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Ragassa S, Berhanu G. Antibiotic Use, Awareness of Antimicrobial Resistance and Residue in Veterinary Professionals and Farmers in Selected Districts of Kellem Wollega Zone, Ethiopia. VETERINARY MEDICINE (AUCKLAND, N.Z.) 2023; 14:159-175. [PMID: 37790678 PMCID: PMC10542589 DOI: 10.2147/vmrr.s423141] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/24/2023] [Accepted: 09/20/2023] [Indexed: 10/05/2023]
Abstract
Background Antimicrobials have a crucial role in reducing mortality and morbidity in animals, but misuse of them may cause antimicrobial resistance and residues which are challenging in animal production and public health. These problems are mostly aggravated in developing countries including Ethiopia. Objective Assessment of antibiotic use, awareness of antimicrobial resistance and antimicrobial residue in veterinary professionals and farmers. Methods A cross-sectional study was conducted from September 2021 to August 2022 in three districts (Seyo, Hawa Gelan, and Dale Sadi) of the Kellem Wollega zone, selected by purposive sampling. The study population was farmers and veterinary professionals. Data was collected from a total of 312 respondents; 230 farmers and 82 veterinary professionals using interviews and questionnaires, respectively. Results Out of 312 total respondents, 230 (73.71%) were farmers and 82 (26.28%) were veterinary professionals. From the farmer respondents, 127 (55.22%), 153 (66.52%), and 142 (61.74%) had an awareness of antibiotics and their usage, antimicrobial resistance, and withdrawal period, respectively. Out of 82 veterinary professional respondents, 92.68% practice dose calculation during animal treatment, 79.27% diagnose systemic infections by tentative diagnosis, 85.37% have no laboratory facility for bacterial disease, and 81.71% give broad-spectrum antibiotics for undifferentiated cases. The income type of respondents looks to have a strong association (P < 0.05) with awareness of antibiotics (OR: 3.427, SE: 1.404, CI: 1.535-7.654), antimicrobial resistance (OR: 3.536, SE: 1.339, CI: 1.683-7.430) and withdrawal periods (OR: 3.297, SE: 1.267, CI: 1.552-7.004). Conclusion This study shows most farmers have awareness about antibiotics and their use, antimicrobial resistance, and residue but inappropriate use of antimicrobials in farmers and lack of laboratory facilities in most veterinary professionals observed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sagni Ragassa
- Department of Veterinary Medicine, Dambi Dollo University, Dambi Dollo, Oromia, Ethiopia
| | - Gemechu Berhanu
- Department of Veterinary Medicine, Dambi Dollo University, Dambi Dollo, Oromia, Ethiopia
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Ragassa S, Berhanu G. Antibiotic Use, Awareness of Antimicrobial Resistance and Residue in Veterinary Professionals and Farmers in Selected Districts of Kellem Wollega Zone, Ethiopia. VETERINARY MEDICINE: RESEARCH AND REPORTS 2023; Volume 14:159-175. [DOI: https:/doi.org/10.2147/vmrr.s423141] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/13/2023]
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Abstract
Antibiotics have long been used for the prevention and treatment of common diseases and for prophylactic purposes in dairy animals. However, in recent decades it has become a matter of concern due to the widespread belief that there has been an abuse or misuse of these drugs in animals and that this misuse has led to the presence of residues in derived foods, such as milk and dairy products. Therefore, this review aims to compile the scientific literature published to date on the presence of antibiotic residues in these products worldwide. The focus is on the reasons that lead to their presence in food, on the potential problems caused by residues in the characteristics of dairy products and in their manufacturing process, on the development and spread of antibiotic-resistant bacteria, and on the effects that both residues and resistant bacteria can cause on human and environmental health.
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Arsène MMJ, Davares AKL, Viktorovna PI, Andreevna SL, Sarra S, Khelifi I, Sergueïevna DM. The public health issue of antibiotic residues in food and feed: Causes, consequences, and potential solutions. Vet World 2022; 15:662-671. [PMID: 35497952 PMCID: PMC9047141 DOI: 10.14202/vetworld.2022.662-671] [Citation(s) in RCA: 36] [Impact Index Per Article: 18.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/29/2021] [Accepted: 02/08/2022] [Indexed: 02/01/2023] Open
Abstract
Antibiotics are among the essential veterinary medicine compounds associated with animal feed and food animal production. The use of antibiotics for the treatment of bacterial infections is almost unavoidable, with less need to demonstrate their importance. Although banned as a growth factor for a few years, their use in animals can add residues in foodstuffs, presenting several environmental, technological, animal health, and consumer health risks. With regard to human health risks, antibiotic residues induce and accelerate antibiotic resistance development, promote the transfer of antibiotic-resistant bacteria to humans, cause allergies (penicillin), and induce other severe pathologies, such as cancers (sulfamethazine, oxytetracycline, and furazolidone), anaphylactic shock, nephropathy (gentamicin), bone marrow toxicity, mutagenic effects, and reproductive disorders (chloramphenicol). Antibiotic resistance, which has excessively increased over the years, is one of the adverse consequences of this phenomenon, constituting a severe public health issue, thus requiring the regulation of antibiotics in all areas, including animal breeding. This review discusses the common use of antibiotics in agriculture and antibiotic residues in food/feed. In-depth, we discussed the detection techniques of antibiotic residues, potential consequences on the environment and animal health, the technological transformation processes and impacts on consumer health, and recommendations to mitigate this situation.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | | | - Souadkia Sarra
- Department of Microbiology and Virology, Institute of Medicine, RUDN University, Moscow, Russia
| | - Ibrahim Khelifi
- Department of Microbiology and Virology, Institute of Medicine, RUDN University, Moscow, Russia
| | - Das Milana Sergueïevna
- Department of Microbiology and Virology, Institute of Medicine, RUDN University, Moscow, Russia
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Treiber FM, Beranek-Knauer H. Antimicrobial Residues in Food from Animal Origin-A Review of the Literature Focusing on Products Collected in Stores and Markets Worldwide. Antibiotics (Basel) 2021; 10:534. [PMID: 34066335 PMCID: PMC8148204 DOI: 10.3390/antibiotics10050534] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/01/2021] [Revised: 04/28/2021] [Accepted: 04/30/2021] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
The extensive use of antibiotics leads to antibiotic residues in frequently consumed foods. Generally, the main use of antibiotics in animals is to treat and prevent diseases and growth promotion. However, the residues and their breakdown products have several side effects on the human body and, in a broader sense, on the environment. In relation to the human body, the frequency of mutations is increased, the bone marrow is damaged (chloramphenicol), and the reproductive organs of humans are affected. Carcinogenic effects have been found with antibiotics such as sulfamethazine, oxytetracycline, and furazolidone. We summarized data from 73 scientific studies reporting antimicrobial residues in animal products that were freely available for sale. The studies were published in English starting from 1999 till 2021 and identified through the Pubmed search engine. The aims were to find out which antibiotics, legal or illegal, could be found in animal foods worldwide. Which are stable to get into the food chain and exceed the maximum residue limits (MRL) regarding the EU guidelines as a comparison. Reducing antimicrobial residues in food from animal origin and, in addition to this, fighting the tremendous growth and spread of antimicrobial resistance will undoubtedly be one of the most difficult food safety challenges in the coming years.
