Bombay, Mumbai 400076, India.
| | - Suvarn S Kulkarni
- Department of Chemistry, Indian Institute of Technology Bombay, Mumbai 400076, India.
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13
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Wang X, Wang Y, Wang Y, Zhang S, Shen Z, Wang S. Emergence of the colistin resistance gene mcr-1 and its variant in several uncommon species of Enterobacteriaceae from commercial poultry farm surrounding environments. Vet Microbiol 2018; 219:161-164. [PMID: 29778190 DOI: 10.1016/j.vetmic.2018.04.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/27/2018] [Revised: 03/23/2018] [Accepted: 04/03/2018] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
Abstract
The colistin resistance gene mcr-1 has been detected in multiple members of Enterobacteriaceae family. Here, we report the emergence of mcr-1 in Providencia alcalifaciens and a mcr-1 variant, named mcr-1.3, in Raoultella planticola. Both of the mcr-1-carrying plasmids in these two isolates belong to IncI2 type of plasmids, but they are different in sizes and genetic characteristics. We also detected the mcr-1 gene in one Enterobacter cloacae isolate, however, the mcr-1-carrying plasmid is distinct from the previous reports. Conjugation assay showed that mcr-1-carrying plasmids in P. alcalifaciens and E. cloacae were successfully transferred into recipient E. coli strains. It is worth noting that the transferability of mcr-1-carrying plasmid from E. cloacae was enhanced once it entered into E. coli hosts, which might further accelerate the dissemination of mcr-1 among Enterobacteriaceae. These findings further expand our knowledge of the mcr-1-carrying species in Enterobacteriaceae.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xiaoming Wang
- Beijing Advanced Innovation Center for Food Nutrition and Human Health, College of Veterinary Medicine, China Agricultural University, Beijing, 100193, China; Beijing Key Laboratory of Detection Technology for Animal-Derived Food Safety and Beijing Laboratory for Food Quality and Safety, Beijing, 100193, China
| | - Yao Wang
- Beijing Key Laboratory of Detection Technology for Animal-Derived Food Safety and Beijing Laboratory for Food Quality and Safety, Beijing, 100193, China
| | - Yang Wang
- Beijing Advanced Innovation Center for Food Nutrition and Human Health, College of Veterinary Medicine, China Agricultural University, Beijing, 100193, China
| | - Suxia Zhang
- Beijing Key Laboratory of Detection Technology for Animal-Derived Food Safety and Beijing Laboratory for Food Quality and Safety, Beijing, 100193, China
| | - Zhangqi Shen
- Beijing Advanced Innovation Center for Food Nutrition and Human Health, College of Veterinary Medicine, China Agricultural University, Beijing, 100193, China
| | - Shaolin Wang
- Beijing Advanced Innovation Center for Food Nutrition and Human Health, College of Veterinary Medicine, China Agricultural University, Beijing, 100193, China; Beijing Key Laboratory of Detection Technology for Animal-Derived Food Safety and Beijing Laboratory for Food Quality and Safety, Beijing, 100193, China.
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14
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DI H, Liang S, Li Q, Shi L, Shima A, Meng H, Yan H, Yamasaki S. Providencia in retail meats from Guangzhou, China and Osaka, Japan: prevalence, antimicrobial resistance and characterization of classes 1, 2 and 3 integrons. J Vet Med Sci 2018; 80:829-835. [PMID: 29553069 PMCID: PMC5989031 DOI: 10.1292/jvms.18-0037] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022] Open
Abstract
Bacteria of the genus Providencia are opportunistic pathogens of clinical significance due to their association with diarrhea and urinary tract infections. The present
study was conducted to examine the prevalence and antimicrobial resistance of Providencia spp. in retail meats sold in Guangzhou, China and Osaka, Japan. Out of 158 meat
samples including beef, pork and chicken, 67 Providencia (42%) belonging to four species viz., P. alcalifaciens, P.
