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Vinod P, Krishnappa V, Rathell W, Amir S, Sundil S, Dogbey G, Patel H, Herzog W. Effect of Aspirin Use on the Adverse Outcomes in Patients Hospitalized for COVID-19. Cardiol Res 2024; 15:179-188. [PMID: 38994222 PMCID: PMC11236346 DOI: 10.14740/cr1645] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/31/2024] [Accepted: 05/02/2024] [Indexed: 07/13/2024] Open
Abstract
Background Coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) triggers multiple components of the immune system and causes inflammation of endothelial walls across vascular beds, resulting in respiratory failure, arterial and venous thrombosis, myocardial injury, and multi-organ failure leading to death. Early in the COVID-19 pandemic, aspirin was suggested for the treatment of symptomatic individuals, given its analgesic, antipyretic, anti-inflammatory, anti-thrombotic, and antiviral effects. This study aimed to evaluate the association of aspirin use with various clinical outcomes in patients hospitalized for COVID-19. Methods This was a retrospective study involving patients aged ≥ 18 years and hospitalized for COVID-19 from March 2020 to October 2020. Primary outcomes were acute cardiovascular events (ST elevation myocardial infarction (STEMI), type 1 non-ST elevation myocardial infarction (NSTEMI), acute congestive heart failure (CHF), and acute stroke) and death. Secondary outcomes were respiratory failure, need for mechanical ventilation, and acute deep vein thrombosis (DVT)/pulmonary embolism (PE). Results Of 376 patients hospitalized for COVID-19, 128 were taking aspirin. Significant proportions of native Americans were hospitalized for COVID-19 in both aspirin (22.7%) and non-aspirin (24.6%) groups. Between aspirin and non-aspirin groups, no significant differences were found with regard to mechanical ventilator support (21.1% vs. 15.3%, P = 0.16), acute cardiovascular events (7.8% vs. 5.2%, P = 0.32), acute DVT/PE (3.9% vs. 5.2%, P = 0.9), readmission rate (13.3% vs. 12.9%, P = 0.91) and mortality (23.4% vs. 20.2%, P = 0.5); however, the median duration of mechanical ventilation was significantly shorter (7 vs. 9 days, P = 0.04) and median length of hospitalization was significantly longer (5.5 vs. 4 days, P = 0.01) in aspirin group compared to non-aspirin group. Conclusion No significant differences were found in acute cardiovascular events, acute DVT/PE, mechanical ventilator support, and mortality rate between hospitalized COVID-19 patients who were taking aspirin compared to those not taking aspirin. However, larger studies are required to confirm our findings.
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Affiliation(s)
- Poornima Vinod
- Department of Internal Medicine, University of North Carolina Health Southeastern, Lumberton, NC, USA
- Department of Medicine, Campbell University, Buies Creek, NC, USA
| | - Vinod Krishnappa
- Department of Internal Medicine, University of North Carolina Health Southeastern, Lumberton, NC, USA
| | - William Rathell
- Department of Internal Medicine, University of North Carolina Health Southeastern, Lumberton, NC, USA
| | - Saira Amir
- Department of Nephrology, University of Maryland, Baltimore, MD, USA
| | - Subrina Sundil
- Department of Nephrology, East Carolina University, Greenville, NC, USA
| | - Godwin Dogbey
- Campbell University School of Osteopathic Medicine, Buies Creek, NC, USA
| | - Hiten Patel
- Department of Cardiology, University of North Carolina Health Southeastern, Lumberton, NC, USA
| | - William Herzog
- Department of Cardiology, University of North Carolina Health Southeastern, Lumberton, NC, USA
- Department of Cardiology, Duke University, Durham, NC, USA
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Ricci E, Glavasc A, Morandini B, Grassi MC, La Torre G. The Effectiveness of Paracetamol to Reduce the Post-Vaccination SARS-CoV-2 Adverse Effects in an Italian Vaccination Center. Vaccines (Basel) 2023; 11:1493. [PMID: 37766169 PMCID: PMC10534772 DOI: 10.3390/vaccines11091493] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/27/2023] [Revised: 09/13/2023] [Accepted: 09/14/2023] [Indexed: 09/29/2023] Open
Abstract
