Embryotoxic and Teratogenic Effects of Tartrazine in Rats

Evaluation of bone development and organs in rat fetuses exposed to tartrazine

Tartrazine finds widespread application in the realms of alimentation, pharmaceuticals, cosmetic formulations, and textile manufacturing. Tartrazine has a negative effect on human health such as hyperactivity, allergies and asthma in children. Substances such as tartrazine might effect the embryo in a kind of aspects, containing physical or mental disorders, and a decrease in the child's intellectual memory. In this study, Sprague dawley female rats, 70-100 days old, weighing 250-300 g, with confirmed pregnancy, were divided into two groups of 5: control and tartrazine group. Rats were sacrificed on the 20th day and heart, lung, kidney and liver tissues were removed from the fetuses. The effect of tartrazine on fetal bone development was assessed by double skeletal staining, histological analysis on organs, and IL-6, IL-1β, TNF-α, and TRPM2 gene levels. It has been observed that tartrazine, which is frequently used as a food dye, damages important fetal tissues such as liver, kidney, lung and heart. A statistically meaningful reduce was observed in the total length, total area, bone length and bone area values of the limb bones in the tartrazine group compared to the control group (p < 0.05). It was observed that the mRNA levels of IL-6, IL-1β, TNF-α and TRPM2 genes in the livers of the fetuses changed compared to the control group (p < 0.05). In this study on the use of tartrazine during pregnancy, it was observed that both organs and bone development were damaged. More studies are needed on the effects of tartrazine.

The food dye Tartrazine disrupts vascular formation both in zebrafish larvae and in human primary endothelial cells

Tartrazine (E102) is a controversial coloring agent whose potential impacts on human health are not fully understood. Our study reveals the vascular disrupting effects of tartrazine (TTZ) on developing zebrafish embryos in vivo and on human umbilical vein endothelial cells in vitro. The dye was shown to cause dose-dependent hemorrhages in zebrafish embryos. Analyzing transgenic zebrafish harboring fluorescent endothelial cells revealed that TTZ treatment disrupted cell organization into vessels in both the sub-intestinal vein and the brain area. Assays on human umbilical vein endothelial cells demonstrated that TTZ inhibited endothelial proliferation, tube formation, and migration in a dose-dependent manner. Taken together, our results indicate for the first time that TTZ can affect endothelial cell properties, possibly by disrupting Rho family GTPase pathways which control the cytoskeleton. Our finding provides a credible explanation for many reported human health impacts and offers prospective applications for biomedicine.

Safety of tartrazine in the food industry and potential protective factors

Tartrazine belongs to the colors raising significant concerns regarding consumer safety at low doses relevant for real-life human exposure. Scientific literature continues to grow after the European Food Safety Authority (EFSA) re-evaluation in 2009 and the Joint FAO/WHO Expert Committee on Food Additives (JECFA) in 2016. Therefore, this review aims to collect recent knowledge on the toxicity issues of tartrazine, namely its genotoxicity, cytotoxicity, carcinogenicity, reproductive, developmental, and neurotoxicity, alterations of blood biochemical parameters, and hematotoxicity. The second part of the review covers the potential protective factors against the toxic effects of tartrazine based on the hypothesis of mitigation of oxidative stress induced by the color. The reviewed protective factors are crocin, royal jelly, fish oil, honey, acetylsalicylic acid, black caraway, blackthorn, turmeric, vitamin E, and riboflavin. This review concludes that tartrazine seems safe under the current acceptable daily intake (ADI) and the evidence on the potential protective factors is insufficient to reach any conclusion regarding their use.

