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Varikkodan MM, Kunnathodi F, Azmi S, Wu TY. An Overview of Indian Biomedical Research on the Chikungunya Virus with Particular Reference to Its Vaccine, an Unmet Medical Need. Vaccines (Basel) 2023; 11:1102. [PMID: 37376491 DOI: 10.3390/vaccines11061102] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/30/2023] [Revised: 06/08/2023] [Accepted: 06/13/2023] [Indexed: 06/29/2023] Open
Abstract
Chikungunya virus (CHIKV) is an infectious agent spread by mosquitos, that has engendered endemic or epidemic outbreaks of Chikungunya fever (CHIKF) in Africa, South-East Asia, America, and a few European countries. Like most tropical infections, CHIKV is frequently misdiagnosed, underreported, and underestimated; it primarily affects areas with limited resources, like developing nations. Due to its high transmission rate and lack of a preventive vaccine or effective treatments, this virus poses a serious threat to humanity. After a 32-year hiatus, CHIKV reemerged as the most significant epidemic ever reported, in India in 2006. Since then, CHIKV-related research was begun in India, and up to now, more than 800 peer-reviewed research papers have been published by Indian researchers and medical practitioners. This review gives an overview of the outbreak history and CHIKV-related research in India, to favor novel high-quality research works intending to promote effective treatment and preventive strategies, including vaccine development, against CHIKV infection.
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Affiliation(s)
- Muhammed Muhsin Varikkodan
- Department of Bioscience Technology, College of Science, Chung Yuan Christian University, Chung-Li, Taoyuan City 320314, Taiwan
| | - Faisal Kunnathodi
- Scientific Research Center, Prince Sultan Military Medical City, Riyadh 11159, Saudi Arabia
| | - Sarfuddin Azmi
- Scientific Research Center, Prince Sultan Military Medical City, Riyadh 11159, Saudi Arabia
| | - Tzong-Yuan Wu
- Department of Bioscience Technology, College of Science, Chung Yuan Christian University, Chung-Li, Taoyuan City 320314, Taiwan
- R&D Center of Membrane Technology, Chung Yuan Christian University, Chung-Li, Taoyuan City 320314, Taiwan
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Manisha M, Verma K, Ramesh N, Anirudha TP, Santrupt RM, Das R, Mohan Kumar MS, Chanakya HN, Rao L. Socio-economic impact assessment of large-scale recycling of treated municipal wastewater for indirect groundwater recharge. THE SCIENCE OF THE TOTAL ENVIRONMENT 2023; 859:160207. [PMID: 36402318 DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2022.160207] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/18/2022] [Revised: 10/21/2022] [Accepted: 11/11/2022] [Indexed: 06/16/2023]
Abstract
Reusing treated wastewater is an emerging solution to address freshwater scarcity, and surface water contamination faced worldwide. A unique large-scale wastewater recycling project was implemented to replenish groundwater by filling secondary treated wastewater (STW) into existing irrigation tanks in severely drought-hit areas of the Kolar districts of Southern India. This study quantifies the socio-economic impacts of this large-scale indirect groundwater recharge scheme. The changes in areas receiving STW i.e., impacted areas and those areas which did not receive STW i.e., non-impacted areas was studied. Also, pre and post recycling changes were quantified in the Kolar district. The results show that surface water quality meets India's most stringent treated wastewater discharge standards prescribed by the Hon'ble National Green Tribunal. Due to these recycling efforts, significant improvements in groundwater level and quality were found. It was observed that there was a noticeable difference in agricultural cropping areas, seasons, patterns, and production between impacted and non-impacted areas. Post-recycling, farmers tended to cultivate cash and water-intensive crops over less water-intensive crops. During the post-recycling period, livestock and milk production also increased, and in impacted areas, it was significantly higher. Post-recycling, fish production increased and land prices per hectare increased by 118 % in impacted areas. The farmer's net income under flowers and vegetable farming increased by 202 % and 150 % respectively in impacted areas compared to non-impacted areas. Furthermore, this project contributes to a circular economy transition in the water sector, which has economic, environmental, social, and cultural benefits. A key recommendation from the outcomes of the study is to draft and implement a policy that encourages the reuse of recycled water for groundwater recharge which in turn will improve the agro-economic system and food security.
