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Abbaszadeh F, Jorjani M, Joghataei MT, Raminfard S, Mehrabi S. Astaxanthin ameliorates spinal cord edema and astrocyte activation via suppression of HMGB1/TLR4/NF-κB signaling pathway in a rat model of spinal cord injury. NAUNYN-SCHMIEDEBERG'S ARCHIVES OF PHARMACOLOGY 2023; 396:3075-3086. [PMID: 37145127 DOI: 10.1007/s00210-023-02512-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/03/2022] [Accepted: 04/25/2023] [Indexed: 05/06/2023]
Abstract
Spinal cord edema is a quick-onset phenomenon with long-term effects. This complication is associated with inflammatory responses, as well as poor motor function. No effective treatment has been developed against spinal edema, which urges the need to provide novel therapies. Astaxanthin (AST) is a fat-soluble carotenoid with anti-inflammatory effects and a promising candidate for treating neurological disorders. This study aimed to investigate the underlying mechanism of AST on the inhibition of spinal cord edema, astrocyte activation, and reduction of inflammatory responsesin a rat compression spinal cord injury (SCI) model. Male rats underwent laminectomy at thoracic 8-9, and the SCI model was induced using an aneurysm clip. After SCI, rats received dimethyl sulfoxide or AST via intrathecal injection. The effects of AST were examined on the motor function, spinal cord edema, integrity of blood-spinal cord barrier (BSCB), and expression of high mobility group box 1 (HMGB1), toll-like receptor 4 (TLR4), nuclear factor-kappa B (NF-κB), glial fibrillary acidic protein (GFAP), and aquaporin-4 (AQP4), and matrix metallopeptidase- 9 (MMP-9) post-SCI. We showed that AST potentially improved the recovery of motor function and inhibited the spinal cord edema via maintaining the integrity of BSCB, reducing the expression of HMGB1, TLR4, and NF-κB, MMP-9 as well as downregulation of astrocyte activation (GFAP) and AQP4 expression. AST improves motor function and reduces edema and inflammatory responses in the spinal tissue. These effects are mediated by suppression of the HMGB1/TLR4/NF-κB signaling pathway, suppressing post-SCI astrocyte activation, and decreasing AQP4 and MMP-9 expression.
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Affiliation(s)
- Fatemeh Abbaszadeh
- Department of Neuroscience, Faculty of Advanced Technologies in Medicine, Iran University of Medical Science, Tehran, Iran
- Neurobiology Research Center, Shahid Beheshti University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran
| | - Masoumeh Jorjani
- Neurobiology Research Center, Shahid Beheshti University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran.
- Department of Pharmacology, School of Medicine, Shahid Beheshti University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran.
| | - Mohammad Taghi Joghataei
- Department of Neuroscience, Faculty of Advanced Technologies in Medicine, Iran University of Medical Science, Tehran, Iran.
- Department of Innovation in Medical Education, Faculty of Medicine, Ottawa University, Ottawa, Canada.
| | - Samira Raminfard
- Neuroimaging and Analysis Group, Research Center for Molecular and Cellular Imaging, Advanced Medical Technologies and Equipment Institue, Tehran University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran
| | - Soraya Mehrabi
- Department of Neuroscience, Faculty of Advanced Technologies in Medicine, Iran University of Medical Science, Tehran, Iran
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2
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Xie L, Wu H, Huang X, Yu T. Melatonin, a natural antioxidant therapy in spinal cord injury. Front Cell Dev Biol 2023; 11:1218553. [PMID: 37691830 PMCID: PMC10485268 DOI: 10.3389/fcell.2023.1218553] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/07/2023] [Accepted: 08/11/2023] [Indexed: 09/12/2023] Open
Abstract
Spinal cord injury (SCI) is a sudden onset of disruption to the spinal neural tissue, leading to loss of motor control and sensory function of the body. Oxidative stress is considered a hallmark in SCI followed by a series of events, including inflammation and cellular apoptosis. Melatonin was originally discovered as a hormone produced by the pineal gland. The subcellular localization of melatonin has been identified in mitochondria, exhibiting specific onsite protection to excess mitochondrial reactive oxygen species and working as an antioxidant in diseases. The recent discovery regarding the molecular basis of ligand selectivity for melatonin receptors and the constant efforts on finding synthetic melatonin alternatives have drawn researchers' attention back to melatonin. This review outlines the application of melatonin in SCI, including 1) the relationship between the melatonin rhythm and SCI in clinic; 2) the neuroprotective role of melatonin in experimental traumatic and ischemia/reperfusion SCI, i.e., exhibiting anti-oxidative, anti-inflammatory, and anti-apoptosis effects, facilitating the integrity of the blood-spinal cord barrier, ameliorating edema, preventing neural death, reducing scar formation, and promoting axon regeneration and neuroplasticity; 3) protecting gut microbiota and peripheral organs; 4) synergizing with drugs, rehabilitation training, stem cell therapy, and biomedical material engineering; and 5) the potential side effects. This comprehensive review provides new insights on melatonin as a natural antioxidant therapy in facilitating rehabilitation in SCI.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lei Xie
- Institute of Sports Medicine and Health, Qingdao University, Qingdao, China
- Department of Orthopedic Surgery, Qingdao Hospital, University of Health and Rehabilitation Sciences (Qingdao Municipal Hospital), Qingdao, China
| | - Hang Wu
- Department of Orthopedic Surgery, Qingdao Hospital, University of Health and Rehabilitation Sciences (Qingdao Municipal Hospital), Qingdao, China
- Department of Orthopedic Surgery, The Affiliated Hospital of Qingdao University, Qingdao University, Qingdao, China
| | - Xiaohong Huang
- Department of Orthopedic Surgery, Qingdao Hospital, University of Health and Rehabilitation Sciences (Qingdao Municipal Hospital), Qingdao, China
- Shandong Institute of Traumatic Orthopedics, Medical Research Center, The Affiliated Hospital of Qingdao University, Qingdao, China
| | - Tengbo Yu
- Institute of Sports Medicine and Health, Qingdao University, Qingdao, China
- Department of Orthopedic Surgery, Qingdao Hospital, University of Health and Rehabilitation Sciences (Qingdao Municipal Hospital), Qingdao, China
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Garcia TA, Jonak CR, Binder DK. The Role of Aquaporins in Spinal Cord Injury. Cells 2023; 12:1701. [PMID: 37443735 PMCID: PMC10340765 DOI: 10.3390/cells12131701] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/28/2023] [Revised: 06/08/2023] [Accepted: 06/21/2023] [Indexed: 07/15/2023] Open
Abstract
Edema formation following traumatic spinal cord injury (SCI) exacerbates secondary injury, and the severity of edema correlates with worse neurological outcome in human patients. To date, there are no effective treatments to directly resolve edema within the spinal cord. The aquaporin-4 (AQP4) water channel is found on plasma membranes of astrocytic endfeet in direct contact with blood vessels, the glia limitans in contact with the cerebrospinal fluid, and ependyma around the central canal. Local expression at these tissue-fluid interfaces allows AQP4 channels to play an important role in the bidirectional regulation of water homeostasis under normal conditions and following trauma. In this review, we consider the available evidence regarding the potential role of AQP4 in edema after SCI. Although more work remains to be carried out, the overall evidence indicates a critical role for AQP4 channels in edema formation and resolution following SCI and the therapeutic potential of AQP4 modulation in edema resolution and functional recovery. Further work to elucidate the expression and subcellular localization of AQP4 during specific phases after SCI will inform the therapeutic modulation of AQP4 for the optimization of histological and neurological outcomes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Terese A. Garcia
- Division of Biomedical Sciences, School of Medicine, University of California, Riverside, CA 92521, USA
| | - Carrie R. Jonak
- Division of Biomedical Sciences, School of Medicine, University of California, Riverside, CA 92521, USA
| | - Devin K. Binder
- Division of Biomedical Sciences, School of Medicine, University of California, Riverside, CA 92521, USA
- Center for Glial-Neuronal Interactions, University of California, Riverside, CA 92521, USA
- Neuroscience Graduate Program, University of California, Riverside, CA 92521, USA
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Seblani M, Decherchi P, Brezun JM. Edema after CNS Trauma: A Focus on Spinal Cord Injury. Int J Mol Sci 2023; 24:ijms24087159. [PMID: 37108324 PMCID: PMC10138956 DOI: 10.3390/ijms24087159] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/24/2023] [Revised: 04/09/2023] [Accepted: 04/11/2023] [Indexed: 04/29/2023] Open
Abstract