Biochemical processes mediating neurotoxicity induced by synthetic food dyes: A review of current evidence

The extensive use of synthetic food dyes in the food industry, primarily due to their durability and cost-effectiveness compared to natural colorants, has raised significant health concerns. Of particular concern are the potential neurotoxic effects of six commonly used synthetic food dyes: Tartrazine (E102/FD&C Yellow No. 5), Erythrosine (E127/FD&C Red No. 3), Brilliant Blue FCF (E133/FD&C Blue No. 1), Allura Red AC (E129/FD&C Red No. 40), Sunset Yellow FCF (E110/FD&C Yellow No. 6), and Indigo Carmine (E132/FD&C Blue No. 2). This review delves into the metabolic pathways and neurotoxicity mechanisms of each dye, highlighting their effects on oxidative stress, neurotransmitter imbalances, mitochondrial dysfunction, and inflammatory responses. The evidence suggests that these dyes can significantly impact brain function and overall neurological health. This review underscores the importance of continued research in this field, as it is crucial to fully comprehend the neurotoxic processes of synthetic food dyes and to inform regulatory decisions that are crucial for safeguarding public health.

Impact of food additives on neurodevelopmental processes in zebrafish (Danio rerio): Exploring circadian clock genes and dopamine system

Assessing the impact of food additives on neurodevelopmental processes extends beyond traditional acute toxicity evaluations to address subtler, long-term effects. This study investigates the impact of common food additives (tartrazine, sunset yellow, sodium benzoate, and aspartame) on neurodevelopment in zebrafish embryos, observed from 18 hours postfertilization (hpf) to 91 days postfertilization (dpf). Results show reduced 96 hpf locomotor activity after aspartame exposure, with elevated additives correlating with decreased heart rates and induced neurodegenerative phenotypes, including bent tails and abnormal pigmentation. Although locomotor activity decreases at 7 days postexposure, a gradual recovery is observed. Transcriptome analysis indicates alterations in clock genes (Cry2 and Per2) and dopamine-related genes (NURR1 and tyrosine hydroxylase) in zebrafish larvae. Dietary additive exposure during embryonic development impacts clock genes, influencing dopamine activity and resulting in neurobehavioral changes. This study underscores potential risks associated with dietary additive exposure during critical developmental stages, warranting reconsideration of consumption guidelines, especially for expectant mothers. Observed neurodevelopmental toxicity, even below recommended levels, emphasizes the importance of safeguarding neurodevelopmental health in early life. Our findings contribute to understanding the neurotoxic effects of dietary additives, emphasizing the necessity of protecting neurodevelopment during vulnerable periods. This study is the first to demonstrate a direct correlation between food additives and the dysregulation of key circadian rhythm and dopaminergic genes in zebrafish, providing new insights into the neurodevelopmental impacts of dietary additives. These findings pave the way for further research into the molecular mechanisms and potential implications for human health.

Synthetic azo-dye, Tartrazine induces neurodevelopmental toxicity via mitochondria-mediated apoptosis in zebrafish embryos

Tartrazine (TZ), or E 102 or C Yellow, is a commonly used azo dye in the food and dyeing industries. Its excessive usage beyond permissible levels threatens human health and the aquatic environment. While previous studies have reported adverse effects such as mutagenicity, carcinogenicity, and reproductive toxicity. Our study aimed to comprehensively evaluate the developmental neurotoxicity of TZ exposure via biochemical and behavioral examinations and explored the underlying mechanism via gene expression analyses. TZ at an environmentally relevant concentration (50 mg/L) significantly induces oxidative stress, altered antioxidant (SOD, CAT and GSH) response, triggered cellular damage (MDA and LDH), and induced neuro-biochemical changes (AChE and NO). Gene expression analyses revealed broad disruptions in genes associated with antioxidant defense (sod1, cat, and gstp1), mitochondrial dysfunction (mfn2, opa1, and fis1),evoked inflammatory response (nfkb, tnfa, and il1b), apoptosis activation (bcl2, bax, and p53), and neural development (bdnf, mbp, and syn2a). Behavioral analysis indicated altered thigmotaxis, touch response, and locomotion depending on the concentration of TZ exposure. Remarkably, the observed effective concentrations were consistent with the permitted levels in food products, highlighting the neurodevelopmental effects of TZ at environmentally relevant concentrations. These findings provide valuable insights into the underlying molecular mechanisms, particularly the role of mitochondria-mediated apoptosis, contributing to TZ-induced neurodevelopmental disorders in vivo.