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Affiliation(s)
- Fritz Michael Treiber
- Institute of Molecular Biosciences, University of Graz, Humboldtstrasse 50/EG, A-8010 Graz, Austria;
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6
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Mdegela RH, Mwakapeje ER, Rubegwa B, Gebeyehu DT, Niyigena S, Msambichaka V, Nonga HE, Antoine-Moussiaux N, Fasina FO. Antimicrobial Use, Residues, Resistance and Governance in the Food and Agriculture Sectors, Tanzania. Antibiotics (Basel) 2021; 10:antibiotics10040454. [PMID: 33923689 PMCID: PMC8073917 DOI: 10.3390/antibiotics10040454] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/23/2020] [Revised: 02/23/2021] [Accepted: 03/18/2021] [Indexed: 02/05/2023] Open
Abstract
All infections are potentially curable as long as the etiological agents are susceptible to antimicrobials. The increased rate at which antimicrobials are becoming ineffective is a global health risk of increasing concern that threatens withdrawal of beneficial antimicrobials for disease control. The increased demand for food of animal origin, in particular eggs, meat and milk has led to intensification and commercial production systems where excessive use and misuse of antimicrobials may prevail. Antimicrobials, handled and used by farmers and animal attendants with no formal education, may be predisposed to incorrect dosages, misuse, incorrect applications and non-adherence to withdrawal periods. This study was conducted to assess the regulatory roles and governance of antimicrobials, establish the pattern and extent of their use, evaluate the antimicrobial residues and resistance in the food animals and crop agriculture value chains, and relate these findings to existing strategies in place for combating the emergence of antimicrobial resistance in Tanzania. A multimethod approach (desk review, field study and interviews) was used. Relevant establishments were also visited. High levels of resistance to penicillin G, chloramphenicol, streptomycin and oxytetracycline have been reported, especially for Actinobacter pyogenes, Staphylococcus hyicus, Staphylococcus intermedius and Staphylococcus aureus from dairy cattle with mastitis and in humans. Similar trends were found in poultry where eggs and meat are contaminated with Escherichia coli strains resistant to amoxicillin + clavulanate, sulphamethoxazole and neomycin. An increasing trend of emerging multidrug resistant E. coli, Klebsiella pneumoniae, Staphylococcus aureus and Salmonella was also found in food animals. An increase in methicillin resistant Staphlococcus aureus (MRSA) and extended-spectrum beta-lactamase (ESBL) in the livestock sector in Tanzania have been reported. The pathogens isolated in animals were resistant to ampicillin, augmentin, gentamicin, co-trimoxazole, tetracycline, amoxicillin, streptomycin, nalidixic acid, azithromycin, chloramphenicol, tylosin, erythromycin, cefuroxime, norfloxacin and ciprofloxacin. An increased usage of antimicrobials for prophylaxis, and therapeutics against pathogens and for growth promotion in livestock, aquaculture and crop production were observed. A One Health strategic approach is advocated to combat antimicrobial resistance (AMR) in the food and agriculture sectors in Tanzania. Practical recommendations include (a) legislation review and implementation; (b) antimicrobial use (AMU), AMR and antimicrobial residue (AR) awareness and advocacy among stakeholders along the value chain; (c) strengthening of surveillance and monitoring programs for AMU, AMR and AR; (d) enhanced development and use of rapid and innovative diagnostic tests and the promotion of biosecurity principles; and (e) good husbandry practices. The utilization of this information to improve public health policies and reduce the burden of AMR will be beneficial.
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Affiliation(s)
- Robinson H. Mdegela
- Department of Veterinary Medicine and Public Health, Sokoine University of Agriculture, Morogoro 3006, Tanzania;
| | - Elibariki R. Mwakapeje
- Emergency Centre for Transboundary Animal Diseases (ECTAD), Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO), Dar es Salaam 14111, Tanzania; (E.R.M.); (B.R.); (V.M.)
| | - Bachana Rubegwa
- Emergency Centre for Transboundary Animal Diseases (ECTAD), Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO), Dar es Salaam 14111, Tanzania; (E.R.M.); (B.R.); (V.M.)
| | - Daniel T. Gebeyehu
- Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Liège, 4032 Liege, Belgium; (D.T.G.); (S.N.); (N.A.-M.)