Edema after spinal cord injury (SCI) is one of the first observations after the primary injury and lasts for few days after trauma. It has serious consequences on the affected tissue and can aggravate the initial devastating condition. To date, the mechanisms of the water content increase after SCI are not fully understood. Edema formation results in a combination of interdependent factors related to mechanical damage after the initial trauma progressing, along with the subacute and acute phases of the secondary lesion. These factors include mechanical disruption and subsequent inflammatory permeabilization of the blood spinal cord barrier, increase in the capillary permeability, deregulation in the hydrostatic pressure, electrolyte-imbalanced membranes and water uptake in the cells. Previous research has attempted to characterize edema formation by focusing mainly on brain swelling. The purpose of this review is to summarize the current understanding of the differences in edema formation in the spinal cord and brain, and to highlight the importance of elucidating the specific mechanisms of edema formation after SCI. Additionally, it outlines findings on the spatiotemporal evolution of edema after spinal cord lesion and provides a general overview of prospective treatment strategies by focusing on insights to prevent edema formation after SCI.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mostafa Seblani
- Aix Marseille Univ, CNRS, ISM, UMR 7287, Institut des Sciences du Mouvement: Etienne-Jules MAREY, Equipe «Plasticité des Systèmes Nerveux et Musculaire» (PSNM), Parc Scientifique et Technologique de Luminy, CC910-163, Avenue de Luminy, F-13288 Marseille, CEDEX 09, France
| | - Patrick Decherchi
- Aix Marseille Univ, CNRS, ISM, UMR 7287, Institut des Sciences du Mouvement: Etienne-Jules MAREY, Equipe «Plasticité des Systèmes Nerveux et Musculaire» (PSNM), Parc Scientifique et Technologique de Luminy, CC910-163, Avenue de Luminy, F-13288 Marseille, CEDEX 09, France
| | - Jean-Michel Brezun
- Aix Marseille Univ, CNRS, ISM, UMR 7287, Institut des Sciences du Mouvement: Etienne-Jules MAREY, Equipe «Plasticité des Systèmes Nerveux et Musculaire» (PSNM), Parc Scientifique et Technologique de Luminy, CC910-163, Avenue de Luminy, F-13288 Marseille, CEDEX 09, France
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Zhang Y, Lang R, Guo S, Luo X, Li H, Liu C, Dong W, Bao C, Yu Y. Intestinal microbiota and melatonin in the treatment of secondary injury and complications after spinal cord injury. Front Neurosci 2022; 16:981772. [PMID: 36440294 PMCID: PMC9682189 DOI: 10.3389/fnins.2022.981772] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/29/2022] [Accepted: 10/24/2022] [Indexed: 09/12/2023] Open
Abstract
Spinal cord injury (SCI) is a central nervous system (CNS) disease that can cause sensory and motor impairment below the level of injury. Currently, the treatment scheme for SCI mainly focuses on secondary injury and complications. Recent studies have shown that SCI leads to an imbalance of intestinal microbiota and the imbalance is also associated with complications after SCI, possibly through the microbial-brain-gut axis. Melatonin is secreted in many parts of the body including pineal gland and gut, effectively protecting the spinal cord from secondary damage. The secretion of melatonin is affected by circadian rhythms, known as the dark light cycle, and SCI would also cause dysregulation of melatonin secretion. In addition, melatonin is closely related to the intestinal microbiota, which protects the barrier function of the gut through its antioxidant and anti-inflammatory effects, and increases the abundance of intestinal microbiota by influencing the metabolism of the intestinal microbiota. Furthermore, the intestinal microbiota can influence melatonin formation by regulating tryptophan and serotonin metabolism. This paper summarizes and reviews the knowledge on the relationship among intestinal microbiota, melatonin, and SCI in recent years, to provide new theories and ideas for clinical research related to SCI treatment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yiwen Zhang
- Department of Human Anatomy and Histoembryology, School of Basic Medical Sciences, Southwest Medical University, Luzhou, China
- Department of Neurosurgery, The Affiliated Hospital of Southwest Medical University, Luzhou, China
| | - Rui Lang
- Department of Neurosurgery, The Affiliated Hospital of Southwest Medical University, Luzhou, China
| | - Shunyu Guo
- Department of Neurosurgery, The Affiliated Hospital of Southwest Medical University, Luzhou, China
| | - Xiaoqin Luo
- Department of Human Anatomy and Histoembryology, School of Basic Medical Sciences, Southwest Medical University, Luzhou, China
| | - Huiting Li
- Key Laboratory of Medical Electrophysiology, Ministry of Education and Medical Electrophysiological Key Laboratory of Sichuan Province, Collaborative Innovation Center for Prevention of Cardiovascular Diseases, Institute of Cardiovascular Research, Southwest Medical University, Luzhou, China
| | - Cencen Liu
- Department of Pathology, People’s Hospital of Zhongjiang County, Deyang, China
| | - Wei Dong
- Key Laboratory of Medical Electrophysiology, Ministry of Education and Medical Electrophysiological Key Laboratory of Sichuan Province, Collaborative Innovation Center for Prevention of Cardiovascular Diseases, Institute of Cardiovascular Research, Southwest Medical University, Luzhou, China
| | - Changshun Bao
- Department of Neurosurgery, The Affiliated Hospital of Southwest Medical University, Luzhou, China
- Sichuan Clinical Research Center for Neurosurgery, The Affiliated Hospital of Southwest Medical University, Luzhou, China
- Academician (Expert) Workstation of Sichuan Province, The Affiliated Hospital of Southwest Medical University, Luzhou, China
- Neurological Diseases and Brain Function Laboratory, The Affiliated Hospital of Southwest Medical University, Luzhou, China
| | - Yang Yu
- Department of Human Anatomy and Histoembryology, School of Basic Medical Sciences, Southwest Medical University, Luzhou, China
- Key Laboratory of Medical Electrophysiology, Ministry of Education and Medical Electrophysiological Key Laboratory of Sichuan Province, Collaborative Innovation Center for Prevention of Cardiovascular Diseases, Institute of Cardiovascular Research, Southwest Medical University, Luzhou, China
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Cai J, Kong J, Ma S, Ban Y, Li J, Fan Z. Upregulation of TRPC6 inhibits astrocyte activation and proliferation after spinal cord injury in rats by suppressing AQP4 expression. Brain Res Bull 2022; 190:12-21. [PMID: 36115513 DOI: 10.1016/j.brainresbull.2022.09.010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/21/2022] [Revised: 09/10/2022] [Accepted: 09/13/2022] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
Abstract
AIMS This work investigates the effects and mechanisms of inhibiting TRPC6 (a non-selective cation channel) downregulation on rat astrocyte activation and proliferation following spinal cord injury (SCI) by suppressing AQP4 expression. We used HYP9 (TRPC6-specific agonist) and TGN-020 (AQP4-specific inhibitor) to explore the relationship between TRPC6 and AQP4 and their probable protective effects on SCI. METHODS In a rat SCI model, we randomly assigned female Sprague-Dawley rats into the following four groups: Sham, SCI, SCI+HYP9, and SCI+TGN-020. Western blotting and immunofluorescence staining were used to determine protein expression among groups following SCI. TUNEL and immunofluorescence staining were used to identify changes in the rate of apoptosis and the fraction of surviving neurons after SCI. The Basso-Beattie-Bresnahan open-field locomotor scale was used to identify changes in motor function after SCI. In vitro astrocyte scratch model, we first used the CCK8 assay to test the effects of varying doses of HYP9 or TGN-020 on astrocytes and then split the astrocytes into four groups: Con, Scratch, Scratch+HYP9, and Scratch+TGN-020. Western blotting and immunofluorescence were used to identify changes in the expression of target proteins. RESULTS In vivo and in vitro models, SCI dramatically decreased TRPC6 while considerably upregulating AQP4, glial fibrillary acidic protein (GFAP), and proliferating cell nuclear antigen (PCNA) expression. However, HYP9 or TGN-020 significantly suppressed activation of astrocytes, promoted neurons survival in the anterior horn of the spinal cords, and benefited the recovery of motor function in the hind limbs of rats following SCI. Interestingly, TRPC6 agonists dramatically suppressed AQP4 overexpression, indicating that the probable mechanism of HYP9 benefiting alleviation of SCI may be connected to AQP4 inhibition and astrocyte activation and proliferation reduction. CONCLUSION we discovered for the first time that HYP9 inhibits astrocyte activation and proliferation by inhibiting AQP4 in SCI rats in vivo and in vitro models and that it preserves neuronal survival and functional recovery after SCI.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jiajun Cai
- Department of Orthopedics, The First Affiliated Hospital, Jinzhou Medical University, Jinzhou 121000, China
| | - Jundong Kong
- Department of Orthopedics, The First Affiliated Hospital, Jinzhou Medical University, Jinzhou 121000, China
| | - Song Ma
- Department of Orthopedics, The First Affiliated Hospital, Jinzhou Medical University, Jinzhou 121000, China
| | - Yaozu Ban
- Department of Orthopedics, The First Affiliated Hospital, Jinzhou Medical University, Jinzhou 121000, China
| | - Jian Li
- Department of Orthopedics, The First Affiliated Hospital, Jinzhou Medical University, Jinzhou 121000, China.