rustigianii, P. stuartii and P. rettgeri were isolated, and most of them were resistant to tetracycline (91%) followed by ampicillin
(69%) and streptomycin (49%). Of 67 isolates, 29 (43%) were MDR, which is defined to be resistant to more than three classes of antimicrobials. No statistically significant differences were
observed between Chinese and Japanese retail meat samples regarding contamination rate of Providencia spp. as well as frequency of the antimicrobial resistance of the
isolates including MDR. Class 1 and/or class 2 integrons were detected in six of the eight isolates that were resistant to more than 4 antimicrobials, however none of the isolates harbored
class 3 integron. A P. rustigianii harboring the blaOXA-10 gene was isolated, which is the first report of Providencia with
blaOXA-10 gene of food origin. These data suggest that retail meats in China and Japan are substantially contaminated with Providencia spp.,
which displayed a high frequency of antimicrobial resistance, and establishing the surveillance of Providencia spp., especially antimicrobial resistant one, in retail meats
is imperative.
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Affiliation(s)
- Huiling DI
- School of Food Science and Engineering, South China University of Technology, Guangzhou 510640, China.,Research Institute of Food Safety and Nutrition, Jinan University, Guangzhou 510632, China.,Graduate School of Life and Environmental Sciences, Osaka Prefecture University, Osaka 598-8531, Japan
| | - Sisi Liang
- School of Food Science and Engineering, South China University of Technology, Guangzhou 510640, China
| | - Qingyang Li
- School of Food Science and Engineering, South China University of Technology, Guangzhou 510640, China
| | - Lei Shi
- Research Institute of Food Safety and Nutrition, Jinan University, Guangzhou 510632, China.,State Key Laboratory of Food Safety Technology for Meat Products, Xiamen Yinxiang Group Co., Ltd., Xiamen 361100, China
| | - Ayaka Shima
- Graduate School of Life and Environmental Sciences, Osaka Prefecture University, Osaka 598-8531, Japan
| | - Hecheng Meng
- School of Food Science and Engineering, South China University of Technology, Guangzhou 510640, China
| | - He Yan
- School of Food Science and Engineering, South China University of Technology, Guangzhou 510640, China
| | - Shinji Yamasaki
- Graduate School of Life and Environmental Sciences, Osaka Prefecture University, Osaka 598-8531, Japan
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15
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Podilapu AR, Kulkarni SS. Total Synthesis of Repeating Unit of O-Polysaccharide of Providencia alcalifaciens O22 via One-Pot Glycosylation. Org Lett 2017; 19:5466-5469. [DOI: 10.1021/acs.orglett.7b02791] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Ananda Rao Podilapu
- Department of Chemistry, Indian Institute of Technology Bombay, Mumbai 400076, India
| | - Suvarn S. Kulkarni
- Department of Chemistry, Indian Institute of Technology Bombay, Mumbai 400076, India
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16
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Shah M, Odoyo E, Wandera E, Kathiiko C, Bundi M, Miringu G, Guyo S, Komoto S, Nyangao J, Karama M, Tsuji T, Taniguchi K, Morita K, Ichinose Y. Burden of Rotavirus and Enteric Bacterial Pathogens among Children under 5 Years of Age Hospitalized with Diarrhea in Suburban and Rural Areas in Kenya. Jpn J Infect Dis 2017; 70:442-447. [PMID: 28250260 DOI: 10.7883/yoken.jjid.2016.398] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