The arrival of specific vaccines was crucial for the eradication of COVID-19. Despite the security of the vaccination, the administration of COVID-19 mRNA vaccines often causes systemic side effects for a short time after the injection, such as headache, fatigue, fever, muscle pain and nausea. These side effects can limit the adherence to COVID-19 vaccines administration, especially in healthcare workers. This study aims to analyze the impact of the prophylactic use of paracetamol to reduce the post-vaccination Comirnaty/Pfizer adverse effects. The study took place at the San Giovanni Battista Hospital in Rome and included all hospital employees who received two doses of Pfizer-BioNTech. The vaccination health personnel recommended the preventive intake of 1 g of paracetamol before the inoculation of the vaccine and then every 6 h in the first 24 h. Information was collected through forms and subsequent telephone recall. A total of 403 volunteers were involved in the study, with 391 of them receiving two doses and twelve individuals only one dose of the vaccine. The main results demonstrated that the prophylactic therapy influenced the lower onset of asthenia in the first and second doses. However, there were no significant differences between the two groups in terms of fever, headache and localized pain. Paracetamol had a good impact on the side effect of COVID-19 vaccination, reducing asthenia in both doses and mitigating the total of symptoms during the second vaccination.
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Affiliation(s)
- Eleonora Ricci
- Department of Public Health and Infectious Diseases, Sapienza University of Rome, 00185 Rome, Italy;
| | - Anamaria Glavasc
- San Giovanni Battista Hospital, 00148 Roma, Italy; (A.G.); (B.M.)
| | | | - Maria Caterina Grassi
- Department of Physiology and Pharmacology “V. Erspamer”, Sapienza University of Rome, 00185 Rome, Italy;
| | - Giuseppe La Torre
- Department of Public Health and Infectious Diseases, Sapienza University of Rome, 00185 Rome, Italy;
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Yuan X, Han S, Manyande A, Gao F, Wang J, Zhang W, Tian X. Spinal voltage-gated potassium channel Kv1.3 contributes to neuropathic pain via the promotion of microglial M1 polarization and activation of the NLRP3 inflammasome. Eur J Pain 2023; 27:289-302. [PMID: 36440534 DOI: 10.1002/ejp.2059] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/13/2022] [Revised: 10/06/2022] [Accepted: 11/22/2022] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUD Studies have shown that the activation of microglia is the main mechanism of neuropathic pain. Kv1.3 channel is a novel therapeutic target for treating neuroinflammatory disorders due to its crucial role in subsets of microglial cells. As such, it may be involved in the processes of neuropathic pain, however, whether Kv1.3 plays a role in neuroinflammation following peripheral nerve injury is unclear. METHOD The spared nerve injury model (SNI) was used to establish neuropathic pain. Western blot and immunofluorescence were used to examine the effect of Kv1.3 in the SNI rats. PAP-1, a Kv1.3 specific blocker was administered to alleviate neuropathic pain in the SNI rats. RESULTS Neuropathic pain and allodynia occurred after SNI, the levels of M1 (CD68, iNos) and M2 (CD206, Arg-1) phenotypes were up-regulated in the spinal cord, and the protein levels of NLRP3, caspase-1 and IL-1β were also increased. Pharmacological blocking of Kv1.3 with PAP-1 alleviated hyperpathia induced by SNI. Meanwhile, intrathecal injection of PAP-1 reduced M1 polarization and decreased NLRP3, caspase-1 and IL-1β expressions of protein levels. CONCLUSION Our research indicates that the Kv1.3 channel in the spinal cord contributes to neuropathic pain by promoting microglial M1 polarization and activating the NLRP3 inflammasome.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xiaoman Yuan
- Department of Anesthesiology, Tongji Hospital, Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Hubei, China
| | - Siyi Han
- Department of Anesthesiology, Tongji Hospital, Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Hubei, China
| | - Anne Manyande