| | - Zhongkai Fan
- Department of Orthopedics, The First Affiliated Hospital, Jinzhou Medical University, Jinzhou 121000, China.
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Qi L, Zhang J, Wang J, An J, Xue W, Liu Q, Zhang Y. Mechanisms of ginsenosides exert neuroprotective effects on spinal cord injury: A promising traditional Chinese medicine. Front Neurosci 2022; 16:969056. [PMID: 36081662 PMCID: PMC9445311 DOI: 10.3389/fnins.2022.969056] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/15/2022] [Accepted: 07/29/2022] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Spinal cord injury (SCI) is a devastating disorder of the central nervous system (CNS). It is mainly caused by trauma and reduces the quality of life of the affected individual. Ginsenosides are safe and effective traditional Chinese medicines (TCMs), and their efficacy against SCI is being increasingly researched in many countries, especially in China and Korea. This systematic review evaluated the neuroprotective effects of ginsenosides in SCI and elucidated their properties.
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Concentrated Growth Factors (CGF) Combined with Melatonin in Guided Bone Regeneration (GBR): A Case Report. Diagnostics (Basel) 2022; 12:diagnostics12051257. [PMID: 35626412 PMCID: PMC9141849 DOI: 10.3390/diagnostics12051257] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/14/2022] [Revised: 05/06/2022] [Accepted: 05/16/2022] [Indexed: 12/23/2022] Open
Abstract
During implant restorative dentistry, common and crippling postoperative complications are pain and swelling of perioral soft tissues which engraving on patient quality of life. Concentrated growth factors (CGF), a novel generation of autologous platelet concentrate, and melatonin, endogenous indoleamine with also bone regenerative properties, may be useful for reconstruction of bony defects as well as in prosthetic and esthetic rehabilitation. We report a clinical case in which guided bone regeneration was performed combining CGF, melatonin and heterologous biomaterial. Great postoperative recovery without any complications was reported. In conclusion, in restorative dentistry the combined use of CGF and melatonin may have important roles in restoring bone defect, in improving implant osteointegration and, not less important, in preventing postoperative complications.
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Yang CH, Quan ZX, Wang GJ, He T, Chen ZY, Li QC, Yang J, Wang Q. Elevated intraspinal pressure in traumatic spinal cord injury is a promising therapeutic target. Neural Regen Res 2022; 17:1703-1710. [PMID: 35017417 PMCID: PMC8820714 DOI: 10.4103/1673-5374.332203] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
Abstract
The currently recommended management for acute traumatic spinal cord injury aims to reduce the incidence of secondary injury and promote functional recovery. Elevated intraspinal pressure (ISP) likely plays an important role in the processes involved in secondary spinal cord injury, and should not be overlooked. However, the factors and detailed time course contributing to elevated ISP and its impact on pathophysiology after traumatic spinal cord injury have not been reviewed in the literature. Here, we review the etiology and progression of elevated ISP, as well as potential therapeutic measures that target elevated ISP. Elevated ISP is a time-dependent process that is mainly caused by hemorrhage, edema, and blood-spinal cord barrier destruction and peaks at 3 days after traumatic spinal cord injury. Duraplasty and hypertonic saline may be promising treatments for reducing ISP within this time window. Other potential treatments such as decompression, spinal cord incision, hemostasis, and methylprednisolone treatment require further validation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chao-Hua Yang
- Department of Orthopedics, The Affiliated Hospital of Southwest Medical University, Luzhou, Sichuan Province; Department of Orthopedics, The First Affiliated Hospital of Chongqing Medical University, Chongqing, China
| | - Zheng-Xue Quan
- Department of Orthopedics, The First Affiliated Hospital of Chongqing Medical University, Chongqing, China
| | - Gao-Ju Wang
- Department of Orthopedics, The Affiliated Hospital of Southwest Medical University, Luzhou, Sichuan Province, China
| | - Tao He
- Department of Orthopedics, The First Affiliated Hospital of Chongqing Medical University, Chongqing, China
| | - Zhi-Yu Chen
- Department of Orthopedics, The First Affiliated Hospital of Chongqing Medical University, Chongqing, China
| | - Qiao-Chu Li
- Department of Orthopedics, The First Affiliated Hospital of Chongqing Medical University, Chongqing, China
| | - Jin Yang
- Department of Orthopedics, The Affiliated Hospital of Southwest Medical University, Luzhou, Sichuan Province, China
| | - Qing Wang
- Department of Orthopedics, The Affiliated Hospital of Southwest Medical University, Luzhou, Sichuan Province, China
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The role of AQP3 and AQP4 channels in cisplatin-induced cardiovascular edema and the protective effect of melatonin. Mol Biol Rep 2021; 48:7457-7465. [PMID: 34657253 DOI: 10.1007/s11033-021-06763-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/19/2021] [Accepted: 09/15/2021] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND The present study evaluates the development of edema, the change in the AQP3, AQP4, p53 and Bax gene expressions, and the protective effects of melatonin in rat hearts administered with cisplatin. METHODS AND RESULTS A total of 28 Wistar albino rats were divided into four groups. The vehicle was administered intraperitoneally (i.p.) to the rats in the control group. The melatonin group (Mel) received melatonin at a dose of 10 mg/kg for 13 days. The cisplatin group (Cis) received cisplatin on days 1, 5, 9 and 13 at a dose of 4 mg/kg. The rats in the cisplatin + melatonin (Cis+Mel) group underwent the procedures both in the Mel and Cis groups. Blood and left ventricular samples were taken and analyzed on day 14 of the study. AQP3, p53 and Bax gene expressions were found to be significantly increased following cisplatin administration compared to the control, while melatonin administration significantly decreased the expression of these genes (p < 0.05). Melatonin administration also significantly decreased the level of AQP4 gene expression compared to the cis. On histological examination, congestion, hemorrhage, extracellular and intracellular edema, and degenerative changes were significantly more common in the Cis than in the control. Melatonin administration significantly decreased intracellular edema (p = 0.010) and degenerative changes (p = 0.010), and the improvement in extracellular edema was close to statistical significance (p = 0.051) in melatonin. CONCLUSIONS These results indicate that melatonin had an ameliorative effect on myocardial edema and AQP channels, and that it may be used as a protective molecule against myocardial edema secondary to cisplatin administration.