- Department of Veterinary Medicine, School of Veterinary Medicine, Wollo University, Dessie 6000, Ethiopia
| | - Solange Niyigena
- Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Liège, 4032 Liege, Belgium; (D.T.G.); (S.N.); (N.A.-M.)
| | - Victoria Msambichaka
- Emergency Centre for Transboundary Animal Diseases (ECTAD), Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO), Dar es Salaam 14111, Tanzania; (E.R.M.); (B.R.); (V.M.)
| | - Hezron E. Nonga
- Directorate of Veterinary Services, Ministry of Livestock and Fisheries, Dodoma 41000, Tanzania;
| | - Nicolas Antoine-Moussiaux
- Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Liège, 4032 Liege, Belgium; (D.T.G.); (S.N.); (N.A.-M.)
| | - Folorunso O. Fasina
- Emergency Centre for Transboundary Animal Diseases (ECTAD), Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO), Dar es Salaam 14111, Tanzania; (E.R.M.); (B.R.); (V.M.)
- Department of Veterinary Tropical Diseases, Faculty of Veterinary Science, University of Pretoria, Onderstepoort 0110, South Africa
- Correspondence: ; Tel.: +255-68-613-2852
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Akinyemi MO, Ayeni KI, Ogunremi OR, Adeleke RA, Oguntoyinbo FA, Warth B, Ezekiel CN. A review of microbes and chemical contaminants in dairy products in sub-Saharan Africa. Compr Rev Food Sci Food Saf 2021; 20:1188-1220. [PMID: 33506591 DOI: 10.1111/1541-4337.12712] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/05/2020] [Revised: 12/15/2020] [Accepted: 12/16/2020] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
Abstract
Animal milk types in sub-Saharan Africa (SSA) are processed into varieties of products using different traditional methods and are widely consumed by households to support nutritional intake and diet. Dairy products contain several microorganisms, their metabolites, and other chemical compounds, some with health benefits and many others considered as potential health hazards. Consumption of contaminated milk products could have serious health implications for consumers. To access the safety of milk products across SSA, studies in the region investigating the occurrences of pathogens as well as chemical compounds such as heat stable toxins and veterinary drug residues in animal milk and its products were reviewed. This is done with a holistic view in light of the emerging exposome paradigm for improving food safety and consumer health in the region. Herein, we showed that several published studies in SSA applied conventional and/or less sensitive methods in detecting microbial species and chemical contaminants. This has serious implications in food safety because the correct identity of a microbial species and accurate screening for chemical contaminants is crucial for predicting the potential human health effects that undermine the benefits from consumption of these foods. Furthermore, we highlighted gaps in determining the extent of viral and parasitic contamination of milk products across SSA as well as investigating multiple classes of chemical contaminants. Consequently, robust studies should be conducted in this regard. Also, efforts such as development cooperation projects should be initiated by all stakeholders including scientists, regulatory agencies, and policy makers to improve the dairy product chain in SSA in view of safeguarding consumer health.
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Affiliation(s)
- Muiz O Akinyemi
- Department of Microbiology, Babcock University, Ogun State, Ilishan Remo, Nigeria.,Unit for Environmental Sciences and Management, North-West University, Potchefstroom, South Africa
| | - Kolawole I Ayeni
- Department of Microbiology, Babcock University, Ogun State, Ilishan Remo, Nigeria
| | - Omotade R Ogunremi
- Department of Biological Sciences, First Technical University, Ibadan, Oyo State, Nigeria
| | - Rasheed A Adeleke
- Unit for Environmental Sciences and Management, North-West University, Potchefstroom, South Africa
| | - Folarin A Oguntoyinbo
- A.R. Smith Department of Chemistry and Fermentation Sciences, Appalachian State University, Boone, North Carolina, 28608, USA
| | - Benedikt Warth
- Faculty of Chemistry, Department of Food Chemistry and Toxicology, University of Vienna, Währinger Straße 38, Vienna, 1090, Austria
| | - Chibundu N Ezekiel
- Department of Microbiology, Babcock University, Ogun State, Ilishan Remo, Nigeria
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Ndahetuye JB, Artursson K, Båge R, Ingabire A, Karege C, Djangwani J, Nyman AK, Ongol MP, Tukei M, Persson Y. MILK Symposium review: Microbiological quality and safety of milk from farm to milk collection centers in Rwanda. J Dairy Sci 2021; 103:9730-9739. [PMID: 33076184 DOI: 10.3168/jds.2020-18302] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/04/2020] [Accepted: 07/28/2020] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
The aim of this study was to generate knowledge on the most important milk quality and safety attributes, including somatic cell count (SCC), total bacterial count (TBC), Escherichia coli, Salmonella, and Brucella spp. antibodies and antibiotic residues in milk in the chain from farm to milk collection center (MCC) in Rwanda. In addition, we investigated farm and management factors associated with high TBC, SCC, and Salmonella counts. Raw milk was sampled at the farm and MCC levels. Milk samples were taken from dairy farms linked to 2 selected MCC in each of the 4 provinces in Rwanda. In total, 406 bulk milk samples from 406 farms and 32 bulk milk samples from 8 MCC were collected and analyzed. Farm milk average SCC varied between 180 × 103 and 920 × 103 cells/mL, whereas average SCC in milk samples at MCC varied between 170 × 103 and 1,700 × 103 cells/mL. The mean milk TBC of different farms per MCC varied between 1.1 × 106 and 1.6 × 107 cfu/mL, whereas in milk samples from different MCC, the mean TBC ranged between 5.3 × 105 and 2.4 × 108 cfu/mL. The high TBC in milk from MCC suggests proliferation or recontamination of milk by bacteria during transportation. Escherichia coli was detected in 35 of 385 farm milk samples and ranged between 5 cfu/mL and 1.1 × 104 cfu/mL, whereas in milk samples from the MCC, it was detected in 20 out 32 samples varying between 5 cfu/mL and 2.9 × 103 cfu/mL. Overall farm prevalence of Salmonella in milk samples was 14%, but no milk samples from MCC were positive for Salmonella. Five out of 22 bulk milk samples from different MCC were positive for Brucella spp. antibodies, but no Brucella antibodies were detected in milk samples from farms. The prevalence of antibiotic residues as detected by the Delvotest SP NT (DSM, Delft, the Netherlands) was low: 1.3% in farm milk samples and undetected in MCC milk samples. Lack of a separate milking area was associated with high TBC, whereas offering of supplemental feeds, keeping data of past diseases, and an unhygienic milking area were associated with high SCC. Lack of teat washing before milking was the only factor associated with Salmonella contamination of milk at the farm level. This study indicated high TBC and SCC of milk samples at the farm and MCC levels, which indicates both microbial contamination of milk and poor udder health in dairy cows. Presence of E. coli, Salmonella, and Brucella antibodies in milk was common, but finding antibiotic residues in milk was uncommon.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jean Baptiste Ndahetuye
- Reproduction, Department of Clinical Sciences, Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences (SLU) Uppsala Sweden, PO Box 7054, SE-750 07 Uppsala, Sweden; College of Agriculture, Animal Sciences and Veterinary Medicine, University of Rwanda, Musanze, Rwanda, PO Box 210, Musanze, Rwanda.
