The history, fungal biodiversity, conservation, and future perspectives for mycology in Egypt

Diversity of Toxigenic Fungi in Livestock and Poultry Feedstuffs

The purpose of this study was to discover how abundant toxigenic fungi and mycotoxins are in animal feedstuff samples. A total of ninety samples representing various types of animal feedstuff samples were collected from ninety sites in Egypt. Isolation, identification, and determination of mycotoxins (aflatoxins B1, B2, G1, G2, and ochratoxin A) were performed. The results revealed that 79 (87.77%) of the samples were contaminated with fungi, and 1.1 × 10⁵ CFU/g were recovered, including 41 fungal species belonging to 18 genera, such as Zygomycota, which was represented by three species (7.31% of the total species number), teleomorphic Ascomycota (10 species, 24.39%), and anamorphic Ascomycota (28 species, 69.29%). When taxonomically investigated, these species were categorized into 2 phyla, 4 classes, 6 orders, and 12 families (one of them with an uncertain position). Moreover, the genus Aspergillus exhibited 16 species (39.02%). Notably, site no. 6 showed the highest Margalef species richness index at 10.87 followed by site no. 4, while the Shannon diversity index (H) of the recovered taxa was 2.20. Based on the frequency of occurrence, Aspergillus flavus recorded the highest percentage (65.56%) followed by A. niger (50%) and Penicillium chrysogenum (40%). Genus Aspergillus was recorded in 75 samples (88.33%), while Penicillium appeared only in 43 samples, accounting for 47.77% out of 90 samples. The High-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) analysis showed that aflatoxin B1 (AFB1) was recorded in two animal feedstuff samples at a ratio of 0.851 and 1.363 µg/kg, While AFB2 was discovered in only one animal feedstuff sample at a ratio of 0.479 g/kg. The aflatoxins levels in the positive samples (AFB1 and AFB2) Beef cattle sample components were below the permissible limit for animal feedstuff which is (20 g/kg). Although aflatoxins were found in certain samples, the amounts were much below the maximum residue limits (MRLs) defined by the international authorities or Egyptian guidelines. toxigenic fungi found in contaminated animal feed samples pose a major threat to animal and poultry health, productivity, and even human health. Therefore, periodic monitoring is an excellent way to keep track of their existence and mitigate their hazards.

Antimicrobial, Antioxidant, Cytotoxic Activities and Phytochemical Analysis of Fungal Endophytes Isolated from Ocimum Basilicum

Fungal endophytes are living inside plants without any harmful effects; the prospecting about them is increased day by day because they can produce bioactive compounds which can be used in different applications. Herein, the current study was aimed to isolate the endophytic fungi from the Ocimum basilicum plant as safe microorganisms and evaluate their biological activities. The results illustrated that three endophytic fungal strains were isolated and identified morphologically and genetically as Aspergillus nidulans, Aspergillus fumigatus, and Aspergillus flavus and deposited in gene bank under accession numbers MZ045561, MZ045562, and MZ045563 respectively. Moreover, cell-free filtrates of endophytic fungal strains were extracted using ethyl acetate, where these crude extracts exhibited promising antimicrobial activity against Staphylococcus aureus, Bacillus cereus, Bacillus subtilis, Escherichia coli, Salmonella typhimurium, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Klebsiella pneumonia, and Candida albicans at a concentration of 1000 µg/mL. Furthermore, these endophytic strains exhibited a potential antioxidant activity where IC₅₀ of the crude extract of A. nidulans, A. fumigatus, and A. flavus were (166.3, 68.4, and 347.1 µg/mL) and (151.2, 77.9, and 246.3 µg/mL) using DPPH and ABTS methods, respectively. Furthermore, the ethyl acetate crude extracts of these endophytic fungi did not exhibit any cytotoxic effect against Vero and Wi 38 normal cells. GC-MS analysis of the crude extract of A. nidulans, A. fumigatus, and A. flavus indicated the presence of 22, 22, and 20 active compounds, respectively. The major compounds in the fungal extracts are belonging to fatty acids, fatty acid esters, tetrahydrofurans, and sterols. In conclusion, the isolated endophytic A. nidulans, A. fumigatus, and A. flavus from Ocimum basilicum are promising sources for bioactive compounds.