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Affiliation(s)
- Manjari Manisha
- Center for Sustainable Technologies, Indian Institute of Science, Bengaluru, India.
| | - Kavita Verma
- Center for Sustainable Technologies, Indian Institute of Science, Bengaluru, India
| | - N Ramesh
- Center for Sustainable Technologies, Indian Institute of Science, Bengaluru, India
| | - T P Anirudha
- Center for Sustainable Technologies, Indian Institute of Science, Bengaluru, India
| | - R M Santrupt
- Center for Sustainable Technologies, Indian Institute of Science, Bengaluru, India
| | - Reshmi Das
- Center for Sustainable Technologies, Indian Institute of Science, Bengaluru, India
| | - M S Mohan Kumar
- Department of Civil Engineering, Indian Institute of Science, Bengaluru, India; Gitam University, India
| | - H N Chanakya
- Center for Sustainable Technologies, Indian Institute of Science, Bengaluru, India
| | - Lakshminarayana Rao
- Center for Sustainable Technologies, Indian Institute of Science, Bengaluru, India
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Sofyantoro F, Frediansyah A, Priyono DS, Putri WA, Septriani NI, Wijayanti N, Ramadaningrum WA, Turkistani SA, Garout M, Aljeldah M, Al Shammari BR, Alwashmi ASS, Alfaraj AH, Alawfi A, Alshengeti A, Aljohani MH, Aldossary S, Rabaan AA. Growth in chikungunya virus-related research in ASEAN and South Asian countries from 1967 to 2022 following disease emergence: a bibliometric and graphical analysis. Global Health 2023; 19:9. [PMID: 36747262 PMCID: PMC9901127 DOI: 10.1186/s12992-023-00906-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/26/2022] [Accepted: 01/09/2023] [Indexed: 02/08/2023] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND ASEAN (Association of Southeast Asian Nations) is composed of ten Southeast Asian countries bound by socio-cultural ties that promote regional peace and stability. South Asia, located in the southern subregion of Asia, includes nine countries sharing similarities in geographical and ethno-cultural factors. Chikungunya is one of the most significant problems in Southeast and South Asian countries. Much of the current chikungunya epidemic in Southeast Asia is caused by the emergence of a virus strain that originated in Africa and spread to Southeast Asia. Meanwhile, in South Asia, three confirmed lineages are in circulation. Given the positive correlation between research activity and the improvement of the clinical framework of biomedical research, this article aimed to examine the growth of chikungunya virus-related research in ASEAN and South Asian countries. METHODS The Scopus database was used for this bibliometric analysis. The retrieved publications were subjected to a number of analyses, including those for the most prolific countries, journals, authors, institutions, and articles. Co-occurrence mapping of terms and keywords was used to determine the current state, emerging topics, and future prospects of chikungunya virus-related research. Bibliometrix and VOSviewer were used to analyze the data and visualize the collaboration network mapping. RESULTS The Scopus search engine identified 1280 chikungunya-related documents published by ASEAN and South Asian countries between 1967 and 2022. According to our findings, India was the most productive country in South Asia, and Thailand was the most productive country in Southeast Asia. In the early stages of the study, researchers investigated the vectors and outbreaks of the chikungunya virus. In recent years, the development of antivirus agents has emerged as a prominent topic. CONCLUSIONS Our study is the first to present the growth of chikungunya virus-related research in ASEAN and South Asian countries from 1967 to 2022. In this study, the evaluation of the comprehensive profile of research on chikungunya can serve as a guide for future studies. In addition, a bibliometric analysis may serve as a resource for healthcare policymakers.
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Affiliation(s)
- Fajar Sofyantoro
- Faculty of Biology, Universitas Gadjah Mada, Yogyakarta, 55281, Indonesia
- Center for Tropical Biodiversity, Faculty of Biology, Universitas Gadjah Mada, Yogyakarta, 55281, Indonesia
| | - Andri Frediansyah
- PRTPP, National Research and Innovation Agency (BRIN), Yogyakarta, 55861, Indonesia.