This cross-sectional descriptive study aimed to investigate the incidence of rotavirus and enteric bacterial infections among children up to 5 years old with diarrhea living in suburban and rural areas of Kenya. Between August 2011 and December 2013, a total of 1,060 diarrheal fecal specimens were obtained from 722 children at Kiambu County Hospital (KCH), located in a suburban area, and from 338 children from Mbita District Hospital (MDH), located in a rural part of western Kenya. Of the 1,060 isolates, group A rotavirus was detected in 29.6% (214/722) and 11.2% (38/338) fecal specimens from KCH and MDH, respectively. Diarrheagenic Escherichia coli (DEC) was found to be the most frequently isolated bacterial pathogens in both study areas (32.8% at KCH and 44.1% at MDH). Two different mixed infection patterns (virus/bacteria and bacteria/bacteria) were observed among patients. A significantly higher infection rate of rotavirus (17.6%, p = 0.001) and DEC (10.5%, p = 0.007) were observed during the dry season. Our study found that in both suburban and rural settings in Kenya, rotavirus and DEC are the principal cause of pediatric diarrhea and exhibit higher incidence during the dry season.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mohammad Shah
- Nagasaki University Institute of Tropical Medicine-Kenya Medical Research Institute Project.,Centre for Infectious Disease Research in Asia and Africa, Nagasaki University Institute of Tropical Medicine.,Leading Graduate School Program, Nagasaki University
| | - Erick Odoyo
- Nagasaki University Institute of Tropical Medicine-Kenya Medical Research Institute Project
| | - Ernest Wandera
- Nagasaki University Institute of Tropical Medicine-Kenya Medical Research Institute Project.,Centre for Infectious Disease Research in Asia and Africa, Nagasaki University Institute of Tropical Medicine.,Leading Graduate School Program, Nagasaki University
| | - Cyrus Kathiiko
- Nagasaki University Institute of Tropical Medicine-Kenya Medical Research Institute Project
| | - Martin Bundi
- Nagasaki University Institute of Tropical Medicine-Kenya Medical Research Institute Project
| | - Gabriel Miringu
- Nagasaki University Institute of Tropical Medicine-Kenya Medical Research Institute Project
| | - Sora Guyo
- Nagasaki University Institute of Tropical Medicine-Kenya Medical Research Institute Project
| | - Satoshi Komoto
- Department of Virology and Parasitology, School of Medicine, Fujita Health University
| | - James Nyangao
- Centre for Virus Research, Kenya Medical Research Institute (KEMRI)
| | - Mohamed Karama
- Centre for Public Health Research, Kenya Medical Research Institute (KEMRI)
| | - Takao Tsuji
- Department Microbiology, School of Medicine, Fujita Health University
| | - Koki Taniguchi
- Department of Virology and Parasitology, School of Medicine, Fujita Health University
| | - Kouichi Morita
- Centre for Infectious Disease Research in Asia and Africa, Nagasaki University Institute of Tropical Medicine.,Department of Virology, Nagasaki University Institute of Tropical Medicine.,Leading Graduate School Program, Nagasaki University
| | - Yoshio Ichinose
- Nagasaki University Institute of Tropical Medicine-Kenya Medical Research Institute Project.,Centre for Infectious Disease Research in Asia and Africa, Nagasaki University Institute of Tropical Medicine.,Leading Graduate School Program, Nagasaki University
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17
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Choi W, Ji YS, Yoon KC. A case of bilateral keratitis caused by Providencia alcalifaciens: a rarely encountered ocular pathogen. Int Ophthalmol 2017; 38:1325-1328. [DOI: 10.1007/s10792-017-0550-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/23/2016] [Accepted: 05/08/2017] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
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18