Preparation, analysis and toxicity characterisation of the redox metabolites of the azo food dye tartrazine

Tartrazine (E102, FD&C Yellow 5) is a vibrant yellow azo dye added to many processed foods. The safety of this ubiquitous chemical has not been fully elucidated, and it has been linked to allergic reactions and ADHD in some individuals. In our study, bacterial species isolated from human stool decolourised tartrazine and, upon exposure to air, a purple compound formed. Tartrazine is known to undergo reduction in the gut to sulfanilic acid and 4-amino-3-carboxy-5-hydroxy-1-(4-sulfophenyl)pyrazole (SCAP). These metabolites and their derivatives are relevant to the toxicology of tartrazine. The toxicity of sulfanilic acid has been studied before, but the oxidative instability of SCAP has previously prevented full characterisation. We have verified the chemical identity of SCAP and confirmed that the purple-coloured oxidation derivative is 4-(3-carboxy-5-hydroxy-1-(4-sulfophenyl)-1H-pyrazol-4-yl)imino-5-oxo-1-(4-sulfophenyl)-4,5-dihydro-1H-pyrazole-3-carboxylic acid (purpurazoic acid, PPA), as proposed by Westöö in 1965. A yellow derivative of SCAP is proposed to be the hydrolysed oxidation product, 4,5-dioxo-1-(4-sulfophenyl)-4,5-dihydro-1H-pyrazole-3-carboxylic acid. SCAP and PPA are moderately toxic to human cells (IC50 89 and 78 μM against HEK-293, respectively), but had no apparent effect on Escherichia coli and Bacillus subtilis bacteria. These results prompt further analyses of the toxicology of tartrazine and its derivatives.

Separation and quantification of Tartrazine (E102) and Brilliant Blue FCF (E133) in green colored foods and beverages

In the present study we investigated the capacities of a panel of 25 solid sorbents represented by layered structures, inorganic oxides and hydroxides, and phyllosilicates, to effectively remove in high yield Tartrazine (E102) and Brilliant Blue FCF (E133) from aqueous solutions, and more notable, green colored food matrices. Quantification of the title compounds have been achieved by HPLC-DAD analyses. Contents of E102 and E133 in real samples were in the range 1.3-36.5 μg/mL and 1.0-20.1 μg/mL, respectively. After a treatment of 1 min., in most cases a complete bleaching of solutions and deep coloring of the solid phase was recorded. The most effective solids to this aim were seen to be aluminium based ayered double hydroxides. In the case of magnesium oxide for E102, and magnesium aluminium D. benzensulfonate SDS 01 H8L and Florisil for E133, a selective adsorption (>99.9 %) of only one dye was observed. The adsorption recorded was strictly dependent on the loading of the sorbent. Related values were 300 mg for the separation of E102 by magnesium oxide from all the five food matrices under investigation, and in the range 200 mg-300 mg for magnesium aluminium D. benzensulfonate SDS 01 H8L and Florisil in the case of E133. The application of Langmuir and Freundlich models suggested that the adsorption may take place in the inner layers of the solids with a favourable thermodynamique outcome. Findings described herein offer the concrete possibility of quantifications of individual dyes in matrices containing more than one food colorant.

The deubiquitinase UCHL1 negatively controls osteoclastogenesis by regulating TAZ/NFATC1 signalling

The ubiquitin‒proteasome system (UPS) plays a key role in maintaining protein homeostasis and bone remodelling. However, the role of deubiquitinating enzymes (DUBs) in bone resorption is still not well defined. Here, we identified the deubiquitinase ubiquitin C-terminal hydrolase 1 (UCHL1) as a negative regulator of osteoclastogenesis by using the GEO database, proteomic analysis, and RNAi. Osteoclast-specific UCHL1 conditional knockout mice exhibited a severe osteoporosis phenotype in an ovariectomized model. Mechanistically, UCHL1 deubiquitinated and stabilized the transcriptional coactivator with PDZ-binding motif (TAZ) at the K46 residue, thereby inhibiting osteoclastogenesis. The TAZ protein underwent K48-linked polyubiquitination, which was degraded by UCHL1. As a substrate of UCHL1, TAZ regulates NFATC1 through a nontranscriptional coactivator function by competing with calcineurin A (CNA) for binding to NFATC1, which inhibits NFATC1 dephosphorylation and nuclear transport to impede osteoclastogenesis. Moreover, overexpression of UCHL1 locally alleviated acute and chronic bone loss. These findings suggest that activating UCHL1 may serve as a novel therapeutic approach targeting bone loss in various bone pathological states.