| | - Karin Artursson
- National Veterinary Institute, SE-751 89 Uppsala, Sweden; Department of Biomedical Sciences and Veterinary Public Health, Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences (SLU), PO Box 7036, SE-750 07 Uppsala, Sweden
| | - Renée Båge
- Reproduction, Department of Clinical Sciences, Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences (SLU) Uppsala Sweden, PO Box 7054, SE-750 07 Uppsala, Sweden
| | - Alice Ingabire
- College of Agriculture, Animal Sciences and Veterinary Medicine, University of Rwanda, Musanze, Rwanda, PO Box 210, Musanze, Rwanda
| | - Callixte Karege
- College of Agriculture, Animal Sciences and Veterinary Medicine, University of Rwanda, Musanze, Rwanda, PO Box 210, Musanze, Rwanda
| | - Juvenal Djangwani
- College of Agriculture, Animal Sciences and Veterinary Medicine, University of Rwanda, Musanze, Rwanda, PO Box 210, Musanze, Rwanda
| | | | - Martin Patrick Ongol
- College of Agriculture, Animal Sciences and Veterinary Medicine, University of Rwanda, Musanze, Rwanda, PO Box 210, Musanze, Rwanda
| | - Michael Tukei
- College of Agriculture, Animal Sciences and Veterinary Medicine, University of Rwanda, Musanze, Rwanda, PO Box 210, Musanze, Rwanda
| | - Ylva Persson
- National Veterinary Institute, SE-751 89 Uppsala, Sweden
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Byaruhanga J, Odua F, Ssebunya Y, Aketch O, Tayebwa DS, Rwego IB, Vudriko P. Comparison of Tick Control and Antibiotic Use Practices at Farm Level in Regions of High and Low Acaricide Resistance in Uganda. Vet Med Int 2020; 2020:4606059. [PMID: 32908661 PMCID: PMC7474386 DOI: 10.1155/2020/4606059] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/12/2019] [Revised: 03/19/2020] [Accepted: 07/01/2020] [Indexed: 11/25/2022] Open
Abstract
Uganda has experienced tick acaricide resistance in the livestock sector. With increase in incidence of tick-borne diseases (TBDs), use of antibiotics for control of TBDs and other opportunistic diseases has raisedserious concerns. The purpose of this study was to compare the farmers' tick control and antibiotic use practices on farms in regions of low (LARA) and high (HARA) tick acaricide resistance in Uganda, determine the prevalence of antibiotic residues in milk from both regions, and identify factors associated with antibiotic residues in milk. One representative district was selected from each region from which 10 farms were randomly selected. Delvotest SP-NT® test kit was used to detect antibiotic residues in milk. Half-body tick counts and acaricide efficacy tests were performed. Majority (70%) of HARA's respondents reported a corresponding increase in a monthly incidence of TBDs with an average of 3.2 cases of TBDs treated per farm compared to 0.2 cases in LARA. East Coast fever (ECF) was identified as the most common TBD in both regions, though cases of coinfection were more common in HARA. Half of HARA's respondents reported a corresponding increase in the use of antibiotics on their farms due to tick resistance compared to LARA. Antibiotics were the most used drugs on farms in both regions with oxytetracycline being the commonly used antibiotic. Ticks from HARA were resistant to deltamethrin, amitraz, and coformulation (chlorpyriphos and cypermethrin) while resistance against deltamethrin was confirmed in LARA. HARA farms had a significantly higher prevalence of antibiotic residues (21.25%) in raw milk than in LARA (4%) farms (p < 0.05). Acaricide resistance and practice of reading drug use instructions were significantly associated with antibiotic residues in milk at farm level. Overall, the study provides vital information linking acaricide resistance to antibiotic use practices, consequently leading to antibiotic residues in milk.
