|
1
|
Lindmark M, Cherukumilli K, Crider YS, Marcenac P, Lozier M, Voth-Gaeddert L, Lantagne DS, Mihelcic JR, Zhang QM, Just C, Pickering AJ. Passive In-Line Chlorination for Drinking Water Disinfection: A Critical Review. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY 2022; 56:9164-9181. [PMID: 35700262 PMCID: PMC9261193 DOI: 10.1021/acs.est.1c08580] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/15/2021] [Revised: 05/26/2022] [Accepted: 05/27/2022] [Indexed: 06/15/2023]
Abstract
The world is not on track to meet Sustainable Development Goal 6.1 to provide universal access to safely managed drinking water by 2030. Removal of priority microbial contaminants by disinfection is one aspect of ensuring water is safely managed. Passive chlorination (also called in-line chlorination) represents one approach to disinfecting drinking water before or at the point of collection (POC), without requiring daily user input or electricity. In contrast to manual household chlorination methods typically implemented at the point of use (POU), passive chlorinators can reduce the user burden for chlorine dosing and enable treatment at scales ranging from communities to small municipalities. In this review, we synthesized evidence from 27 evaluations of passive chlorinators (in 19 articles, 3 NGO reports, and 5 theses) conducted across 16 countries in communities, schools, health care facilities, and refugee camps. Of the 27 passive chlorinators we identified, the majority (22/27) were solid tablet or granular chlorine dosers, and the remaining devices were liquid chlorine dosers. We identified the following research priorities to address existing barriers to scaled deployment of passive chlorinators: (i) strengthening local chlorine supply chains through decentralized liquid chlorine production, (ii) validating context-specific business models and financial sustainability, (iii) leveraging remote monitoring and sensing tools to monitor real-time chlorine levels and potential system failures, and (iv) designing handpump-compatible passive chlorinators to serve the many communities reliant on handpumps as a primary drinking water source. We also propose a set of reporting indicators for future studies to facilitate standardized evaluations of the technical performance and financial sustainability of passive chlorinators. In addition, we discuss the limitations of chlorine-based disinfection and recognize the importance of addressing chemical contamination in drinking water supplies. Passive chlorinators deployed and managed at-scale have the potential to elevate the quality of existing accessible and available water services to meet "safely managed" requirements.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Megan Lindmark
- Department
of Civil and Environmental Engineering, University of Iowa, Iowa City, Iowa 52242-1396, United States
| | - Katya Cherukumilli
- Department
of Civil and Environmental Engineering, University of California Berkeley, Berkeley, California 94720-2284, United States
| | - Yoshika S. Crider
- Energy
& Resources Group, University of California
Berkeley, Berkeley, California 94720-2284, United States
- Division
of Epidemiology & Biostatistics, University
of California Berkeley, Berkeley, California 94720-2284, United States
- King
Center on Global Development, Stanford University, Stanford, California 94305-2004, United States
| | - Perrine Marcenac
- National
Center for Emerging and Zoonotic Infectious Diseases, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Atlanta, Georgia 30329, United States
| | - Matthew Lozier
- National
Center for Emerging and Zoonotic Infectious Diseases, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Atlanta, Georgia 30329, United States
| | - Lee Voth-Gaeddert
- National
Center for Emerging and Zoonotic Infectious Diseases, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Atlanta, Georgia 30329, United States
- SAMRC/WITS
Developmental Pathways for Health Research Unit, University of the Witwatersrand, Johannesburg, 2050, South Africa
| | - Daniele S. Lantagne
- Tufts
University School of Engineering, Medford, Massachusetts 02155-1012, United States
| | - James R. Mihelcic
- Department
of Civil and Environmental Engineering, University of South Florida, Tampa, Florida 33620-5350, United States
| | - Qianjin Marina Zhang
- Lichtenberger
Engineering Library, University of Iowa, Iowa City, Iowa 52242-1396, United States
| | - Craig Just
- Department
of Civil and Environmental Engineering, University of Iowa, Iowa City, Iowa 52242-1396, United States
| | - Amy J. Pickering
- Department
of Civil and Environmental Engineering, University of California Berkeley, Berkeley, California 94720-2284, United States
- Blum
Center for Developing Economies, University
of California Berkeley, Berkeley, California 94720-2284, United States
| |
Collapse
|