Development and validation of the HPLC-DAD method for the quantification of 16 synthetic dyes in various foods and the use of liquid anion exchange extraction for qualitative expression determination

Synthetic dyes can cause many health problems, and their use as food additives is rigorously regulated worldwide. Two methods for the determination of synthetic dyes in food are described in this article. The visual qualitative expression method was based on the extraction of synthetic dyes using a liquid anion exchanger (0.01 M solution of trioctylmethylammonium chloride in chloroform). Using this reagent, an optimal transition of 15 anionic synthetic dyes from the aqueous to the organic phase was achieved (R > 99.8%). It was applicable for testing food that must not contain synthetic dyes (wines, juices, etc.) in a very short time (5-10 min). In the case of colouring of the organic phase, identification and quantification was carried out using the HPLC-DAD method described. The rapid and simple method allows for simultaneous determination of 16 synthetic dyes from all food types. The LOD and LOQ ranged from 0.026 to 0.086 μg mL^-1 and from 0.077 to 0.262 μg mL^-1 respectively, and recovery was 83.7-107.5%. Hypothesis: anionic synthetic dyes have hydrophobic properties, as a result they are retained on the non-polar stationary phase of the chromatographic column and are easily extracted from aqueous solutions by liquid anion exchangers.

Acute Oral, Subacute, and Developmental Toxicity Profiling of Naphthalene 2-Yl, 2-Chloro, 5-Nitrobenzoate: Assessment Based on Stress Response, Toxicity, and Adverse Outcome Pathways

The U.S. National Research Council (NRC) introduced new approaches to report toxicity studies. The NRC vision is to explore the toxicity pathways leading to the adverse effects in intact organisms by the exposure of the chemicals. This study examines the toxicity profiling of the naphthalene-2-yl 2-chloro-5-dinitrobenzoate (SF5) by adopting the vision of NRC that moves from traditional animal studies to the cellular pathways. Acute, subacute, and developmental toxicity studies were assayed according to the Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD) guidelines. The stress response pathway, toxicity pathway, and adverse effects outcome parameters were analyzed by using their standard protocols. The results showed that the acute toxicity study increases the liver enzyme levels. In a subacute toxicity study, alkaline phosphatase (ALP) levels were raised in both male and female animals. SF5 significantly increases the normal sperm count in the male animals corresponding to a decrease in the abnormality count. Developmental toxicity showed the normal skeletal and morphological parameters, except little hydrocephalus was observed in developmental toxicity. Doses of 20 mg/kg in males and 4 mg/kg in females showed decreased glutathione (GSH) levels in the kidney and liver. MDA levels were also increased in the kidney and liver. However, histopathological studies did not show any cellular change in these organs. No statistical difference was observed in histamine levels, testosterone, nuclear factor erythroid two-related factor-2 (Nrf2), and nuclear factor-kappa B (NF-κB), which showed no initiation of the stress response, toxicity, and adverse effect pathways. Immunomodulation was observed at low doses in subacute toxicity studies. It was concluded that SF5 did not produce abrupt and high-toxicity levels in organs and biochemical parameters. So, it is safe for further studies.

Extraction and Purification of R-Phycoerythrin Alpha Subunit from the Marine Red Algae Pyropia Yezoensis and Its Biological Activities

Phycoerythrin is a major light-harvesting pigment of red algae and cyanobacteria that is widely used as a fluorescent probe or as a colorant in the food and cosmetic industries. In this study, phycoerythrin was extracted from the red algae Pyropia yezoensis and purified by ammonium sulfate precipitation and various chromatography methods. The purified phycoerythrin was analyzed by UV-visible and fluorescence spectroscopy. The isolated pigment had the typical spectrum of R-phycoerythrin, with a trimmer state with absorbance maxima at 497, 536, and 565 nm. It was further purified and identified by LC-MS/MS and Mascot search. It showed a 100% sequence similarity with the R-phycoerythrin alpha subunit of Pyropia yezoensis. The molecular mass was 17.97 kDa. The antioxidant activity of the purified R-phycoerythrin alpha subunit was analyzed. It showed significant antioxidant activity in ABTS and FRAP assays and had significant cytotoxicity against HepG2 cells.