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Affiliation(s)
- Joseph Byaruhanga
- Research Center for Tropical Diseases and Vector Control, Department of Veterinary Pharmacy, Clinics and Comparative Medicine, School of Veterinary Medicine and Animal Resources, College of Veterinary Medicine, Animal Resources and Biosecurity, Makerere University, Kampala, Uganda
| | - Fred Odua
- Research Center for Tropical Diseases and Vector Control, Department of Veterinary Pharmacy, Clinics and Comparative Medicine, School of Veterinary Medicine and Animal Resources, College of Veterinary Medicine, Animal Resources and Biosecurity, Makerere University, Kampala, Uganda
| | - Yvette Ssebunya
- Division of Veterinary Regulation and Inspection, Department of Animal Health, Ministry of Agriculture, Animal Industry and Fisheries, Entebbe, Uganda
| | - Olivia Aketch
- Research Center for Tropical Diseases and Vector Control, Department of Veterinary Pharmacy, Clinics and Comparative Medicine, School of Veterinary Medicine and Animal Resources, College of Veterinary Medicine, Animal Resources and Biosecurity, Makerere University, Kampala, Uganda
| | - Dickson Stuart Tayebwa
- Research Center for Tropical Diseases and Vector Control, Department of Veterinary Pharmacy, Clinics and Comparative Medicine, School of Veterinary Medicine and Animal Resources, College of Veterinary Medicine, Animal Resources and Biosecurity, Makerere University, Kampala, Uganda
| | - Innocent B. Rwego
- One Health Division, Department of Veterinary Population Medicine, College of Veterinary Medicine, St. Paul, Falcon Heights, MN 55108, USA
- Department of Biosecurity, Ecosystems and Veterinary Public Health, College of Veterinary Medicine, Animal Resources and Biosecurity (COVAB), Makerere University, Kampala, Uganda
| | - Patrick Vudriko
- Research Center for Tropical Diseases and Vector Control, Department of Veterinary Pharmacy, Clinics and Comparative Medicine, School of Veterinary Medicine and Animal Resources, College of Veterinary Medicine, Animal Resources and Biosecurity, Makerere University, Kampala, Uganda
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Iskandar K, Molinier L, Hallit S, Sartelli M, Catena F, Coccolini F, Craig Hardcastle T, Roques C, Salameh P. Drivers of Antibiotic Resistance Transmissionin Low- and Middle-Income Countriesfrom a "One Health" Perspective-A Review. Antibiotics (Basel) 2020; 9:E372. [PMID: 32630353 PMCID: PMC7400606 DOI: 10.3390/antibiotics9070372] [Citation(s) in RCA: 52] [Impact Index Per Article: 13.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/01/2020] [Revised: 06/23/2020] [Accepted: 06/26/2020] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Antibiotic resistance is an ecosystem problem threatening the interrelated human-animalenvironmenthealth under the "One Health" framework. Resistant bacteria arising in onegeographical area can spread via cross-reservoir transmission to other areas worldwide either bydirect exposure or through the food chain and the environment. Drivers of antibiotic resistance arecomplex and multi-sectoral particularly in Lower- and Middle-income countries. These includeinappropriate socio-ecological behaviors; poverty; overcrowding; lack of surveillance systems; foodsupply chain safety issues; highly contaminated waste effluents; and loose rules and regulations. Inorder to examine the drivers of antibiotic resistance from a "one health" perspective, a literaturereview was conducted on three databases including PubMed, Medline and Google Scholar. A totalof 485 studies of potential relevance were selected, out of which 182 were included in this review.Results have shown that the aforementioned market failures are the leading cause for the negativeexternality of antibiotic resistance that extends in scope from the individual to the global ecosystem.Incremental and sustainable global actions can make the change, however, the problem willcontinue to prevail if governments do not prioritize the "One health" approach and if individual'saccountability is still denied in a world struggling with profound socio-economic problems.
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Affiliation(s)
- Katia Iskandar
- Department of Mathématiques Informatique et Télécommunications, Université Toulouse III, Paul Sabatier, INSERM, UMR 1027, F-31000 Toulouse, France
- INSPECT-LB: Institut National de Santé Publique, d’Épidémiologie Clinique et de Toxicologie-Liban, Beirut 6573-14, Lebanon; (S.H.); (P.S.)
- Faculty of Pharmacy, Lebanese University, Beirut 1106, Lebanon
| | - Laurent Molinier
- Department of Medical Information, Centre Hospitalier Universitaire, INSERM, UMR 1027, Université Paul Sabatier Toulouse III, F-31000 Toulouse, France;
| | - Souheil Hallit
- INSPECT-LB: Institut National de Santé Publique, d’Épidémiologie Clinique et de Toxicologie-Liban, Beirut 6573-14, Lebanon; (S.H.); (P.S.)
- Faculty of Medicine and Medical Sciences, Holy Spirit University of Kaslik (USEK), Jounieh P.O. Box 446, Lebanon
| | - Massimo Sartelli
- Department of surgery, University of Macerata, 62100 Macerata, Italy;
| | - Fausto Catena
- Department of Emergency Surgery, Parma Maggiore Hospital, 43126 Parma, Italy;
| | - Federico Coccolini
- Department of General, Emergency and Trauma Surgery, Cisanello University Hospital, 56100 Pisa, Italy;
| | - Timothy Craig Hardcastle
- Department of Trauma service, Inkosi Albert Luthuli Central Hospital, Durban 4091, South Africa;
- Department of Surgery, Nelson Mandela School of Clinical Medicine, University of KwaZulu-Natal, Congela, Durban 4041, South Africa
| | - Christine Roques
- Departement of Bioprocédés et Systèmes Microbiens, Laboratoire de Génie Chimique, Université Paul Sabatier Toulouse III, UMR 5503, 31330 Toulouse, France;
- Department of Bactériologie-Hygiène, Centre Hospitalier Universitaire, Hôpital Purpan, 31330 Toulouse, France
| | - Pascale Salameh
- INSPECT-LB: Institut National de Santé Publique, d’Épidémiologie Clinique et de Toxicologie-Liban, Beirut 6573-14, Lebanon; (S.H.); (P.S.)