| | - Dwi Sendi Priyono
- Faculty of Biology, Universitas Gadjah Mada, Yogyakarta, 55281, Indonesia
- Center for Tropical Biodiversity, Faculty of Biology, Universitas Gadjah Mada, Yogyakarta, 55281, Indonesia
| | | | | | - Nastiti Wijayanti
- Faculty of Biology, Universitas Gadjah Mada, Yogyakarta, 55281, Indonesia.
| | | | | | - Mohammed Garout
- Department of Community Medicine and Health Care for Pilgrims, Faculty of Medicine, Umm Al-Qura University, Makkah, 21955, Saudi Arabia
| | - Mohammed Aljeldah
- Department of Clinical Laboratory Sciences, College of Applied Medical Sciences, University of Hafr Al Batin, Hafr Al Batin, 39831, Saudi Arabia
| | - Basim R Al Shammari
- Department of Clinical Laboratory Sciences, College of Applied Medical Sciences, University of Hafr Al Batin, Hafr Al Batin, 39831, Saudi Arabia
| | - Ameen S S Alwashmi
- Department of Medical Laboratories, College of Applied Medical Sciences, Qassim University, Buraydah, 51452, Saudi Arabia
| | - Amal H Alfaraj
- Pediatric Department, Abqaiq General Hospital, First Eastern Health Cluster, Abqaiq, 33261, Saudi Arabia
| | - Abdulsalam Alawfi
- Department of Pediatrics, College of Medicine, Taibah University, Al-Madinah, 41491, Saudi Arabia
| | - Amer Alshengeti
- Department of Pediatrics, College of Medicine, Taibah University, Al-Madinah, 41491, Saudi Arabia
- Department of Infection Prevention and Control, Prince Mohammad Bin Abdulaziz Hospital, National Guard Health Affairs, Al-Madinah, 41491, Saudi Arabia
| | - Maha H Aljohani
- Department of infectious diseases, King Fahad Hospital, Madinah, 42351, Saudi Arabia
| | - Sahar Aldossary
- Pediatric Infectious Diseases, Women and Children's Health Institute, Johns Hopkins Aramco Healthcare, Dhahran, 31311, Saudi Arabia
| | - Ali A Rabaan
- Molecular Diagnostic Laboratory, Johns Hopkins Aramco Healthcare, Dhahran, 31311, Saudi Arabia.
- College of Medicine, Alfaisal University, Riyadh, 11533, Saudi Arabia.
- Department of Public Health and Nutrition, The University of Haripur, Haripur, 22610, Pakistan.
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Phadungsombat J, Imad HA, Nakayama EE, Leaungwutiwong P, Ramasoota P, Nguitragool W, Matsee W, Piyaphanee W, Shioda T. Spread of a Novel Indian Ocean Lineage Carrying E1-K211E/E2-V264A of Chikungunya Virus East/Central/South African Genotype across the Indian Subcontinent, Southeast Asia, and Eastern Africa. Microorganisms 2022; 10:354. [PMID: 35208808 PMCID: PMC8878743 DOI: 10.3390/microorganisms10020354] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/16/2021] [Revised: 02/01/2022] [Accepted: 02/01/2022] [Indexed: 01/27/2023] Open
Abstract
The Indian Ocean Lineage (IOL) of the chikungunya virus (CHIKV) East/Central/South African (ECSA) genotype, which originated in Kenya, spread to the Indian ocean and the Indian subcontinent, and then expanded through Southeast Asia in the previous decade. It carried an adaptive mutation E1-A226V, which enhances CHIKV replication in Aedes albopictus. However, the IOL CHIKV of the most recent outbreaks during 2016-2020 in India, Pakistan, Bangladesh, the Maldives, Myanmar, Thailand, and Kenya lacked E1-A226V but carried E1-K211E and E2-V264A. Recent CHIKV genome sequences of the Maldives and Thailand were determined, and their phylogenetic relationships were further investigated together with IOL sequences reported in 2004-2020 in the database. The results showed that the ancestral IOLs diverged to a sub-lineage E1-K211E/E2-V264A, probably in India around 2008, and caused sporadic outbreaks in India during 2010-2015 and in Kenya in 2016. The massive expansion of this new sub-lineage occurred after the acquisition of E1-I317V in other neighboring and remote regions in 2014-2020. Additionally, the phylogenetic tree indicated that independent clades formed according to the geographical regions and introduction timing. The present results using all available partial or full sequences of the recent CHIKVs emphasized the dynamics of the IOL sub-lineages in the Indian subcontinent, Southeast Asia, and Eastern Africa.