Modulation of immune functions, inflammatory response, and cytokine production following long-term oral exposure to three food additives; thiabendazole, monosodium glutamate, and brilliant blue in rats

The food additives thiabendazole (TBZ), monosodium glutamate (MSG), and brilliant blue (BB) are commonly used in many daily-consumed food products worldwide. They are widely used in major agricultural and industrial applications. Yet, many of its toxicological aspects are still unclear, especially immune modulation. This research was therefore intended to investigate the effects of male Wistar rats' daily oral exposure for 90 days to TBZ (10 mg/kg b.wt), MSG (20 mg/kg b.wt), or BB (1.2 mg/kg b.wt) on the blood cells, immunity, and inflammatory indicators. The three tested food additives showed varying degrees of hematological alterations. Initially, megaloblastic anemia and thrombocytopenia were evident with the three tested food additives. At the same time, TBZ showed no significant changes in the leukogram element except eosinopenia. MSG induced leukopenia, lymphocytopenia, neutrophilia, and eosinophilia. BB evoked neutrophilia and lymphopenia. The immunoglobins M (IgM) and IgG were significantly reduced with the three tested food additives. In contrast, lysozyme and nitric oxide levels were elevated. A reduced considerably lymphocyte proliferation was detected with TBZ and MSG exposure without affecting the phagocytic activity. Various pathologic disturbances in splenic tissues have been detected. An obvious increase in CD4⁺ but a lessening in CD8⁺ immunolabeling was evident in TBZ and MSG groups. The cytokines, including interferon-gamma, tumor necrosis factor-alpha, and interleukin 1β, 6, 10, and 13, were significantly upregulated in the spleen of rats exposed to TBZ, MSG, and BB. These results concluded that TBZ, MSG, and BB negatively affect hematological parameters, innate and humoral immune functions together with inflammatory responses. TBZ achieved the maximal negative impacts followed by MSG and finally with BB. Given the prevalence of these food additives, TBZ and MSG should be limited to a minimal volume use, or natural food additives should be used instead.

Lufenuron induces reproductive toxicity and genotoxic effects in pregnant albino rats and their fetuses

Insecticides and other agrochemicals have become indispensable components of the agricultural system to ensure a notable increase in crop yield and food production. As a natural consequence, chemical residues result in significantly increased contamination of both terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems. The present study evaluated the teratogenic, genotoxic, and oxidative stress effects of residual-level lufenuron exposure on pregnant rats during the organogenesis gestational period of both mother and fetus. The tested dams were divided into three groups; control (untreated), low-dose group (orally administered with 0.4 mg/kg lufenuron) and high-dose group (orally administered with 0.8 mg/kg lufenuron). The dams of the two treatment groups showed teratogenic abnormalities represented by the asymmetrical distribution of fetuses in both uterine horns, accompanied by observed resorption sites and intensive bleeding in the uterine horns, whereas their fetuses suffered from growth retardation, morphologic malformations, and skeletal deformations. Histologic examination of the liver and kidney tissues obtained from mothers and fetuses after lufenuron exposure revealed multiple histopathologic changes. DNA fragmentation and cell cycle perturbation were also detected in the liver cells of lufenuron-treated pregnant dams and their fetuses through comet assay and flow cytometry, respectively. Moreover, lufenuron-induced oxidative stress in the liver of mothers and fetuses was confirmed by the increased malondialdehyde levels and decreased levels of enzymatic antioxidants (glutathione peroxidase and superoxide dismutase). Taken together, it can be concluded that lufenuron has a great potential in exerting teratogenic, genotoxic, and oxidative stresses on pregnant rats and their fetuses upon chronic exposure to residual levels during the organogenesis gestational period. The obtained results in the present study imply that women and their fetuses may have the same risk.