- Faculty of Pharmacy, Lebanese University, Beirut 1106, Lebanon
- Faculty of Public Health, Lebanese University, Beirut 1103, Lebanon
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Onyinye Stella OI, Vivienne Ezenduka E, John Anaelom N. Screening for tylosin and other antimicrobial residues in fresh and fermented (nono) cow milk in Delta state, South-South, Nigeria. Vet World 2020; 13:458-464. [PMID: 32367950 PMCID: PMC7183462 DOI: 10.14202/vetworld.2020.458-464] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/04/2019] [Accepted: 01/27/2020] [Indexed: 11/22/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND AND AIM Milk is a food that contains almost all the essential nutrients needed for growth and maintenance for both young and old animals and man. Since quite nutritious and in high demand, dairy products should be free of both chemical and biological contaminants. Unfortunately, antibiotics used in the treatment of infectious diseases in dairy cattle are often seen in their products if withdrawal periods of those drugs are not observed before milking. This study aimed to detect the presence of antibiotics and the level of tylosin in fresh and fermented (nono) milk from cows in Delta state, Nigeria. MATERIALS AND METHODS Two hundred and five samples comprising 126 fresh milk and 79 fermented milk (nono) were sampled from Kwale, Ozoro, and Oleh representing one senatorial district of Delta state, South-South Nigeria. They were screened for the presence of tylosin and other antimicrobial residues using four-plate test and tylosin was confirmed with high-performance liquid chromatography. RESULTS Antibiotic residues were obtained in 76% and 85% of fresh milk and nono, respectively. Tylosin residue was also detected in 24% fresh milk and 11% nono samples at mean concentrations of 14.64±0.69 µg/l and 7.97±0.23 µg/l, respectively. The mean concentrations of tylosin from both milk types were below the recommended maximum residue limit (MRL) of 50 µg/l in dairy. CONCLUSION High prevalence of antimicrobial residues in fresh milk and nono shows that consumers in the study area are predisposed to health hazards due to the presence of residues of different antibiotics in fresh milk and nono. Although tylosin was confirmed in both milk products, the mean concentrations were below the MRL. However, it is still very vital to resort to the observance of withdrawal periods and avoid gross misuse of antimicrobials. It is also necessary to emphasize the need for effective prevention of infectious diseases and most importantly create awareness and establish a national antibiotic residue monitoring program in Nigeria.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Ekene Vivienne Ezenduka
- Department of Veterinary Public Health and Preventive Medicine, University of Nigeria, Nsukka, Nigeria
| | - Nwanta John Anaelom
- Department of Veterinary Public Health and Preventive Medicine, University of Nigeria, Nsukka, Nigeria
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Gwandu SH, Nonga HE, Mdegela RH, Katakweba AS, Suleiman TS, Ryoba R. Assessment of Raw Cow Milk Quality in Smallholder Dairy Farms in Pemba Island Zanzibar, Tanzania. Vet Med Int 2018; 2018:1031726. [PMID: 29721257 PMCID: PMC5867610 DOI: 10.1155/2018/1031726] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/28/2017] [Accepted: 01/24/2018] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Milk quality depends on the physicochemical characteristics, hygienic standards, and nutritional quality; however, animal husbandry practices, unhygienic harvesting and processing, may affect its quality. A cross-sectional study was conducted between August 2010 and July 2011 to assess the hygiene of cow milk production environment, raw cow milk physicochemical characteristics, and microbial quality and estimate the prevalence of antimicrobial residues using standard methods in Pemba Island. A total of 98 raw cow milk samples from selected smallholder dairy farms were analyzed, and the judgement on the quality used the East African Standards. Generally, the milk production chain was done under the unhygienic condition, and dirty plastic containers were used for collection and storage of milk under room temperature. Some milk samples had abnormal colour (2.1%), abnormal smell (7.1%), and pH below normal (35.7%), clotted on alcohol test (9.2%), and had the specific gravity below normal (13.3%). All the milk samples had mineral contents within the recommended range. Milk samples with butterfat below normal were 29.6%, while 14.3% had total solids below recommended values. The mean total viable count (TVC) of milk container surfaces was 9.7 ± 10.5 log CFU/100 cm2, while total coliform count (TCC) was 7.8 ± 8.5 log CFU/100 cm2. Up to 55.1% of milk had TVC beyond the recommended levels. The milk mean TVC was 11.02 ± 11.6 log CFU/ml and TCC was 6.7 ± 7.3 log CFU/ml. Up to 26.5% of milk samples had the TCC beyond levels. Results on physicochemical characteristics and nutritional analysis show that the raw cow milk in Pemba Island is of inferior quality. Microbiological results of this study imply heavy contaminations of milk. Antimicrobial residues were detected in 83% of the samples and most of them were from Wete District. Unhygienic milk production chain accelerates microbial contaminations, and antimicrobial residues in milk are a big problem that needs urgent attention from the responsible authority.