Antimicrobial, Antioxidant, Cytotoxic Activities and Phytochemical Analysis of Fungal Endophytes Isolated from Ocimum Basilicum

Fungal endophytes are living inside plants without any harmful effects; the prospecting about them is increased day by day because they can produce bioactive compounds which can be used in different applications. Herein, the current study was aimed to isolate the endophytic fungi from the Ocimum basilicum plant as safe microorganisms and evaluate their biological activities. The results illustrated that three endophytic fungal strains were isolated and identified morphologically and genetically as Aspergillus nidulans, Aspergillus fumigatus, and Aspergillus flavus and deposited in gene bank under accession numbers MZ045561, MZ045562, and MZ045563 respectively. Moreover, cell-free filtrates of endophytic fungal strains were extracted using ethyl acetate, where these crude extracts exhibited promising antimicrobial activity against Staphylococcus aureus, Bacillus cereus, Bacillus subtilis, Escherichia coli, Salmonella typhimurium, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Klebsiella pneumonia, and Candida albicans at a concentration of 1000 µg/mL. Furthermore, these endophytic strains exhibited a potential antioxidant activity where IC₅₀ of the crude extract of A. nidulans, A. fumigatus, and A. flavus were (166.3, 68.4, and 347.1 µg/mL) and (151.2, 77.9, and 246.3 µg/mL) using DPPH and ABTS methods, respectively. Furthermore, the ethyl acetate crude extracts of these endophytic fungi did not exhibit any cytotoxic effect against Vero and Wi 38 normal cells. GC-MS analysis of the crude extract of A. nidulans, A. fumigatus, and A. flavus indicated the presence of 22, 22, and 20 active compounds, respectively. The major compounds in the fungal extracts are belonging to fatty acids, fatty acid esters, tetrahydrofurans, and sterols. In conclusion, the isolated endophytic A. nidulans, A. fumigatus, and A. flavus from Ocimum basilicum are promising sources for bioactive compounds.

Lectins purified from medicinal and edible mushrooms: Insights into their antiviral activity against pathogenic viruses

For thousands of years, fungi have been a valuable and promising source of therapeutic agents for treatment of various diseases. Mushroom is a macrofungus which has been cultivated worldwide for its nutritional value and medicinal applications. Several bioactive molecules were extracted from mushroom such as polysaccharides, lectins and terpenoids. Lectins are carbohydrate-binding proteins with non-immunologic origin. Lectins were classified according to their structure, origin and sugar specificity. This protein has different binding specificity with surface glycan moiety which determines its activity and therapeutic applications. A wide range of medicinal activities such as antitumor, antiviral, antimicrobial, immunomodulatory and antidiabetic were reported from sugar-binding proteins. However, glycan-binding protein from mushroom is not well explored as antiviral agent. The discovery of novel antiviral agents is a public health emergency to overcome the current pandemic and be ready for the upcoming viral pandemics. The mechanism of action of lectin against viruses targets numerous steps in viral life cycle such as viral attachment, entry and replication. This review described the history, classification, purification techniques, structure-function relationship and different therapeutic applications of mushroom lectin. In addition, we focus on the antiviral activity, purification and physicochemical characteristics of some mushroom lectins.

Effect of increasing oxygen partial pressure on Saccharomyces cerevisiae growth and antioxidant and enzyme productions

This study investigated the impact of oxygen partial pressure on yeast growth. Saccharomyces cerevisiae cells were exposed to various hyperbaric air conditions from 1 bar to 9 bar absolute pressure (A). Batch cultures were grown under continuous airflow in a 750 mL (500 mL culture) bioreactor and monitored through growth rate and specific yields of ethanol and glycerol. In addition, the concentrations of antioxidant metabolites glutathione (reduced state, GSH and oxidized state, GSSG) and the activity of antioxidative enzymes superoxide dismutases (SOD) and catalases (CAT) were monitored. The results demonstrated that the different oxygen partial pressures significantly impacted the key growth parameters monitored. Compared with atmospheric pressure, under 2 to 5 bar (A), yeast cells showed higher growth rates (μ = 0.32 ± 0.01 h^-1) and higher catalase (CAT) concentrations (214 ± 5 mU/g). GSH/GSSG ratio (6.36 ± 0.37) maintained until 6 bar (A) and total SOD (240 ± 5 mU/g) level significantly increased compared with 2 bar (A) until 7 bar (A). Under 6 to 9 bar (A), cell growth was inhibited, and a pressure of 9 bar (A) led to excessive GSSG accumulation (GSH/GSSG = 0.31 ± 0.06). The inhibition of t-SOD (160 ± 3 mU/g) and CAT (62.73 ± 0.2 mU/g) was observed under 9 bar (A). A reference experiment (8 bar (A) N₂ + 1 bar (A) air) confirmed that the observed behaviors were entirely due to O₂. In addition to their utility in biotechnological process design, these results showed that growth impairment was solely due to oxidative stress induced by excessive oxygen pressure. KEY POINTS: • Yeast cells were grown in batch mode under 1 to 9 bar (A) air pressures and up to 5 bar (A) promoted then hindered growth. • The GSH/GSSG ratio was stable up to 5 bar (A) then GSSG accumulated to excess. • Complementary investigations of the activity of SOD and CAT validated growth limitations due to oxidative stress.