The long-term oral exposure to titanium dioxide impaired immune functions and triggered cytotoxic and genotoxic impacts in rats

BACKGROUND

Titanium dioxide "TiO₂, E171″ is a widely used food additive that exists in various everyday food products all over the world together with vast applications in cosmetics and industry. However, many toxicological aspects particularly following oral exposure still unclear.

METHODS

Hence, this study was planned to examine the effect of oral exposure of male Wistar rats to two doses of TiO₂ (20 or 40 mg/kg b.wt.) through oral gavage once daily for 90 consecutive days on the blood components, immunity, cytotoxic, and genotoxic indicators.

RESULTS

A dose-dependent leukopenia, eosinophilia, neutrophilia, and thrombocytopenia were noted. Also, the immunoglobins G (IgG) and IgM were significantly elevated in TiO₂ treated rats. The phagocytic activities, lysozyme, nitric oxide, and immunoglobulin levels were significantly depleted following TiO₂ exposure. A significantly reduced lymphocyte proliferation but elevated LDH activity was prominent in TiO₂ treated rats. Different pathological perturbations were observed in both splenic tissue and bone marrow. A marked increase in CD4⁺ and CD8⁺ immunolabeling was evident. A significant increase in the comet variables was recorded in response to the exposure of rats to the increasing level of TiO₂ at both levels.

CONCLUSION

Overall, these results indicated that TiO₂ could induce hematotoxicity, genotoxic, and immunotoxic alterations with exposure for long durations.

Acute effects of tartrazine (E102) exposure on behavior, and histology of land snail Helix aspersa biological model

Introduction. Tartrazine is an azofood additive widely used in the pharmaceu-cal, cosmetic, food, and other industries. Objective. To assess the effects of tartrazineon the attitude to move and to eat, and histological changes in digestive, and renal sys-tem, after an acute treatment on a biological model the snail Helix aspersa. Material and Methods. Snails were exposed orally, and by contact to flour contaminated with this dye for 24 hours. Adult snails were divided into two groups of 20 animals each. The control group fed flour alone. The experimental group was administered orally with flour treated with tartrazine (200mg/g flour). Results. The observation of behaviour revealed inhibitory effects of tartrazine on locomotion, and nutrition of snails. Histolo-gical examination of intestines, hepatopancreas, and kidney of treated animals showed altered tissue structures, with advanced degeneration of digestive tubules, connective tissue, and smooth muscle fibers of the walls surrounding the three organs, in response to tartrazine, compared to controls. Conclusion. This study suggests that acute exposure to tartrazine may lead to disorders in locomotor, and nutritional behavior, in addition to tissue alterations. Therefore, this study on behavior, supported by histological changes in H. Aspersa can be used as potential biomarkers of exposure to other azodyes.

Effect of tartrazine on digestive enzymatic activities: in vivo and in vitro studies

Tartrazine (E102) is a synthetic food coloring, which belongs to the class of mono azo dyes and is known to cause numerous health problems. The current research aimed to evaluate the effect of this food dye on the enzymatic activity of amylase, lipase and proteases after a subchronic ingestion in Swiss mice. Additionally, an in vitro digestion model was used to highlight the relationship between the probable toxicity of tartrazine and the nature of the food ingested. The results show that there were no adverse effects of tartrazine on the body weight gain, and on amylase or lipase activities. However, in the high dose of tartrazine (0.05%) group, a significant decrease in trypsin and chymotrypsin enzymatic activities were observed. Regarding the in vitro digestion model, our findings show that there were no changes in the trypsin and chymotrypsin enzymatic activities either using 7.5 or 75 mg of tartrazine mixed with rice, butter or milk. We conclude that excessive consumption of tartrazine appears to alter the enzymatic activity of proteases in vivo which may have deleterious consequences on digestion. Even thought the dose close to the acceptable daily intake does not affect those activities, a strict control of tartrazine dose in high-consumption foods especially among children is an indispensable task.