- School of Human and Social Sciences, University of West London, London, UK
| | - Feng Gao
- Department of Anesthesiology, Tongji Hospital, Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Hubei, China
| | - Jie Wang
- State Key Laboratory of Magnetic Resonance and Atomic and Molecular Physics, Key Laboratory of Magnetic Resonance in Biological Systems, Wuhan Center for Magnetic Resonance, Wuhan Institute of Physics and Mathematics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Wuhan, China
| | - Wen Zhang
- Department of Anesthesiology, Tongji Hospital, Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Hubei, China
| | - Xuebi Tian
- Department of Anesthesiology, Tongji Hospital, Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Hubei, China
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Hromić-Jahjefendić A, Barh D, Uversky V, Aljabali AA, Tambuwala MM, Alzahrani KJ, Alzahrani FM, Alshammeri S, Lundstrom K. Can COVID-19 Vaccines Induce Premature Non-Communicable Diseases: Where Are We Heading to? Vaccines (Basel) 2023; 11:vaccines11020208. [PMID: 36851087 PMCID: PMC9960675 DOI: 10.3390/vaccines11020208] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/23/2022] [Revised: 01/05/2023] [Accepted: 01/13/2023] [Indexed: 01/20/2023] Open
Abstract
According to the WHO, as of January 2023, more than 850 million cases and over 6.6 million deaths from COVID-19 have been reported worldwide. Currently, the death rate has been reduced due to the decreased pathogenicity of new SARS-CoV-2 variants, but the major factor in the reduced death rates is the administration of more than 12.8 billion vaccine doses globally. While the COVID-19 vaccines are saving lives, serious side effects have been reported after vaccinations for several premature non-communicable diseases (NCDs). However, the reported adverse events are low in number. The scientific community must investigate the entire spectrum of COVID-19-vaccine-induced complications so that necessary safety measures can be taken, and current vaccines can be re-engineered to avoid or minimize their side effects. We describe in depth severe adverse events for premature metabolic, mental, and neurological disorders; cardiovascular, renal, and autoimmune diseases, and reproductive health issues detected after COVID-19 vaccinations and whether these are causal or incidental. In any case, it has become clear that the benefits of vaccinations outweigh the risks by a large margin. However, pre-existing conditions in vaccinated individuals need to be taken into account in the prevention and treatment of adverse events.
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Affiliation(s)
- Altijana Hromić-Jahjefendić
- Department of Genetics and Bioengineering, Faculty of Engineering and Natural Sciences, International University of Sarajevo, Hrasnicka Cesta 15, 71000 Sarajevo, Bosnia and Herzegovina
| | - Debmalya Barh
- Department of Genetics, Ecology and Evolution, Institute of Biological Sciences, Federal University of Minas Gerais, Belo Horizonte 31270-901, Brazil
- Institute of Integrative Omics and Applied Biotechnology (IIOAB), Nonakuri, Purba Medinipur 721172, India
- Correspondence: (D.B.); (K.L.)
| | - Vladimir Uversky
- Department of Molecular Medicine and USF Health Byrd Alzheimer's Institute, Morsani College of Medicine, University of South Florida, Tampa, FL 33612, USA
| | - Alaa A. Aljabali
- Department of Pharmaceutics and Pharmaceutical Technology, Faculty of Pharmacy, Yarmouk University, P.O. Box 566, Irbid 21163, Jordan
| | - Murtaza M. Tambuwala
- Lincoln Medical School, Brayford Pool Campus, University of Lincoln, Lincoln LN6 7TS, UK
| | - Khalid J. Alzahrani
- Department of Clinical Laboratories Sciences, College of Applied Medical Sciences, Taif University, P.O. Box 11099, Taif 21944, Saudi Arabia
| | - Fuad M. Alzahrani
- Department of Clinical Laboratories Sciences, College of Applied Medical Sciences, Taif University, P.O. Box 11099, Taif 21944, Saudi Arabia
| | - Saleh Alshammeri
- Department of Optometry, College of Applied Medical Sciences, Qassim University, Buraydah 51452, Saudi Arabia
| | - Kenneth Lundstrom
- PanTherapeutics, Route de Lavaux 49, CH1095 Lutry, Switzerland
- Correspondence: (D.B.); (K.L.)