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Affiliation(s)
- Juthamas Phadungsombat
- Mahidol-Osaka Center for Infectious Diseases (MOCID), Faculty of Tropical Medicine, Mahidol University, Bangkok 10400, Thailand;
- Center for Infectious Disease Education and Research, Department of Viral Infections, Research Institute for Microbial Diseases (RIMD), Osaka University, Osaka 565-0871, Japan; (H.A.I.); (E.E.N.)
| | - Hisham A. Imad
- Center for Infectious Disease Education and Research, Department of Viral Infections, Research Institute for Microbial Diseases (RIMD), Osaka University, Osaka 565-0871, Japan; (H.A.I.); (E.E.N.)
- Mahidol Vivax Research Unit, Faculty of Tropical Medicine, Mahidol University, Bangkok 10400, Thailand;
| | - Emi E. Nakayama
- Center for Infectious Disease Education and Research, Department of Viral Infections, Research Institute for Microbial Diseases (RIMD), Osaka University, Osaka 565-0871, Japan; (H.A.I.); (E.E.N.)
| | - Pornsawan Leaungwutiwong
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Faculty of Tropical Medicine, Mahidol University, Bangkok 10400, Thailand;
| | - Pongrama Ramasoota
- Center of Excellence for Antibody Research (CEAR), Department of Social and Environmental Medicine, Faculty of Tropical Medicine, Mahidol University, Bangkok 10400, Thailand;
| | - Wang Nguitragool
- Mahidol Vivax Research Unit, Faculty of Tropical Medicine, Mahidol University, Bangkok 10400, Thailand;
- Department of Molecular Tropical Medicine and Genetics, Faculty of Tropical Medicine, Mahidol University, Bangkok 10400, Thailand
| | - Wasin Matsee
- Hospital for Tropical Diseases, Faculty of Tropical Medicine, Mahidol University, Bangkok 10400, Thailand; (W.M.); (W.P.)
- Department of Clinical Tropical Medicine, Faculty of Tropical Medicine, Mahidol University, Bangkok 10400, Thailand
| | - Watcharapong Piyaphanee
- Hospital for Tropical Diseases, Faculty of Tropical Medicine, Mahidol University, Bangkok 10400, Thailand; (W.M.); (W.P.)
- Department of Clinical Tropical Medicine, Faculty of Tropical Medicine, Mahidol University, Bangkok 10400, Thailand
| | - Tatsuo Shioda
- Mahidol-Osaka Center for Infectious Diseases (MOCID), Faculty of Tropical Medicine, Mahidol University, Bangkok 10400, Thailand;
- Center for Infectious Disease Education and Research, Department of Viral Infections, Research Institute for Microbial Diseases (RIMD), Osaka University, Osaka 565-0871, Japan; (H.A.I.); (E.E.N.)
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Chaudhary S, Jain J, Kumar R, Shrinet J, Weaver SC, Auguste AJ, Sunil S. Chikungunya virus molecular evolution in India since its re-emergence in 2005. Virus Evol 2021; 7:veab074. [PMID: 34754512 PMCID: PMC8570154 DOI: 10.1093/ve/veab074] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/30/2020] [Revised: 07/20/2021] [Accepted: 08/25/2021] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Chikungunya virus (CHIKV), an alphavirus of the Togaviridae family, is among the most medically significant mosquito-borne viruses, capable of causing major epidemics of febrile disease and severe, chronic arthritis. Identifying viral mutations is crucial for understanding virus evolution and evaluating those genetic determinants that directly impact pathogenesis and transmissibility. The present study was undertaken to expand on past CHIKV evolutionary studies through robust genome-scale phylogenetic analysis to better understand CHIKV genetic diversity and evolutionary dynamics since its reintroduction into India in 2005. We sequenced the complete genomes of fifty clinical isolates collected between 2010 and 2016 from two geographic locations, Delhi and Mumbai. We then analysed them along with 753 genomes available on the Virus Pathogen Database and Analysis Resource sampled over fifteen years (2005-20) from a range of locations across the globe and identified novel genetic variants present in samples from this study. Our analyses show evidence of frequent reintroduction of the virus into India and that the most recent CHIKV outbreak shares a common ancestor as recently as 2006.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Jaspreet Jain