Use of Phycobiliproteins from Atacama Cyanobacteria as Food Colorants in a Dairy Beverage Prototype

The interest of the food industry in replacing artificial dyes with natural pigments has grown recently. Cyanobacterial phycobiliproteins (PBPs), phycoerythrin (PE) and phycocyanin (PC), are colored water-soluble proteins that are used as natural pigments. Additionally, red PE and blue PC have antioxidant capabilities. We have formulated a new food prototype based on PBP-fortified skim milk. PBPs from Andean cyanobacteria were purified by ammonium sulfate precipitation, ion-exchange chromatography, and freeze-drying. The stability of PE and PC was evaluated by changes in their absorption spectra at various pH (1–14) and temperature (0–80 °C) values. Purified PBPs showed chemical stability under pH values of 5 to 8 and at temperatures between 0 and 50 °C. The antioxidant property of PBP was confirmed by ABTS (2,2′-Azino-bis (3-ethylbenzothiazoline-6-sulfonic acid) diammonium salt radical ion scavenging, and FRAP (Ferric Antioxidant Power) assays. The absence of PBP toxicity against Caenorhabditis elegans was confirmed up to 1 mg PBP/mL. Skim milk fortified with PE obtained a higher score after sensory tests. Thus, a functional food based on skim milk-containing cyanobacterial PBPs can be considered an innovative beverage for the food industry. PBPs were stable at an ultra-high temperature (138 °C and 4 s). PBP stability improvements by changes at its primary structure and the incorporation of freeze-dried PBPs into sachets should be considered as alternatives for their future commercialization.

Toxicity Assessment of 4 Azo Dyes in Zebrafish Embryos

Azo dyes are used widely as color additives in food, drugs, and cosmetics; hence, there is an increasing concern about their safety and possible health hazards. In the present study, we chose 4 azo dyes tartrazine, Sunset Yellow, amaranth, and Allura red and evaluated their developmental toxicity on zebrafish embryos. At concentration levels of 5 to 50 mM, we found that azo dyes can induce hatching difficulty and developmental abnormalities such as cardiac edema, decreased heart rate, yolk sac edema, and spinal defects including spinal curvature and tail distortion. Exposure to 100 mM of each azo dye was completely embryolethal. The median lethal concentration (LC50), median effective concentration (EC50), and teratogenic index (TI) were calculated for each azo dye at 72 hours postfertilization. For tartrazine, the LC50 was 47.10 mM and EC50 value was at 42.66 mM with TI ratio of 1.10. For Sunset Yellow, the LC50 was 38.93 mM and EC50 value was at 29.81 mM with TI ratio of 1.31. For amaranth, the LC50 was 39.86 mM and EC50 value was at 31.94 mM with TI ratio of 1.25. For Allura red, the LC50 was 47.42 mM and EC50 value was 40.05 mM with TI ratio of 1.18. This study reports the developmental toxicity of azo dyes in zebrafish embryos at concentrations higher than the expected human exposures from consuming food and drugs containing azo dyes.

Perinatal Exposure to Tartrazine Triggers Oxidative Stress and Neurobehavioral Alterations in Mice Offspring

The use of synthetic azo dyes as coloring agents in food products has dramatically increased. This study evaluated the effect of perinatal exposure to tartrazine (TZ) on mice offspring, focusing on neurobehavioral alterations and oxidative stress. The female mice received TZ (2.5 and 5 mg/kg) via oral gavage during pregnancy and the first 15 days after birth. At days 21 and 35 after birth, male mice were sacrificed, and samples were collected for analyses. Perinatal exposure to TZ triggered tissue injury evidenced by the histological alterations and neuronal damage in the cerebrum, medulla oblongata, and cerebellum. TZ provoked lipid peroxidation and diminished cellular antioxidants in different brain regions of the newborns. In addition, TZ increased hemoglobin content, as well as erythrocytes, leukocytes, and platelets count at days 21 and 35 after birth. Both the locomotor behavior and anxiety reflex were significantly altered in mice exposed to TZ. In conclusion, perinatal exposure to TZ within an adequate daily intake range induced oxidative stress and neurobehavioral and hematological alterations in mice offspring. Therefore, consuming foods containing TZ during pregnancy and lactation warrants public awareness.