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Masterman E, Ahmed Z. Experimental Treatments for Oedema in Spinal Cord Injury: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis. Cells 2021; 10:cells10102682. [PMID: 34685662 PMCID: PMC8534777 DOI: 10.3390/cells10102682] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/03/2021] [Revised: 09/21/2021] [Accepted: 10/05/2021] [Indexed: 12/09/2022] Open
Abstract
The incidence of spinal cord injury (SCI) is ever-growing, resulting in life-changing neurological deficits which can have devastating long-term impacts on a person’s quality of life. There is an unmet clinical need for a treatment which will prevent progression of the injury, allowing improved axonal regeneration and functional recovery to occur. The initial mechanical insult, followed by a cascade of secondary mechanisms, leads to the exacerbation and remodelling of the lesion site, thus inhibiting neurological recovery. Oedema rapidly accumulates following SCI and contributes to the detrimental pathophysiology and worsens functional outcomes. This study systematically reviewed the current experimental treatments being explored in the field of SCI, which specifically target oedema. Abiding by PRISMA guidelines and strict inclusion criteria, 14 studies were identified and analysed from three online databases (PubMed, Web of Science and EMBASE). As a result, we identified three key modalities which attenuate oedema: selective inhibition of the main water channel protein, aquaporin 4 (AQP4), modulation of inflammation and surgical interventions. Collectively, however, they all result in the downregulation of AQP4, which crucially leads to a reduction in oedema and improved functional outcomes. We concluded that trifluoperazine (TFP), a calmodulin kinase inhibitor which prevents the cell-surface localisation of AQP4, was the most efficacious treatment, significantly eliminating oedema within 7 days of administration. To date, this study is the most concise analysis of current experimental treatments for oedema, exposing its molecular mechanisms and assessing potential therapeutic pathways for future research.
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Affiliation(s)
- Emma Masterman
- Institute of Inflammation and Ageing, College of Medical and Dental Sciences, University of Birmingham, Edgbaston, Birmingham B15 2TT, UK;
| | - Zubair Ahmed
- Institute of Inflammation and Ageing, College of Medical and Dental Sciences, University of Birmingham, Edgbaston, Birmingham B15 2TT, UK;
- Centre for Trauma Sciences Research, University of Birmingham, Edgbaston, Birmingham B15 2TT, UK
- Surgical Reconstruction and Microbiology Research Centre, National Institute for Health Research, Queen Elizabeth Hospital, Birmingham B15 2TH, UK
- Correspondence:
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Inhibition of ERK1/2 phosphorylation attenuates spinal cord injury induced astrocyte activation and inflammation through negatively regulating aquaporin-4 in rats. Brain Res Bull 2021; 170:162-173. [PMID: 33592275 DOI: 10.1016/j.brainresbull.2021.02.014] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/14/2020] [Revised: 01/31/2021] [Accepted: 02/08/2021] [Indexed: 01/09/2023]
Abstract
The extracellular signal-regulated kinase (ERK) pathway has been reported to play a pivotal role in mediating spinal cord injury (SCI) progression. The present study aimed to investigate the effects of phosphorylated ERK1/2 (p-ERK1/2) inhibition on SCI-induced astrocyte activation and inflammation and its possible mechanism in rats. Here, female Sprague-Dawley rats were randomly assigned to four groups: (1) Sham group, (2) SCI group, (3) TGN-020 group (aquaporin-4, AQP4, blocking agent), (4) PD98059 group (ERK blocking agent). A well SCI model was established by compressing the thoracic vertebra 10 level (weight 35 g, time 5 min) in rats. Western blotting and immunofluorescence staining were used to measure the expression of associated proteins after SCI. HE staining and Nissl staining were performed to detect the morphological changes of spinal cords and the number of surviving neurons following SCI, respectively. The Basso-Beattie-Bresnahan open-field rating scale was used to evaluate functional locomotor recovery following SCI in rats. Our results demonstrated that SCI significantly induced the upregulation of aquaporin-4, p-ERK1/2, glial fibrillary acidic protein, proliferating cell nuclear antigen, and proinflammatory cytokines (tumor necrosis factor-α, interleukin-6 and interleukin-1β). However, treatment with TGN-020 or PD98059 could effectively inhibit astrocyte proliferation and proinflammatory cytokine release, preserve the number of surviving ventral horn neurons, and subsequently improve the locomotor function of rats after SCI. Interestingly, the SCI-induced elevation of AQP4 expression was downregulated by p-ERK1/2 inhibition, suggesting that blocking ERK1/2 phosphorylation could attenuate astrocyte activation and inflammatory processes through negative regulation of AQP4. Therefore, p-ERK1/2 blockade may be employed as a therapeutic target for SCI.
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Zhang Y, Liu Z, Zhang W, Wu Q, Zhang Y, Liu Y, Guan Y, Chen X. Melatonin improves functional recovery in female rats after acute spinal cord injury by modulating polarization of spinal microglial/macrophages. J Neurosci Res 2019; 97:733-743. [PMID: 31006904 DOI: 10.1002/jnr.24409] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/22/2018] [Revised: 02/18/2019] [Accepted: 02/20/2019] [Indexed: 12/26/2022]
Abstract
Spinal cord injury (SCI) is a devastating neurological disorder, but few drugs have proven to be effective for its treatment. Neuroinflammation exaggerates the secondary injury subsequent to trauma. Emerging evidence suggests that melatonin may help protect neural tissue against secondary injury after SCI, but the underlying mechanisms remain elusive. Microglial/macrophages polarization plays an important role in regulating immune responses. To examine whether melatonin exerts neuroprotective effects after acute SCI by regulating microglial/macrophages polarization in the spinal cord, we administered intraperitoneal injections of melatonin (50 mg/kg) in female rats immediately after SCI and then daily for seven consecutive days (n = 6). Compared with the vehicle-treated group (n = 6), the melatonin-treated group exhibited a greater Basso, Beattie, and Bresnahan locomotor rating score, smaller spinal cavity, and less cleaved caspase 3 immunofluorescence staining in the injured spinal segments. Real-time PCR data revealed decreases in the expression levels of M1 microglia phenotypic markers and increases in M2 markers in the spinal cord of melatonin-treated SCI rats, as compared to levels in the vehicle-treated group. Melatonin increased the number of CD206+ and Arg1+ cells, decreased the number of CD16+ and iNOS+ cells and reduced the levels of pro-inflammatory cytokines (TNF-α, IL-6, and IL-1β) in the spinal cord tissue of female SCI rats. Current findings suggest that melatonin may inhibit pro-inflammatory responses and promote M2 polarization of microglial/macrophages in the spinal cord in the early stage of SCI, facilitating functional recovery. Accordingly, melatonin may represent a promising therapeutic candidate for acute SCI.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yan Zhang
- Central Laboratory, Beijing Luhe Hospital, Capital Medical University, Beijing, China
| | - Zongjian Liu
- Central Laboratory, Beijing Luhe Hospital, Capital Medical University, Beijing, China.,Research Department, Beijing Rehabilitation Hospital, Capital Medical University, Beijing, China
| | - Wenxiu Zhang
- Central Laboratory, Beijing Luhe Hospital, Capital Medical University, Beijing, China
| | - Qichao Wu
- Department of Orthopedics, Beijing Luhe Hospital, Capital Medical University, Beijing, China