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Cui L, Peng C, Li J, Cheng X, Fan X, Li J, Yang Z, Zhao Y, Ma Y. The anti-inflammatory and analgesic activities of 2Br-Crebanine and Stephanine from Stephania yunnanenses H. S.Lo. Front Pharmacol 2023; 13:1092583. [PMID: 36686697 PMCID: PMC9845599 DOI: 10.3389/fphar.2022.1092583] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/08/2022] [Accepted: 12/15/2022] [Indexed: 01/05/2023] Open
Abstract
Ethnopharmacological relevance: Crebanine (Cre) and Stephanine (Step) are isoquinoline aporphine-type alkaloids that are extracted from Stephania yunnanenses H. S. Lo. Plants of the Stephania genus are often used for treatment of stomach pain, abdominal pain, and rheumatoid arthritis. Both Cre and Step exhibit strong activities but are also associated with a certain level of toxicity, 10,11-dibrominecrebanine (2Br-Cre) is a bromine-modified derivative of Cre that we prepared and tested in order to reduce toxicity and enhance efficacy. Aim of this study: To investigate the anti-inflammatory and analgesic effects of 2Br-Cre and Step based on previous research findings and explore the specific biological mechanisms involved. Materials and methods: The anti-inflammatory and analgesic effects of 2Br-Cre and Step were investigated using a range of experimental models, including xylene-induced ear edema, carrageenan-induced pleurisy, carrageenan-induced paw edema, the hot-plate test, the naloxone antagonism test and the acetic acid writhing test. A model of chronic constriction injury (CCI) of the sciatic nerve was also established to investigate therapeutic effects. A RAW264.7 cell model was established using lipopolysaccharide (LPS) to estimate the effects of these compounds on cytokines levels. Results: 2Br-Cre and step significantly inhibited ear edema, paw edema and presented anti-inflammatory activity in the pleurisy model by inhibiting leukocyte migration and nitric oxide (NO) production, and by reducing the levels of PGE2. 2Br-Cre and Step significantly increased the pain threshold of mice subjected to heat stimulation; the effect was blocked by naloxone, thus suggesting that the analgesic effects of 2Br-Cre and Step were mediated by opioid receptors. 2Br-Cre and Step inhibited the frequency of writhing and prolonged the latency of writhing, and reduced the abnormal increase in the levels of BDNF in the serum and brain, thus alleviating the pain caused by CCI. In addition, 2Br-Cre and Step significantly inhibited the production of several inflammatory cytokines (IL-6, IL-1β and TNF-α) by LPS-induced RAW264.7 macrophages (p < .01). Conclusion: 2Br-Cre and Step exerted remarkable anti-inflammatory and analgesic effects. As a structural modification of Cre, 2Br-Cre retains the anti-inflammatory and analgesic activity of Cre but with better efficacy. Consequently, 2Br-Cre should be investigated further as a lead compound for analgesia.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lili Cui
- School of Pharmacy, Nanjing University of Chinese Medicine, Nanjing, China
| | - Chaorui Peng
- Yunnan Xinxing Occupations College, Kunming, China
| | - Jun Li
- School of Chinese Material Medicine and Yunnan Key Laboratory of Dai and Yi Medicines, Yunnan University of Chinese Medicine, Kunming, China
| | - Xin Cheng
- School of Chinese Material Medicine and Yunnan Key Laboratory of Dai and Yi Medicines, Yunnan University of Chinese Medicine, Kunming, China
| | - Xiao Fan
- Key Laboratory of External Drug Delivery System and Preparation Technology in University of Yunnan Province, Kunming, China
| | - Jingyu Li
- Yunnan Center for Disease Control and Prevention, Kunming, China
| | - Zixian Yang
- School of Chinese Material Medicine and Yunnan Key Laboratory of Dai and Yi Medicines, Yunnan University of Chinese Medicine, Kunming, China
| | - Yuancui Zhao
- Health Center of Majie Town of Yiliang, Kunming, China
| | - Yunshu Ma
- School of Chinese Material Medicine and Yunnan Key Laboratory of Dai and Yi Medicines, Yunnan University of Chinese Medicine, Kunming, China,*Correspondence: Yunshu Ma,
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Sato Y, Kuwana R, Kazama I. Suppressing leukocyte Kv1.3-channels by commonly used drugs: A novel therapeutic target for schizophrenia? Drug Discov Ther 2022; 16:93-95. [PMID: 35444072 DOI: 10.5582/ddt.2022.01031] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/05/2022]