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Shah M, Kathiiko C, Wada A, Odoyo E, Bundi M, Miringu G, Guyo S, Karama M, Ichinose Y. Prevalence, seasonal variation, and antibiotic resistance pattern of enteric bacterial pathogens among hospitalized diarrheic children in suburban regions of central Kenya. Trop Med Health 2016; 44:39. [PMID: 27942243 PMCID: PMC5126808 DOI: 10.1186/s41182-016-0038-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/22/2016] [Accepted: 11/10/2016] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Background The epidemiology of enteric pathogens has not been well studied in Kenya because of wide disparities in health status across the country. Therefore, the present study describes the prevalence of enteropathogenic bacteria, their seasonal variation, and antibiotic resistance profiles among hospitalized diarrheic children in a suburban region of central Kenya. Methods Fecal samples were collected between July 2009 and December 2013 from a total of 1410 children younger than 5 years, hospitalized with acute diarrhea in Kiambu County Hospital, Kenya. Conventional culture, biochemical, and molecular methods were conducted to identify causative bacterial pathogens and their virulence factors. Antimicrobial susceptibility tests were performed using E-test strips and VITEK-2 advanced expert system (AES) to evaluate the drug-resistance pattern of the isolates. Results Of the 1410 isolates, bacterial infections were identified in 474 cases. Diarrheagenic Escherichia coli (DEC) was the most frequently isolated pathogen (86.5%). Other pathogens such as Aeromonas (5.5%), Shigella (4%), Salmonella (3.4%), Providencia (3.2%), Vibrio spp. (1.1%), Yersinia enterocolitica (1.1%), and Plesiomonas shigelloides (0.2%) were also identified. Mixed bacterial infection was observed among 11.1% of the cases. The highest infection rate was found during the dry season (59.3%, p = 0.04). Most of the DEC was found to be multidrug resistant to trimethoprim/sulfamethoxazole 97.6%, amoxicillin 97.6%, erythromycin 96.9%, ampicillin 96.6%, and streptomycin 89%. Conclusions This study suggests that DEC is the leading diarrhea-causing bacterial pathogen circulating in central Kenya, and seasonality has a significant effect on its transmission. Proper antibiotic prescription and susceptibility testing is important to guide appropriate antimicrobial therapy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mohammad Shah
- Kenya Research Station, NUITM-KEMRI Project, Nagasaki University Institute of Tropical Medicine, P.O. Box 19993-00202, Nairobi, Kenya ; Centre for Infectious Disease Research in Asia and Africa, Nagasaki University Institute of Tropical Medicine, 1-12-4 Sakamoto, Nagasaki City, 852-8523 Japan ; Leading Graduate School Program, Nagasaki University Graduate School of Biomedical Sciences, 1-12-4 Sakamoto, Nagasaki City, 852-8523 Japan
| | - Cyrus Kathiiko
- Kenya Research Station, NUITM-KEMRI Project, Nagasaki University Institute of Tropical Medicine, P.O. Box 19993-00202, Nairobi, Kenya
| | - Akihiro Wada
- Department of Bacteriology, Nagasaki University Institute of Tropical Medicine, 1-12-4 Sakamoto, Nagasaki City, 852-8523 Japan
| | - Erick Odoyo
- Kenya Research Station, NUITM-KEMRI Project, Nagasaki University Institute of Tropical Medicine, P.O. Box 19993-00202, Nairobi, Kenya
| | - Martin Bundi
- Kenya Research Station, NUITM-KEMRI Project, Nagasaki University Institute of Tropical Medicine, P.O. Box 19993-00202, Nairobi, Kenya
| | - Gabriel Miringu
- Kenya Research Station, NUITM-KEMRI Project, Nagasaki University Institute of Tropical Medicine, P.O. Box 19993-00202, Nairobi, Kenya
| | - Sora Guyo
- Kenya Research Station, NUITM-KEMRI Project, Nagasaki University Institute of Tropical Medicine, P.O. Box 19993-00202, Nairobi, Kenya
| | - Mohamed Karama
- Center for Public Health Research, KEMRI, P.O. Box 19993-00202, Nairobi, Kenya
| | - Yoshio Ichinose
- Kenya Research Station, NUITM-KEMRI Project, Nagasaki University Institute of Tropical Medicine, P.O. Box 19993-00202, Nairobi, Kenya ; Centre for Infectious Disease Research in Asia and Africa, Nagasaki University Institute of Tropical Medicine, 1-12-4 Sakamoto, Nagasaki City, 852-8523 Japan ; Department of Bacteriology, Nagasaki University Institute of Tropical Medicine, 1-12-4 Sakamoto, Nagasaki City, 852-8523 Japan ; Leading Graduate School Program, Nagasaki University Graduate School of Biomedical Sciences, 1-12-4 Sakamoto, Nagasaki City, 852-8523 Japan
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