| | - Yanjun Zhang
- Department of Orthopedics, Beijing Luhe Hospital, Capital Medical University, Beijing, China
| | - Yadong Liu
- Department of Orthopedics, Beijing Luhe Hospital, Capital Medical University, Beijing, China
| | - Yun Guan
- Department of Anesthesiology and Critical Care Medicine, Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, Maryland.,Department of Neurological Surgery, Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, Maryland
| | - Xueming Chen
- Central Laboratory, Beijing Luhe Hospital, Capital Medical University, Beijing, China.,Department of Orthopedics, Beijing Luhe Hospital, Capital Medical University, Beijing, China
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14
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Pan YL, Guo Y, Ma Y, Wang L, Zheng SY, Liu MM, Huang GC. Aquaporin-4 expression dynamically varies after acute spinal cord injury-induced disruption of blood spinal cord barrier in rats. Neuropathology 2019; 39:181-186. [PMID: 30919512 DOI: 10.1111/neup.12539] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/23/2018] [Revised: 12/25/2018] [Accepted: 01/22/2019] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
The blood-spinal cord barrier (BSCB) changes badly after spinal cord injury (SCI), and it is an important pathophysiological basis of SCI secondary damage. Aquaporin-4 (AQP4), one of the transmembrane proteins in spinal cord, has been shown to be closely related to the development of the BSCB and edema. We established a SCI model in rats using a free-falling weight drop device to subsequently investigate AQP4 expression. AQP4 messenger RNA (mRNA) and protein expression and immunoreactivity were detected in spinal cord tissue using reverse transcription-real-time quantitative polymerase chain reaction (RT-qPCR), immunohistochemistry and Western blot analysis. We found the water content and edema of the spinal cord were significantly higher than the control group after SCI, which was related to the growth of BSCB permeability; both reached their peak on the third day after injury. One, 3, 5, 7 days after injury, the immune response and protein expression in the model group increased from 1 to 3 days, with a plateau period from 3 to 5 days and a decline from 5 to 7 days, showing a significant difference compared with the sham group at each time point (P < 0.05), while the RT-qPCR results showed a decline of mRNA just after 3 days. In conclusion, after SCI, the water content of the spinal cord and the BSCB permeability increases, together with the excessive expression of AQP4, which reached a peak on the third day. AQP4 expression is closely relative to the permeability of BSCB and the water content of the spinal cord.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ya-Lan Pan
- Institute of Traumatology & Orthopedics, Nanjing University of Chinese Medicine, Nanjing, China.,Laboratory of New Techniques of Restoration & Reconstruction of Orthopedics and Traumatology, Nanjing University of Chinese Medicine, Nanjing, China
| | - Yang Guo
- Institute of Traumatology & Orthopedics, Nanjing University of Chinese Medicine, Nanjing, China.,Laboratory of New Techniques of Restoration & Reconstruction of Orthopedics and Traumatology, Nanjing University of Chinese Medicine, Nanjing, China
| | - Yong Ma
- Institute of Traumatology & Orthopedics, Nanjing University of Chinese Medicine, Nanjing, China.,Laboratory of New Techniques of Restoration & Reconstruction of Orthopedics and Traumatology, Nanjing University of Chinese Medicine, Nanjing, China
| | - Lei Wang
- Institute of Traumatology & Orthopedics, Nanjing University of Chinese Medicine, Nanjing, China.,Laboratory of New Techniques of Restoration & Reconstruction of Orthopedics and Traumatology, Nanjing University of Chinese Medicine, Nanjing, China
| | - Su-Yang Zheng
- Institute of Traumatology & Orthopedics, Nanjing University of Chinese Medicine, Nanjing, China.,Laboratory of New Techniques of Restoration & Reconstruction of Orthopedics and Traumatology, Nanjing University of Chinese Medicine, Nanjing, China
| | - Ming-Ming Liu
- Department of Traumatology & Orthopedics, Traditional Chinese Medicine Hospital of Xuzhou, Xuzhou, China
| | - Gui-Cheng Huang
- Institute of Traumatology & Orthopedics, Nanjing University of Chinese Medicine, Nanjing, China.,Laboratory of New Techniques of Restoration & Reconstruction of Orthopedics and Traumatology, Nanjing University of Chinese Medicine, Nanjing, China
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15
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Li J, Jia Z, Xu W, Guo W, Zhang M, Bi J, Cao Y, Fan Z, Li G. TGN-020 alleviates edema and inhibits astrocyte activation and glial scar formation after spinal cord compression injury in rats. Life Sci 2019; 222:148-157. [PMID: 30851336 DOI: 10.1016/j.lfs.2019.03.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/09/2018] [Revised: 02/21/2019] [Accepted: 03/05/2019] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
AIMS Identifying drugs that inhibit edema and glial scar formation and increase neuronal survival is crucial to improving outcomes after spinal cord injury (SCI). Here, we used 2-(nicotinamide)-1,3,4-thiadiazole (TGN-020), a potent selective inhibitor of aquaporin 4 (AQP4), to investigate the effects of TGN-020 on SCI in Sprague-Dawley rats. MAIN METHODS We compressed the spinal cord at T10 using a sterile impounder (35 g, 5 min), to induce moderate injury. TGN-020 (100 mg/kg) or an equal volume of 10% dimethyl sulfoxide was then administered via intraperitoneal injection. Neurological function was evaluated using the Basso-Beattie-Bresnahan open-field locomotor scale 1, 3, 7, 14, 21, and 28 days after SCI. The degree of edema was assessed via determination of the precise spinal cord water content 3 days after SCI. Expression levels of AQP4, glial fibrillary acidic protein (GFAP), proliferating cell nuclear antigen (PCNA), and growth-associated protein-43 (GAP-43) were determined via western blotting and immunofluorescence staining 3 days after SCI and 4 weeks after SCI. Numbers of surviving neurons and glial scar sizes were determined using Nissl and hematoxylin-eosin staining, respectively. KEY FINDINGS Our results showed that TGN-020 promoted functional recovery at days 3, 7, 14, 21, and 28, as well as reduced the degree of edema and inhibited the expression of AQP4, GFAP, PCNA at days 3 after SCI. Furthermore, observations 4 weeks after SCI revealed that TGN-020 inhibited the glial scar formation and upregulated GAP-43 expression. SIGNIFICANCE TGN-020 can alleviate spinal cord edema, inhibit glial scar formation, and promote axonal regeneration, conferring beneficial effects on recovery in rats.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jian Li
- Department of Orthopedics, The First Affiliated Hospital, Jinzhou Medical University, Jinzhou 121000, China
| | - Zhiqiang Jia
- Department of Spinal Surgery, The Second Affiliated Hospital, Henan University of Science and Technology, Luoyang 471003, China
| | - Wen Xu
- School of Nursing, Jinzhou Medical University, Jinzhou 121000, China
| | - Weidong Guo
- Department of Orthopedics, The First Affiliated Hospital, Jinzhou Medical University, Jinzhou 121000, China
| | - Mingchao Zhang
- Department of Orthopedics, The First Affiliated Hospital, Jinzhou Medical University, Jinzhou 121000, China
| | - Jing Bi
- Department of Neurobiology, Key Laboratory of Neurodegenerative Diseases of Liaoning Province, Jinzhou Medical University, Jinzhou 121000, China
| | - Yang Cao
- Department of Orthopedics, The First Affiliated Hospital, Jinzhou Medical University, Jinzhou 121000, China
| | - Zhongkai Fan
- Department of Orthopedics, The First Affiliated Hospital, Jinzhou Medical University, Jinzhou 121000, China.
| | - Gang Li
- Department of Orthopedics, Shanghai Tenth People's Hospital, Tongji University School of Medicine, Shanghai 200072, China.