Abstract
Recent studies revealed the involvement of "chronic inflammation" in the pathogenesis of schizophrenia. In schizophrenia and some neurodegenerative disorders that are caused by inflammation, T-lymphocytes and macrophages were hyperactivated or proliferated in the central nervous system, being accompanied by the overexpression of delayed rectifier K+-channels (Kv1.3) within the cells. In our previous basic studies, in addition to nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) and statins, antibiotics (clarithromycin, chloroquine), anti-hypertensive drugs (nifedipine, benidipine, diltiazem, verapamil) and anti-allergic drugs (cetirizine, fexofenadine, azelastine, terfenadine) strongly suppressed the Kv1.3-channel activity and pro-inflammatory cytokine production from lymphocytes. Given such pharmacological properties of these commonly used drugs, they may be useful in the treatment of schizophrenia, in which the enhanced cellular immunity and the subsequent release of excessive cytokines are responsible for the pathogenesis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yasuhiro Sato
- Miyagi University, School of Nursing, Taiwa-cho, Miyagi, Japan
| | - Ryo Kuwana
- Miyagi University, School of Nursing, Taiwa-cho, Miyagi, Japan
| | - Itsuro Kazama
- Miyagi University, School of Nursing, Taiwa-cho, Miyagi, Japan
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Rzymski P, Sikora D, Zeyland J, Poniedziałek B, Kiedik D, Falfushynska H, Fal A. Frequency and Nuisance Level of Adverse Events in Individuals Receiving Homologous and Heterologous COVID-19 Booster Vaccine. Vaccines (Basel) 2022; 10:vaccines10050754. [PMID: 35632510 PMCID: PMC9147708 DOI: 10.3390/vaccines10050754] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/08/2022] [Revised: 05/09/2022] [Accepted: 05/10/2022] [Indexed: 02/01/2023] Open
Abstract
This study aimed to compare the occurrence and nuisance of adverse events following administration of each COVID-19 vaccine dose between two groups: individuals given three doses of mRNA vaccine (homologous group, 3 × mRNA, n = 252) and those given two doses of adenoviral vector vaccine further boosted with mRNA vaccine (heterologous group, 2 × AZ + 1 × mRNA, n = 205). Although the studied groups differed significantly in the frequency and number of side effects after the first and second vaccine dose, no relevant differences were seen following the booster administration. Arm pain and fatigue were the most common effects, regardless of the vaccination group and vaccine dose. In the homologous group, female sex, lower BMI, and no history of regular influenza vaccination were associated with a higher frequency of side effects of a booster dose. In the heterologous group, the history of COVID-19 was associated with an increased number of side effects seen after a booster. In both groups, the number of side effects related to the first and second dose correlated with the number observed after administration of a booster dose. Individuals receiving a homologous booster reported a higher nuisance of side effects than the heterologous group. It was similar to the level reported after the second dose in both groups. The use of pharmaceuticals to counteract the side effects was more frequent after a first dose in the 2 × AZ + 1 × mRNA group, but higher after second dose in individuals receiving the 3 × mRNA vaccination scheme. The frequency of pharmaceutical use after a booster dose was similar in both groups (approx. 60%). Paracetamol was most frequently chosen, regardless of the group and vaccine dose. In addition, the vast majority of participants (93%) declared to accept future doses of the COVID-19 vaccine if their administration would be recommended. This study provides an overview of the response to homologous and heterologous mRNA vaccine booster dose that may be valuable in shaping accurate and honest communication with vaccinated individuals, especially in those regions which are yet to pursue booster strategies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Piotr Rzymski
- Department of Environmental Medicine, Poznan University of Medical Sciences, 60-806 Poznań, Poland; (D.S.); (B.P.)