- Vector Borne Diseases Group, International Centre for Genetic Engineering and Biotechnology, Aruna Asaf Ali Marg, New Delhi 110067, India
| | | | - Jatin Shrinet
- Vector Borne Diseases Group, International Centre for Genetic Engineering and Biotechnology, Aruna Asaf Ali Marg, New Delhi 110067, India
| | - Scott C Weaver
- World Reference Center for Emerging Viruses and Arboviruses, University of Texas Medical Branch, Galveston, TX 77555, USA
| | - Albert J Auguste
- Institute for Human Infections and Immunity, University of Texas Medical Branch, Galveston, TX 77555, USA
| | - Sujatha Sunil
- Vector Borne Diseases Group, International Centre for Genetic Engineering and Biotechnology, Aruna Asaf Ali Marg, New Delhi 110067, India
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Abstract
Chikungunya fever (CHIKF) is an arbovirus disease caused by chikungunya virus (CHIKV), an alphavirus of Togaviridae family. Transmission follows a human-mosquito-human cycle starting with a mosquito bite. Subsequently, symptoms develop after 2-6 days of incubation, including high fever and severe arthralgia. The disease is self-limiting and usually resolve within 2 weeks. However, chronic disease can last up to several years with persistent polyarthralgia. Overlapping symptoms and common vector with dengue and malaria present many challenges for diagnosis and treatment of this disease. CHIKF was reported in India in 1963 for the first time. After a period of quiescence lasting up to 32 years, CHIKV re-emerged in India in 2005. Currently, every part of the country has become endemic for the disease with outbreaks resulting in huge economic and productivity losses. Several mutations have been identified in circulating strains of the virus resulting in better adaptations or increased fitness in the vector(s), effective transmission, and disease severity. CHIKV evolution has been a significant driver of epidemics in India, hence, the need to focus on proper surveillance, and implementation of prevention and control measure in the country. Presently, there are no licensed vaccines or antivirals available; however, India has initiated several efforts in this direction including traditional medicines. In this review, we present the current status of CHIKF in India.
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Evaluation of DNA-Launched Virus-Like Particle Vaccines in an Immune Competent Mouse Model of Chikungunya Virus Infection. Vaccines (Basel) 2021; 9:vaccines9040345. [PMID: 33918409 PMCID: PMC8067036 DOI: 10.3390/vaccines9040345] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/08/2021] [Revised: 03/29/2021] [Accepted: 03/31/2021] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Chikungunya virus (CHIKV) infection can result in chronic and debilitating arthralgia affecting humans in tropical and subtropical regions around the world, yet there are no licensed vaccines to prevent infection. DNA launched virus like particle (VLP) vaccines represent a potentially safer alternative to traditional live-attenuated vaccines; however, fully characterized immunocompetent mouse models which appropriately include both male and female animals for preclinical evaluation of these, and other, vaccine platforms are lacking. Utilizing virus stocks engineered to express mutations reported to enhance CHIKV virulence in mice, infection of male and female immunocompetent mice was evaluated, and the resulting model utilized to assess the efficacy of candidate DNA launched CHIKV VLP vaccines. Results demonstrate the potential utility of DNA launched VLP vaccines in comparison to a live attenuated CHIKV vaccine and identify gender differences in viral RNA loads that impact interpretation of vaccine efficacy and may have important implications for future CHIKV vaccine development.