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Affiliation(s)
- S. H. Gwandu
- Ministry of Education and Vocational Training, P.O. Box 90543, Dar es Salaam, Tanzania
| | - H. E. Nonga
- Department of Veterinary Medicine and Public Health, College of Veterinary Medicine and Biomedical Sciences, Sokoine University of Agriculture, P.O. Box 3021, Chuo Kikuu, Morogoro, Tanzania
| | - R. H. Mdegela
- Department of Veterinary Medicine and Public Health, College of Veterinary Medicine and Biomedical Sciences, Sokoine University of Agriculture, P.O. Box 3021, Chuo Kikuu, Morogoro, Tanzania
| | - A. S. Katakweba
- Pest Management Centre, Sokoine University of Agriculture, P.O. Box 3010, Chuo Kikuu, Morogoro, Tanzania
| | - T. S. Suleiman
- Department of Veterinary Services, Ministry of Livestock and Fisheries, P.O. Box 295, Zanzibar, Tanzania
| | - R. Ryoba
- Department of Animal Science and Production, Sokoine University of Agriculture, P.O. Box 3004, Chuo Kikuu, Morogoro, Tanzania
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Ondieki GK, Ombui JN, Obonyo M, Gura Z, Githuku J, Orinde AB, Gikunju JK. Antimicrobial residues and compositional quality of informally marketed raw cow milk, Lamu West Sub-County, Kenya, 2015. Pan Afr Med J 2017; 28:5. [PMID: 30197734 PMCID: PMC6125110 DOI: 10.11604/pamj.supp.2017.28.1.9279] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/06/2016] [Accepted: 01/19/2017] [Indexed: 11/11/2022] Open
Abstract
Introduction unadulterated milk, free of antimicrobial residues is important for industrial processing and consumers’ health. Antimicrobial residues in foods of animal origin can cause adverse public health effects like drug resistance and hypersensitivity. Milk produced in Lamu West sub-county is sold raw directly to consumers. We estimated the compositional quality and prevalence of antimicrobial residues in informally marketed raw cow milk in Lamu West Sub-County, Kenya. Methods we randomly recruited 152 vendors and 207 farmers from four randomly selected urban centers in a cross-sectional study and interviewed them using a pretested standardized questionnaire. A100-ml raw milk sample was aseptically collected from each vendor and farm and tested for antimicrobial residues using Charm Blue Yellow II kit following the European Union Maximum Residue Limits (EU-MRLs) while an Ekomilk® Analyzer was used to measure compositional quality where samples with either solid not fat (SNF) < 8.5 or added water ≥ 0.01% or both were considered adulterated. We analyzed data using univariate analysis and unconditional logistic regression to calculate odds ratios (OR) and 95% confidence intervals (CI). Results thirty-two of the 207 (15.5%) samples from farmers and 28 (18.4%) of the 152 samples from vendors tested positive for antimicrobial residues. Thirty-six (17.4 %) samples from farmers and 38 (25.0%) from vendors were found to be adulterated with water. Farmers’ awareness of the danger of consuming milk with antimicrobial residues and farmers having training on good milking practices were protective against selling milk with antimicrobial residues (adjusted OR and 95% CI 0.20, 0.07-0.55 and 0.33, 0.11-0.99, respectively). Conclusion the antimicrobial residues above EU MRLs and adulteration of raw marketed cow milk observed in this study provide evidence for routine testing of marketed milk and educating farmers to observe antimicrobial withdrawal period.
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Affiliation(s)
- George Kiage Ondieki
- Field Epidemiology and Laboratory Training Program Kenya (K-FELTP), Kenya.,Jomo Kenyatta University of Agriculture and Technology, Institute of Tropical Medicine and Infectious Diseases (ITROMID), Department of Medical Laboratory Science, Kenya
| | - Jackson Nyarongi Ombui
- Department of Public Health, Pharmacology and Toxicology, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Nairobi, Kenya
| | - Mark Obonyo
- Field Epidemiology and Laboratory Training Program Kenya (K-FELTP), Kenya
| | - Zeinab Gura
- Field Epidemiology and Laboratory Training Program Kenya (K-FELTP), Kenya
| | - Jane Githuku
- Field Epidemiology and Laboratory Training Program Kenya (K-FELTP), Kenya
| | - Austine Bitek Orinde
- Zoonotic Disease Unit, Ministry of Agriculture, Livestock Development and Fisheries, Kenya
| | - Joseph Kangangi Gikunju
- Jomo Kenyatta University of Agriculture and Technology, Institute of Tropical Medicine and Infectious Diseases (ITROMID), Department of Medical Laboratory Science, Kenya
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Contamination Levels and Identification of Bacteria in Milk Sampled from Three Regions of Tanzania: Evidence from Literature and Laboratory Analyses. Vet Med Int 2017; 2017:9096149. [PMID: 28948059 PMCID: PMC5602642 DOI: 10.1155/2017/9096149] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/28/2017] [Accepted: 06/27/2017] [Indexed: 01/28/2023] Open
Abstract
Milk in Tanzania has been reported to be contaminated with large number of bacteria. This is because (1) milk is obtained from animals with unknown health status, (2) good milking and handling practices are to a large extent not observed, and (3) marketing and distribution are done in informal channels. These factors are potential causes of milk-borne diseases and milk quality loss. The aim of this study was to assess nutritional risks in milk as reported in literature over a period of 20 years and through analyses of samples collected during the present study. The issues highlighted in literature were high bacteria and coliform counts exceeding standard levels in East Africa, prevalence of bacteria and drug residues in milk, and adulteration. Based on performed analyses, total bacterial count 1.0 × 107 colony forming units per millilitre (cfu/ml) and total coliform count 1.1 × 107 cfu/ml, also greater than recommended levels, were found. Ten bacteria types were isolated from milk samples (five, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Listeria monocytogenes, Listeria innocua, Listeria ivanovii, and Klebsiella spp. are reported in Tanzanian for the first time). Two drugs tetracycline and sulphur were detected. Therefore, it is worth noting that integrated research is needed to evaluate the situation and address these challenges.