- Integrated Science Association (ISA), Universal Scientific Education and Research Network (USERN), 60-806 Poznań, Poland
- Correspondence: (P.R.); (A.F.)
| | - Dominika Sikora
- Department of Environmental Medicine, Poznan University of Medical Sciences, 60-806 Poznań, Poland; (D.S.); (B.P.)
- Doctoral School, Poznan University of Medical Sciences, Fredry St. 10, 61-701 Poznań, Poland
| | - Joanna Zeyland
- Department of Biochemistry and Biotechnology, Poznań University of Life Sciences, 60-632 Poznań, Poland;
| | - Barbara Poniedziałek
- Department of Environmental Medicine, Poznan University of Medical Sciences, 60-806 Poznań, Poland; (D.S.); (B.P.)
| | - Dorota Kiedik
- Department of Population Health, Division of Public Health, Wroclaw Medical University, 50-345 Wroclaw, Poland;
| | - Halina Falfushynska
- Department of Orthopedagogy and Physical Therapy, Ternopil V. Hnatiuk National Pedagogical University, 46027 Ternopil, Ukraine;
| | - Andrzej Fal
- Department of Population Health, Division of Public Health, Wroclaw Medical University, 50-345 Wroclaw, Poland;
- Collegium Medicum, Warsaw Faculty of Medicine, Cardinal Stefan Wyszyński University, 01-938 Warsaw, Poland
- Correspondence: (P.R.); (A.F.)
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COVID-19 Medical and Pharmacological Management in the European Countries Compared to Italy: An Overview. INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH AND PUBLIC HEALTH 2022; 19:ijerph19074262. [PMID: 35409942 PMCID: PMC8998583 DOI: 10.3390/ijerph19074262] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/17/2022] [Revised: 03/16/2022] [Accepted: 03/30/2022] [Indexed: 02/01/2023]
Abstract
(1) Background: Italy accounts for more than 150,000 deaths due to the COVID-19 pandemic, leading the top rank in SARS-CoV-2-caused deceases in Europe. A survey on the different ways by which the COVID-19 pandemic emergency was managed in the foreign European countries compared to Italy is the purpose of this paper. (2) Methods: A literature search and various mathematical algorithms to approach a rank scoring scale were used to describe in detail the different approaches used by European countries to manage the COVID-19 pandemic emergency. (3) Results: The study showed that Italy stands at the bottom ranking for COVID-19 management due to its high mortality rate. Possible causes of the observed huge numbers of hospitalization and deaths were (a) the demographic composition of the European country; (b) its decentralized healthcare system organization; (c) the role of correct pharmacology in the early stages before hospitalization. Post-mortem examinations were of paramount importance to elucidate the etiopathogenesis of COVID-19 and to tailor a suitable and proper therapy in the early symptomatic stages of COVID-19, preventing hospitalization. (4) Conclusions: Factors such as the significant impact on elderly people, the public health organization prevalently state-owned and represented mainly by hospitals, and criticism of the home therapy approach toward SARS-CoV-2-infected people, may have concurred in increasing the number of COVID-19 deaths in Italy.
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