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Sun L, Li M, Ma X, Zhang L, Song J, Lv C, He Y. Inhibiting High Mobility Group Box-1 Reduces Early Spinal Cord Edema and Attenuates Astrocyte Activation and Aquaporin-4 Expression after Spinal Cord Injury in Rats. J Neurotrauma 2018; 36:421-435. [PMID: 29929431 DOI: 10.1089/neu.2018.5642] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/30/2022] Open
Abstract
High mobility group box-1 (HMGB1) could function as an early trigger for pro-inflammatory activation after spinal cord injury (SCI). Spinal cord edema contributes to inflammatory response mechanisms and a poor clinical prognosis after SCI, for which efficient therapies targeting the specific molecules involved remain limited. This study was designed to evaluate the roles of HMGB1 on the regulation of early spinal cord edema, astrocyte activation, and aquaporin-4 (AQP4) expression in a rat SCI model. Adult female Sprague-Dawley rats underwent laminectomy at T10, and the SCI model was induced by a heavy falling object. After SCI, rats received ethyl pyruvate (EP) or glycyrrhizin (GL) via an intraperitoneal injection to inhibit HMGB1. The effects of HMGB1 inhibition on the early spinal cord edema, astrocyte activation (glial fibrillary acidic protein [GFAP] expression), and AQP4 expression after SCI (12 h-3 days) were analyzed. The results showed that EP or GL effectively inhibited HMGB1 expression in the spinal cord and HMGB1 levels in the serum of SCI rats. HMGB1 inhibition improved motor function, reduced spinal cord water content, and attenuated spinal cord edema in SCI rats. HMGB1 inhibition decreased SCI-associated GFAP and AQP4 overexpression in the spinal cord. Further, HMGB1 inhibition also repressed the activation of the toll-like receptor 4/myeloid differentiation primary response gene 88/nuclear factor-kappa B signaling pathway. These results implicate that HMGB1 inhibition improved locomotor function and reduced early spinal cord edema, which was associated with a downregulation of astrocyte activation (GFAP expression) and AQP4 expression in SCI rats.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lin Sun
- 1 Department of Orthopedics, Shanxi Academy of Medical Sciences, Shanxi Da Yi Hospital, Shanxi Da Yi Hospital Affiliated to Shanxi Medical University, Taiyuan, China
| | - Man Li
- 2 Department of Neurology, Second Hospital of Shanxi Medical University, Shanxi Medical University, Taiyuan, China
| | - Xun Ma
- 1 Department of Orthopedics, Shanxi Academy of Medical Sciences, Shanxi Da Yi Hospital, Shanxi Da Yi Hospital Affiliated to Shanxi Medical University, Taiyuan, China
| | - Li Zhang
- 1 Department of Orthopedics, Shanxi Academy of Medical Sciences, Shanxi Da Yi Hospital, Shanxi Da Yi Hospital Affiliated to Shanxi Medical University, Taiyuan, China
| | - Junlai Song
- 1 Department of Orthopedics, Shanxi Academy of Medical Sciences, Shanxi Da Yi Hospital, Shanxi Da Yi Hospital Affiliated to Shanxi Medical University, Taiyuan, China
| | - Cong Lv
- 1 Department of Orthopedics, Shanxi Academy of Medical Sciences, Shanxi Da Yi Hospital, Shanxi Da Yi Hospital Affiliated to Shanxi Medical University, Taiyuan, China
| | - Yajun He
- 1 Department of Orthopedics, Shanxi Academy of Medical Sciences, Shanxi Da Yi Hospital, Shanxi Da Yi Hospital Affiliated to Shanxi Medical University, Taiyuan, China
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17
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Zhang Y, Zhang WX, Zhang YJ, Liu YD, Liu ZJ, Wu QC, Guan Y, Chen XM. Melatonin for the treatment of spinal cord injury. Neural Regen Res 2018; 13:1685-1692. [PMID: 30136678 PMCID: PMC6128058 DOI: 10.4103/1673-5374.238603] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/31/2022] Open
Abstract
Spinal cord injury (SCI) from trauma or disease severely impairs sensory and motor function. Neurorehabilitation after SCI is a complex medical process that focuses on improving neurologic function and repairing damaged connections in the central nervous system. An increasing number of preclinical studies suggest that melatonin may be useful for the treatment of SCI. Melatonin is an indolamine that is primarily secreted by the pineal gland and known to be regulated by photoperiodicity. However, it is also a versatile hormone with antioxidative, antiapoptotic, neuroprotective, and anti-inflammatory properties. Here, we review the neuroprotective properties of melatonin and the potential mechanisms by which it might be beneficial in the treatment of SCI. We also describe therapies that combine melatonin with exercise, oxytetracycline, and dexamethasone to attenuate the secondary injury after SCI and limit potential side effects. Finally, we discuss how injury at different spinal levels may differentially affect the secretion of melatonin.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yan Zhang
- Central Laboratory, Beijing Luhe Hospital, Capital Medical University, Beijing, China
| | - Wen-Xiu Zhang
- Central Laboratory, Beijing Luhe Hospital, Capital Medical University, Beijing, China
| | - Yan-Jun Zhang
- Department of Orthopedics, Beijing Luhe Hospital, Capital Medical University, Beijing, China
| | - Ya-Dong Liu
- Department of Orthopedics, Beijing Luhe Hospital, Capital Medical University, Beijing, China
| | - Zong-Jian Liu
- Central Laboratory, Beijing Luhe Hospital, Capital Medical University, Beijing, China
| | - Qi-Chao Wu
- Department of Orthopedics, Beijing Luhe Hospital, Capital Medical University, Beijing, China
| | - Yun Guan
- Central Laboratory, Beijing Luhe Hospital, Capital Medical University, Beijing, China; Department of Anesthesiology and Critical Care Medicine; Department of Neurological Surgery, Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, MD, USA
| | - Xue-Ming Chen
- Central Laboratory; Department of Orthopedics, Beijing Luhe Hospital, Capital Medical University, Beijing, China
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18
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Sun L, Li M, Ma X, Feng H, Song J, Lv C, He Y. Inhibition of HMGB1 reduces rat spinal cord astrocytic swelling and AQP4 expression after oxygen-glucose deprivation and reoxygenation via TLR4 and NF-κB signaling in an IL-6-dependent manner. J Neuroinflammation 2017; 14:231. [PMID: 29178911 PMCID: PMC5702193 DOI: 10.1186/s12974-017-1008-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 51] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/26/2017] [Accepted: 11/20/2017] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Spinal cord astrocyte swelling is an important component to spinal cord edema and is associated with poor functional recovery as well as therapeutic resistance after spinal cord injury (SCI). High mobility group box-1 (HMGB1) is a mediator of inflammatory responses in the central nervous system and plays a critical role after SCI. Given this, we sought to identify both the role and underlying mechanisms of HMGB1 in cellular swelling and aquaporin 4 (AQP4) expression in cultured rat spinal cord astrocytes after oxygen-glucose deprivation/reoxygenation (OGD/R). Methods The post-natal day 1–2 Sprague-Dawley rat spinal cord astrocytes were cultured in vitro, and the OGD/R model was induced. We first investigated the effects of OGD/R on spinal cord astrocytic swelling and HMGB1 and AQP4 expression, as well as HMGB1 release. We then studied the effects of HMGB1 inhibition on cellular swelling, HMGB1 and AQP4 expression, and HMGB1 release. The roles of both toll-like receptor 4 (TLR4)/nuclear factor-kappa B (NF-κB) signaling pathway and interleukin-6 (IL-6) in reducing cellular swelling resulting from HMGB1 inhibition in spinal cord astrocytes after OGD/R were studied. Intergroup data were compared using one-way analysis of variance (ANOVA) followed by Dunnett’s test. Results The OGD/R increased spinal cord astrocytic swelling and HMGB1 and AQP4 expression, as well as HMGB1 release. Inhibition of HMGB1 using either HMGB1 shRNA or ethyl pyruvate resulted in reduced cellular volume, mitochondrial and endoplasmic reticulum swelling, and lysosome number and decreased upregulation of both HMGB1 and AQP4 in spinal cord astrocytes, as well as HMGB1 release. The HMGB1 effects on spinal cord astrocytic swelling and AQP4 upregulation after OGD/R were mediated—at least in part—via activation of TLR4, myeloid differentiation primary response gene 88 (MyD88), and NF-κB. These activation effects can be repressed by TLR4 inhibition using CLI-095 or C34, or by NF-κB inhibition using BAY 11-7082. Furthermore, either OGD/R or HMGB1 inhibition resulted in changes in IL-6 release. IL-6 was also shown to mediate AQP4 expression in spinal cord astrocytes. Conclusions HMGB1 upregulates AQP4 expression and promotes cell swelling in cultured spinal cord astrocytes after OGD/R, which is mediated through HMGB1/TLR4/MyD88/NF-κB signaling and in an IL-6-dependent manner.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lin Sun
- Department of Orthopedics, Shanxi Academy of Medical Sciences, Shanxi Da Yi Hospital, Shanxi Da Yi Hospital affiliated to Shanxi Medical University, Taiyuan, 030032, China.