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Assessment of sulphonamides and tetracyclines antibiotic residue contaminants in rural and peri urban dairy value chains in Kenya. INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF FOOD CONTAMINATION 2017. [DOI: 10.1186/s40550-017-0050-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/10/2022]
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Ntuli V, Njage P, Buys E. Characterization of Escherichia coli and other Enterobacteriaceae in producer-distributor bulk milk. J Dairy Sci 2016; 99:9534-9549. [DOI: 10.3168/jds.2016-11403] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/05/2016] [Accepted: 08/18/2016] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
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A participant – Led programme for field veterinary training to identify bacteriological quality of milk from the farmer to the retail outlet. Food Control 2016. [DOI: 10.1016/j.foodcont.2015.11.012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
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Ngasala JUB, Nonga HE, Mtambo MMA. Assessment of raw milk quality and stakeholders' awareness on milk-borne health risks in Arusha City and Meru District, Tanzania. Trop Anim Health Prod 2015; 47:927-32. [PMID: 25863955 DOI: 10.1007/s11250-015-0810-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/12/2014] [Accepted: 03/30/2015] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
Abstract
A cross-sectional study was conducted to assess the quality of raw milk and stakeholders' awareness on milk-borne health risks and factors for poor milk hygiene in Arusha City and Meru District, Tanzania between October and December 2012. A total of 105 smallholder dairy farmers, milk vendors and milk retailers were interviewed, and milk samples were collected for physical, microbial and antibiotic residue analysis using standard procedures. Questionnaire results indicated high level of awareness (94 %) that drinking raw milk can predispose consumers to milk-borne diseases; nevertheless, 65 % of respondents consumed raw milk. Physicochemical analyses showed some of the milk had sediments (20 %), bad smell (21 %) and had clotted on alcohol test (27 %). About 36 % of milk samples had pH below 6.6, and 25 % had specific gravity below 1.028 g/ml. The mean total viable count (TVC) of milk from vendors is significantly (P < 0.05) higher than that from retailers and smallholder dairy farmers. Generally, 65 % of milk samples assessed had a higher TVC than the level recommended (2.0 × 10(5) cfu/ml) by the East African Community (EAC) standards. Up to 91 % of the milk samples had bacterial growth that included Eschericia coli (66 %), Staphylococcus aureus (33 %), Corynebacterium (11 %) and Pseudomonas (10 %). All smallholder dairy farmers were aware of drug residues, but majority (57 %) were unaware of human health effects caused by veterinary drug residues in milk. Up to 97 % of respondents reported to comply with drug withdrawal periods. This possibly led to all milk samples analysed to be negative from detectable levels of antibiotic residues. It is concluded that the level of awareness on milk quality is high, although practices associated with milking and post-harvest handling predispose milk to bacterial contamination which is a public health risk to milk consumers.
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Affiliation(s)
- J Uma Bukuku Ngasala
- Department of Veterinary Medicine and Public Health, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Sokoine University of Agriculture, P. O. Box 3021, Morogoro, Tanzania
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Donkor ES, Newman MJ, Tay SC, Dayie NT, Bannerman E, Olu-Taiwo M. Investigation into the risk of exposure to antibiotic residues contaminating meat and egg in Ghana. Food Control 2011. [DOI: 10.1016/j.foodcont.2010.11.014] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/18/2022]
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Addo KK, Mensah GI, Aning KG, Nartey N, Nipah GK, Bonsu C, Akyeh ML, Smits HL. Microbiological quality and antibiotic residues in informally marketed raw cow milk within the coastal savannah zone of Ghana. Trop Med Int Health 2010; 16:227-32. [PMID: 21070512 DOI: 10.1111/j.1365-3156.2010.02666.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
Abstract
OBJECTIVES To investigate the microbiological quality and the presence of antibiotic residues in raw cow milk and in some indigenous milk products produced and marketed by the informal sector in the coastal savannah zone of Ghana. METHODS Milk samples were aseptically collected from 224 kraals and samples of 26 indigenous milk products were purchased from processors and retailers. Total plate counts, total coliform counts and the presence of Escherichia coli and E. coli O157:H7 were determined in all 250 samples. Milk samples were also tested for antibiotic residues. RESULTS Total plate counts exceeded 10⁵ CFU/ml in 45.2% of the samples while coliforms exceeded 10³ CFU/ml in 66.0% and E. coli was detected in 11.2%. E. coli was present in raw cow milk but not in the indigenous products and all E. coli isolates were negative for E. coli O157:H7. Antibiotic residues were detected in 3.1% of the raw cow milk samples. CONCLUSION Bulk milk contains unacceptable levels of hygiene indicators and antibiotic residues and is a potential source of milk-borne infections. The detection of E. coli and antibiotic residues raises public health concerns about the safety of fresh unpasteurized cow milk in the coastal savannah zone of Ghana and calls for improved farm hygiene, the need for milk pasteurization and the sensible use of antibiotics in the milk industry.
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Affiliation(s)
- K K Addo
- Department of Bacteriology, Noguchi Memorial Institute for Medical Research, University of Ghana, Legon, Ghana.
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Nonga HE, Simon C, Karimuribo ED, Mdegela RH. Assessment of antimicrobial usage and residues in commercial chicken eggs from smallholder poultry keepers in Morogoro municipality, Tanzania. Zoonoses Public Health 2009; 57:339-44. [PMID: 19486498 DOI: 10.1111/j.1863-2378.2008.01226.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
Occurrence of antimicrobial residues in commercial chicken eggs was determined in Morogoro municipality between January and February 2007. Twenty smallholder farmers were interviewed on the types of antimicrobials, reasons of use and their awareness on antimicrobial withdrawal period. Seventy egg samples were collected for qualitative antimicrobial drug residues analysis by use of agar well diffusion and Delvotest SP assays. It was found that farmers use antimicrobial drugs as prophylaxis and treatment of common chicken diseases namely fowl typhoid (85%), infectious bursa disease (Gumboro) (65%) infectious coryza (65%), collibacilosis (55%), coccidiosis (54%), Newcastle disease (50%), helminthosis (20%) and fowl pox (15%). Antimicrobials accounted for 85% of the drugs commonly used. It was also found that 65% of the farmers treat their chicken themselves. The common drugs were oxytetracycline (75%), egg booster (50%), amprolium (35%), sulphamethoxypyridazine (35%), sulphanilamide (25%), chlortetracyclines (10%), chloramphenicol (10%), sulphadiazine-trimethoprim (20%), duoxycycline (20%), sulphadiazine (25%) and flumequine (10%). Eighty per cent of the farmers had knowledge on antimicrobial withdrawal period sold eggs before withdrawal period and almost 85% were unaware of possible effects of antimicrobial residues in humans. All 70 eggs were positive to antimicrobial residues by Delvotest kit, but 21.4% positive with agar well diffusion test. It was concluded that the presence of antimicrobial residues in table eggs could be of public health significance to the egg consumers in Morogoro municipality.
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Affiliation(s)
- H E Nonga
- Department of Veterinary Medicine and Public Health, Sokoine University of Agriculture, Morogoro, Tanzania.
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