The ameliorative effect of curcumin extract on the morphological and skeletal abnormalities induced by sunset yellow and tartrazine in the developing chick embryo Gallus domesticus

Previous studies have suggested that food dyes are responsible for causing number of health problems. The study under consideration aims to show the possible morphological and skeletal malformation induced due to in ovo administration of sunset yellow (SY) and tartrazine (Tz) with or without curcumin (Cur) during organogenesis of developing chick embryo at doses 1.575mg/egg, 0.375mg/egg and 3mg/kg eggs for SY, Tz and Cur comparing with control. The investigation revealed evident reduction in the weight and length of embryos as well as malformations in feather, head, and limbs. Most of the congenital malformations were seen in SY and Tz injected groups such as short beak, excencephaly, kniked tail and pygostyle, curved scapula and retardation in the degree of ossification were the most evident in endoskeleton malformation. In addition, the length of ossified long bones in SY and Tz groups was affected. Co-administration of Cur with SY and Tz ameliorate the reversed effect of SY and Tz on the shape, length, body weight and skeleton of embryos.

Leaf ethanolic extract of Etlingera hemesphaerica Blume alters mercuric chloride teratogenicity during the post-implantation period in Mus musculus

This study aimed to investigate the effectiveness of leaf ethanolic extract of Etlingera hemisphaerica (LE3H) against the teratogenic effects of mercuric chloride (HgCl₂) in mice (Mus musculus). Pregnant M. musculus were divided into four groups, each consisting of 10 dams, and received drink and food ad libitum. The first, second, and third, and fourth (control) groups were administered with LE3H, HgCl₂, HgCl₂ + LE3H, and double-distilled water alone, respectively. HgCl₂ (5 mg/kg bw) was administered by injection on gestation day (GD) 9, and LE3H (0.39 mg/g bw) was administered by gavage on GD 10. Treated and control animals were killed by cervical dislocation on GD 18, dissected, and the fetuses were collected for evaluation of maternal, embryonic, and fetal toxicity. Eight parameters were measured: (a) embryo resorption or resorbed embryo, (b) dead fetus, (c) living fetus, (d) morphologically normal living fetus, (e) malformed living fetus, (f) number of MLF, (g) length of MNLF, and (h) weight of MNLF. LE3H caused 4 (50.00%), whereas HgCl₂ resulted in 7 (87.50%) parameters that were significantly different from those of the control, indicating that the teratogenicity of HgCl₂ was significantly higher than that of LE3H. HgCl₂ + LE3H showed two effects of LE3H on the teratogenicity of HgCl₂: increased 2 (25.00%), and decreased 6 (75.00%). Thus, LE3H decreased the teratogenic effects of HgCl₂ in M. musculus.

Influence of the long-term exposure to tartrazine and chlorophyll on the fibrogenic signalling pathway in liver and kidney of rats: the expression patterns of collagen 1-α, TGFβ-1, fibronectin, and caspase-3 genes

Colouring agents are highly present in diverse products in the human environment. We aimed to elucidate the fibrogenic cascade triggered by the food dyes tartrazine and chlorophyll. Rats were orally given distilled water, tenfold of the acceptable daily intake of tartrazine, or chlorophyll for 90 consecutive days. Tartrazine-treated rats displayed a significant rise (p < 0.05) in the mRNA levels and immunohistochemical localization of the renal and hepatic fibrotic markers collagen 1-α, TGFβ-1, and fibronectin and the apoptotic marker caspase-3. Moreover, a significant increment (p < 0.05) in the levels of AST, ALP, creatinine, and urea was evident in both experimental groups but more significant differences were noticed in the tartrazine group. Furthermore, we found a marked increment in the MDA level and significant declines (p < 0.05) in the levels of the SOD, CAT, and GSH enzymes in the kidney and liver from tartrazine-treated rats. The histological investigation reinforced the aforementioned data, revealing hepatocytes with fibrous connective tissue proliferation, apoptotic hepatocytes and periportal fibrosis with tubular necrosis, and shrunken glomeruli and interstitial fibrous tissue proliferation. We concluded that, even at the exposure to high concentrations for long durations, chlorophyll exhibited a lower propensity to induce fibrosis, apoptosis, and histopathological perturbations than tartrazine.