| | - Man Li
- Department of Neurology, Second Hospital of Shanxi Medical University, Shanxi Medical University, Taiyuan, 030001, China
| | - Xun Ma
- Department of Orthopedics, Shanxi Academy of Medical Sciences, Shanxi Da Yi Hospital, Shanxi Da Yi Hospital affiliated to Shanxi Medical University, Taiyuan, 030032, China
| | - Haoyu Feng
- Department of Orthopedics, Shanxi Academy of Medical Sciences, Shanxi Da Yi Hospital, Shanxi Da Yi Hospital affiliated to Shanxi Medical University, Taiyuan, 030032, China
| | - Junlai Song
- Department of Orthopedics, Shanxi Academy of Medical Sciences, Shanxi Da Yi Hospital, Shanxi Da Yi Hospital affiliated to Shanxi Medical University, Taiyuan, 030032, China
| | - Cong Lv
- Department of Orthopedics, Shanxi Academy of Medical Sciences, Shanxi Da Yi Hospital, Shanxi Da Yi Hospital affiliated to Shanxi Medical University, Taiyuan, 030032, China
| | - Yajun He
- Department of Orthopedics, Shanxi Academy of Medical Sciences, Shanxi Da Yi Hospital, Shanxi Da Yi Hospital affiliated to Shanxi Medical University, Taiyuan, 030032, China
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19
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Chen J, Zeng X, Li S, Zhong Z, Hu X, Xiang H, Rao Y, Zhang L, Zhou X, Xia Q, Wang T, Zhang X. Lentivirus-mediated inhibition of AQP4 accelerates motor function recovery associated with NGF in spinal cord contusion rats. Brain Res 2017; 1669:106-113. [DOI: 10.1016/j.brainres.2017.05.018] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/07/2016] [Revised: 05/15/2017] [Accepted: 05/18/2017] [Indexed: 10/19/2022]
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20
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Zhu S, Duan H, Liu Y, Li G, Liu Y, Huang M, Chen X, Xu Y. [Neuroprotective effects and mechanism of saikosaponin A on acute spinal cord injury in rats]. ZHONGGUO XIU FU CHONG JIAN WAI KE ZA ZHI = ZHONGGUO XIUFU CHONGJIAN WAIKE ZAZHI = CHINESE JOURNAL OF REPARATIVE AND RECONSTRUCTIVE SURGERY 2017; 31:825-829. [PMID: 29798527 PMCID: PMC8498148 DOI: 10.7507/1002-1892.201702106] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/28/2017] [Revised: 05/26/2017] [Indexed: 11/03/2022]
Abstract
Objective To investigate the effect of saikosaponin a (SSa) on the levels of immune inflammation in rats with acute spinal cord injury and its possible mechanism. Methods Seventy-two Sprague Dawley rats (weighing, 220-250 g) were randomly divided into sham operation group (group A), spinal cord injury group (group B), and SSa treatment group (group C) respectively, 24 rats in each group. The spinal cord injury model was induced by using the Allen's method in groups B and C; the spinous process and vertebral plate at both sides were cut off by lamina excision to expose the spinal cord in group A. The rats were given intraperitoneal injection of 10 mg/kg SSa in group C and equal volume of normal saline in group B at immediate after injury. The spinal cord tissue was harvested from 18 rats of each group at 24 hours after operation to measure the levels of tumor necrosis factor α (TNF-α) and interleukin 6 (IL-6) by ELISA, to detect the expressions of nuclear factor κB (NF-κB) P65, NF-κB P-P65, and aquaporin 4 (AQP4) by Western blot and to observe the morphology of spinal cord by HE staining. The motor function of the lower limbs was evaluated by BBB score and tiltboard experiment in 6 rats at 1, 3, 7, 14, 21, and 28 days after injury. Results The BBB score and tiltboard experiment maximum angle were significantly higher in group A than groups B and C at each time point ( P<0.05) and in group C than group B at 14, 21, and 28 days after operation ( P<0.05). ELISA test showed that the concentrations of TNF-α and IL-6 were significantly lower in group A than groups B and C, and in group C than group B ( P<0.05). Western blot results showed that the protein expression levels of NF-κB P65, NF-κB P-P65, and AQP4 were significantly lower in group A than groups B and C, and in group C than group B ( P<0.05). HE staining demonstrated normal neurons of the spinal cord and no obvious lesion in group A; neuronal cells were observed in the injured area of group B, with hemorrhage, neutrophil infiltration, and nerve cell edema in the injured area; the neuronal cells were visible in the spinal cord of group C, with microglia mild hyperplasia, and the pathological changes were improved when compared with group B. Conclusion SSa has neuroprotective effects on acute spinal cord injury in rats by inhibiting NF-κB signaling pathway and AQP4 protein expression and reducing inflammation response and edema.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shuanglong Zhu
- Graduate School, Tianjin Medical University, Tianjin, 300070, P.R.China;Department of Orthopedics, Tianjin Medical University General Hospital, Tianjin, 300052, P.R.China;Department of Brain, Affiliated Hospital, Logistics University of People's Armed Police Force, Tianjin, 300162, P.R.China
| | - Huiquan Duan
- Graduate School, Tianjin Medical University, Tianjin, 300070, P.R.China;Department of Orthopedics, Tianjin Medical University General Hospital, Tianjin, 300052, P.R.China
| | - Yingfu Liu
- Department of Cell Biology, Logistics University of People's Armed Police Force, Tianjin, 300309, P.R.China
| | - Guangzong Li
- Rescue Institute, Affiliated Hospital, Logistics University of People's Armed Police Force, Tianjin, 300162, P.R.China
| | - Yingjie Liu
- Graduate School, Tianjin Medical University, Tianjin, 300070, P.R.China;Department of Orthopedics, Tianjin Medical University General Hospital, Tianjin, 300052, P.R.China
| | - Mengqiang Huang
- Graduate School, Tianjin Medical University, Tianjin, 300070, P.R.China;Department of Orthopedics, Tianjin Medical University General Hospital, Tianjin, 300052, P.R.China
| | - Xuyi Chen
- Department of Brain, Affiliated Hospital, Logistics University of People's Armed Police Force, Tianjin, 300162,
| | - Yunqiang Xu
- Graduate School, Tianjin Medical University, Tianjin, 300070, P.R.China;Department of Orthopedics, Tianjin Medical University General Hospital, Tianjin, 300052,
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Zhang N, Wei G, Ye J, Yang L, Hong Y, Liu G, Zhong H, Cai X. Effect of curcumin on acute spinal cord injury in mice via inhibition of inflammation and TAK1 pathway. Pharmacol Rep 2017; 69:1001-1006. [PMID: 28941865 DOI: 10.1016/j.pharep.2017.02.012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/22/2016] [Revised: 01/24/2017] [Accepted: 02/09/2017] [Indexed: 10/20/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Traumatic spinal cord injury (SCI) is damage to the spinal cord that results in damaged spinal cord function. As a natural compound, curcumin has recently been shown to have anti-inflammatory and strong antioxidant activities. To investigate the effect of curcumin against acute spinal cord injury (SCI), we explored its induced effects in SCI mice. Transforming growth factor (TGF)-activated kinase 1 (TAK1) is a member of the MAPKKK family and plays an essential role in TNF, IL-1, and Toll-like receptor (TLR) signaling pathways. METHODS One hundred adult female KM mice were randomly divided into 5 groups (Control, Model, Test-L, Test-M, and Test-H). SCI was induced using the method described by Allen's. Motor function of the hindlimbs was evaluated on days 1, 7, 14, 21, and 28 after the injury using the motor rating test on the Basso mouse scale (BMS). 