Applying Taguchi design and large-scale strategy for mycosynthesis of nano-silver from endophytic Trichoderma harzianum SYA.F4 and its application against phytopathogens

Development of reliable and low-cost requirement for large-scale eco-friendly biogenic synthesis of metallic nanoparticles is an important step for industrial applications of bionanotechnology. In the present study, the mycosynthesis of spherical nano-Ag (12.7 ± 0.8 nm) from extracellular filtrate of local endophytic T. harzianum SYA.F4 strain which have interested mixed bioactive metabolites (alkaloids, flavonoids, tannins, phenols, nitrate reductase (320 nmol/hr/ml), carbohydrate (25 μg/μl) and total protein concentration (2.5 g/l) was reported. Industrial mycosynthesis of nano-Ag can be induced with different characters depending on the fungal cultivation and physical conditions. Taguchi design was applied to improve the physicochemical conditions for nano-Ag production, and the optimum conditions which increased its mass weight 3 times larger than a basal condition were as follows: AgNO3 (0.01 M), diluted reductant (10 v/v, pH 5) and incubated at 30 °C, 200 rpm for 24 hr. Kinetic conversion rates in submerged batch cultivation in 7 L stirred tank bioreactor on using semi-defined cultivation medium was as follows: the maximum biomass production (Xmax) and maximum nano-Ag mass weight (Pmax) calculated (60.5 g/l and 78.4 g/l respectively). The best nano-Ag concentration that formed large inhibition zones was 100 μg/ml which showed against A.alternate (43 mm) followed by Helminthosporium sp. (35 mm), Botrytis sp. (32 mm) and P. arenaria (28 mm).

A fungal perspective on conservation biology

Hitherto fungi have rarely been considered in conservation biology, but this is changing as the field moves from addressing single species issues to an integrative ecosystem-based approach. The current emphasis on biodiversity as a provider of ecosystem services throws the spotlight on the vast diversity of fungi, their crucial roles in terrestrial ecosystems, and the benefits of considering fungi in concert with animals and plants. We reviewed the role of fungi in ecosystems and composed an overview of the current state of conservation of fungi. There are 5 areas in which fungi can be readily integrated into conservation: as providers of habitats and processes important for other organisms; as indicators of desired or undesired trends in ecosystem functioning; as indicators of habitats of conservation value; as providers of powerful links between human societies and the natural world because of their value as food, medicine, and biotechnological tools; and as sources of novel tools and approaches for conservation of megadiverse organism groups. We hope conservation professionals will value the potential of fungi, engage mycologists in their work, and appreciate the crucial role of fungi in nature.

The status of mycology in Africa: A document to promote awareness

The African Mycological Association (AMA) promotes mycology amongst members in Africa and globally. The AMA has about 200 members, mostly from African states but also with strong representation from Europe and USA, amongst others. Recent efforts by members of the AMA focused on reviving and developing mycological research and networking in Africa. A great deal must, however, still be done to promote the AMA under African mycologists, and those elsewhere with interests in Africa. African mycologists also experience challenges typical of the developing world and a great deal of fungi still needs to be discovered. This can also be seen as representing great opportunities for research and collaboration. Several issues pertinent to mycology in Africa were discussed during Special Interest Group sessions of the 9th International Mycological Congress in 2010, and through several opinion pieces contributed by AMA members in the AMA newsletter, MycoAfrica. This contribution serves as a document to summarise these in a form that can be presented to fellow mycologists, biologists and other scientists, relevant government departments, funding bodies and Non-Governmental Organizations and that pins down the importance of mycology, the status thereof in Africa and the need to promote it more.