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A Novel Sub-Lineage of Chikungunya Virus East/Central/South African Genotype Indian Ocean Lineage Caused Sequential Outbreaks in Bangladesh and Thailand. Viruses 2020; 12:v12111319. [PMID: 33213040 PMCID: PMC7698486 DOI: 10.3390/v12111319] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/29/2020] [Revised: 11/12/2020] [Accepted: 11/13/2020] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
Abstract
In recent decades, chikungunya virus (CHIKV) has become geographically widespread. In 2004, the CHIKV East/Central/South African (ECSA) genotype moved from Africa to Indian ocean islands and India followed by a large epidemic in Southeast Asia. In 2013, the CHIKV Asian genotype drove an outbreak in the Americas. Since 2016, CHIKV has re-emerged in the Indian subcontinent and Southeast Asia. In the present study, CHIKVs were obtained from Bangladesh in 2017 and Thailand in 2019, and their nearly full genomes were sequenced. Phylogenetic analysis revealed that the recent CHIKVs were of Indian Ocean Lineage (IOL) of genotype ECSA, similar to the previous outbreak. However, these CHIKVs were all clustered into a new distinct sub-lineage apart from the past IOL CHIKVs, and they lacked an alanine-to-valine substitution at position 226 of the E1 envelope glycoprotein, which enhances CHIKV replication in Aedes albopictus. Instead, all the re-emerged CHIKVs possessed mutations of lysine-to-glutamic acid at position 211 of E1 and valine-to-alanine at position 264 of E2. Molecular clock analysis suggested that the new sub-lineage CHIKV was introduced to Bangladesh around late 2015 and Thailand in early 2017. These results suggest that re-emerged CHIKVs have acquired different adaptations than the previous CHIKVs.
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Kushwah RBS, Kaur T, Dykes CL, Ravi Kumar H, Kapoor N, Singh OP. A new knockdown resistance (kdr) mutation, F1534L, in the voltage-gated sodium channel of Aedes aegypti, co-occurring with F1534C, S989P and V1016G. Parasit Vectors 2020; 13:327. [PMID: 32600469 PMCID: PMC7325290 DOI: 10.1186/s13071-020-04201-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/07/2020] [Accepted: 06/20/2020] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Aedes aegypti is a primary vector of dengue, chikungunya and Zika infections in India. In the absence of specific drugs or safe and effective vaccines for these infections, their control relies mainly on vector control measures. The emergence of insecticide resistance in vectors, especially against pyrethroids, is a serious threat to the insecticide-based vector control programme. This study reports the presence of multiple knockdown resistance (kdr) mutations present in an Ae. aegypti population from Bengaluru (India), including a new mutation F1534L. METHODS Aedes aegypti collected from Bengaluru were subjected to insecticide susceptibility tests with DDT, deltamethrin and permethrin. The DNA sequencing of partial domain II, III and IV of the voltage-gated sodium channel (VGSC) was performed to screen kdr mutations present in the population and PCR-based assays were developed for their detection. Genotyping of kdr mutations was done using PCR-based assays, allelic frequencies were determined, and tests of genetic association of kdr mutations with the insecticide resistance phenotype were performed. RESULTS The Ae. aegypti population was resistant to DDT, deltamethrin and permethrin. The DNA sequencing of the VGSC revealed the presence of four kdr mutations, i.e. S989P and V1016G in domain II and two alternative kdr mutations F1534C and F1534L in domain III. Allele-specific PCR assays (ASPCR) were developed for the detection of kdr mutations S989P and V1016G and an existing PCR-RFLP based strategy was modified for the genotyping of all three known kdr mutations in domain III (F1534L, F1534C and T1520I). Genotyping of Ae. aegypti samples revealed a moderate frequency of S989P/V1016G (18.27%) and F1534L (17.48%), a relatively high frequency of F1534C (50.61%) and absence of T1520I in the population. Mutations S989P and V1016G were in complete linkage disequilibrium in this population while they were in linkage equilibrium with kdr mutations F1534C and F1534L. The alleles F1534C and F1534L are genetically associated with permethrin resistance. CONCLUSIONS A new kdr mutation, F1534L, was found in an Ae. aegypti population from Bengaluru (India), co-occurring with the other three mutations S989P, V1016G and F1534C. The findings of a new mutation have implications for insecticide resistance management.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Taranjeet Kaur
- National Institute of Malaria Research, Sector 8, Dwarka, Delhi, 110077 India
| | - Cherry L. Dykes
- National Institute of Malaria Research, Sector 8, Dwarka, Delhi, 110077 India
| | - H. Ravi Kumar
- Department of Life Sciences, Jnanabharathi Campus, Bangalore University, Bengaluru, 560056 India
| | - Neera Kapoor
- School of Life Sciences, Indira Gandhi National Open University, Maidangarhi, Delhi, 110068 India
| | - Om P. Singh
- National Institute of Malaria Research, Sector 8, Dwarka, Delhi, 110077 India
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