7 days after SCI, the levels of TNF-α, IL-1β, and IL-6 were measured by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA); the level of NO was evaluated by Griess assay; and Western blot was used to verify the levels of proteins in the TAK1 pathway. Expressions of GFAP positive cells in injured spinal cord were detected by immunohistochemical staining. RESULTS The experiment showed that curcumin markedly inhibited SCI-induced production of inflammatory mediators, including TNF-α, IL-1β, IL-6 (ELISA assay) and nitrite oxide (Griess method) in a concentration-dependent manner. Curcumin decreased the phosphorylation levels of TGF-β-activated kinase 1 (TAK1) protein, leading to decreased phosphorylation levels of MKK6 and p38 MAPKs, key players in the microglia-mediated inflammatory response. Curcumin also significantly down-regulated the expression levels of the NF-κB upstream regulators IκB and IκB kinase (IKK). Additionally, behavior research showed that curcumin-treated mice showed significantly improved functional recovery compared to untreated mice (BMS assay). The expressions of GFAP increased in the injured spinal cord segments, which were decreased by Teat-M and Teat-H at 7d after SCI. CONCLUSIONS Curcumin restores mice hind-limb function that has been reduced by SCI. This occurs by inhibition of TAK1/MKK6/p38MAPK via the TAK1 and NFκB pathways and inflammation. These results suggest the therapeutic potential for curcumin in the treatment of SCI.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nanwen Zhang
- Department of Pharmacology, School of Pharmacy, Fujian Medical University (FMU), Fuzhou, PR China.
| | - Guicai Wei
- The First Hospital of Nanping, Fujian Medical University (FMU), Nanping, PR China; Minbei Traumatic Orthopedics Research Institute, Nanping, Fujian, PR China
| | - Jian Ye
- The First Hospital of Nanping, Fujian Medical University (FMU), Nanping, PR China
| | - Lin Yang
- School of Clinical Medical, Fujian Medical University (FMU), Fuzhou, PR China
| | - Yunda Hong
- School of Clinical Medical, Fujian Medical University (FMU), Fuzhou, PR China
| | - Guisheng Liu
- School of Clinical Medical, Fujian Medical University (FMU), Fuzhou, PR China
| | - Huifen Zhong
- School of Clinical Medical, Fujian Medical University (FMU), Fuzhou, PR China
| | - Xinyi Cai
- School of Clinical Medical, Fujian Medical University (FMU), Fuzhou, PR China
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22
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Hajimashhadi Z, Aboutaleb N, Nasirinezhad F. Chronic administration of [Pyr 1] apelin-13 attenuates neuropathic pain after compression spinal cord injury in rats. Neuropeptides 2017; 61:15-22. [PMID: 27686494 DOI: 10.1016/j.npep.2016.08.010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/18/2016] [Revised: 08/30/2016] [Accepted: 08/31/2016] [Indexed: 10/21/2022]
Abstract
Apelin is an endogenous ligand for apelin receptor (APJ) with analgesic effect on visceral, analgesic and proanalgesic influences on acute pains in animal models. The purpose of this study was to determine the possible analgesic effects of [Pyr1] apelin-13 on chronic pain after spinal cord injury (SCI) in rats. Animals were randomly divided into three major groups as intact, sham and SCI. The SCI group randomly allocated to four subgroups as no treatment, vehicle-treatment (normal saline: 10μl, intrathecally) and two subgroups with intrathecal injection (i.t) of 1μg and 5μg of [Pyr1] apelin-13. After laminectomy at T6-T8 level, spinal cord compression injury was induced using an aneurysm clip. Vehicle or [Pyr1] apelin-13 injected from day1 post SCI and continued for a week on a daily basis. Pain behaviors and locomotor activity were monitored up to 8weeks. At the end of the experiments, intracardial paraformaldehyde perfusion was made under deep anesthesia in some animals for histological and immunohistochemistry evaluations. Western blot technique was also done to detect caspase-3 in fresh spinal cord tissues. SCI decreased nociceptive thresholds and locomotor scores. Administration of [Pyr1] apelin-13 (1μg and 5μg) improved locomotor activity and reduced pain symptoms, cavity size and caspase-3 levels. Results showed long-term beneficial effects of [Pyr1] apelin-13 on neuropathic pain and locomotion. Therefore, we may suggest [Pyr1] apelin-13 as a new option for further neuropathic pain research and a suitable candidate for ensuing clinical trials in spinal cord injury arena.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zahra Hajimashhadi
- Department of Physiology, Tehran University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran
| | - Nahid Aboutaleb
- Physiology Research Center, Iran University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran; Department of Physiology, Medical School, Iran University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran
| | - Farinaz Nasirinezhad
- Physiology Research Center, Iran University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran; Department of Physiology, Medical School, Iran University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran.
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Yonan JM, Binder DK. Aquaporin-4 and spinal cord injury. World J Neurol 2016; 6:1-13. [DOI: 10.5316/wjn.v6.i1.1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/26/2015] [Revised: 12/25/2015] [Accepted: 01/19/2016] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
Edema formation is a major problem following traumatic spinal cord injury (SCI) that acts to exacerbate secondary damage. Severity of edema correlates with reduced neurological outcome in human patients. To date, there are no effective treatments to directly resolve edema within the spinal cord. The aquaporin-4 (AQP4) water channel is found on membranes of astrocytic endfeet in direct contact with blood vessels, the glia limitans in contact with the cerebrospinal fluid and ependyma around the central canal. Being so locally expressed at the interface between fluid and tissue allow AQP4 channels to play an important role in the bidirectional regulation of water homeostasis under normal conditions and following trauma. With the need to better understand the pathophysiology underlying the devastating cellular events in SCI, animal models have become an integral part of exploration. Inevitably, several injury models have been developed (contusion, compression, transection) resulting in difficult interpretation between studies with conflicting results. This is true in the case of understanding the role of AQP4 in the progression and resolution of edema following SCI, whose role is still not completely understood and is highly dependent on the type of edema present (vasogenic vs cytotoxic). Here, we discuss regulation of AQP4 in varying injury models and the effects of potential therapeutic interventions on expression, edema formation and functional recovery. Better understanding of the precise role of AQP4 following a wide range of injuries will help to understand optimal treatment timing following human SCI for prime therapeutic benefit and enhanced neurological outcome.
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