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Ullah S, Mansoor F, Khan SA, Jabeen U, Almars AI, Almohaimeed HM, Basri AM, Alshabrmi FM. Exploring bi-carbazole-linked triazoles as inhibitors of prolyl endo peptidase via integrated in vitro and in silico study. Sci Rep 2024; 14:7675. [PMID: 38561470 PMCID: PMC10985113 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-024-58428-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/28/2023] [Accepted: 03/29/2024] [Indexed: 04/04/2024] Open
Abstract
A serine protease called prolyl endopeptidase (PEP) hydrolyses the peptide bonds on the carboxy side of the proline ring. The excessive PEP expression in brain results in neurodegenerative illnesses like dementia, Alzheimer's disease, and Parkinson's disease. Results of the prior studies on antioxidant activity, and the non-cytotoxic effect of bi-carbazole-linked triazoles, encouraged us to extend our studies towards its anti-diabetic potential. Hence, for this purpose all compounds 1-9 were evaluated to reveal their anti-prolyl endo peptidase activity. Fortunately, seven compounds resulted into significant inhibitory capability ranging from 26 to 63 µM. Among them six compounds 4-9 exhibited more potent inhibitory activity with IC50 values 46.10 ± 1.16, 42.30 ± 1.18, 37.14 ± 1.21, 26.29 ± 0.76, 28.31 ± 0.64 and 31.11 ± 0.84 µM respectively, while compound 3 was the least active compound in the series with IC50 value 63.10 ± 1.58 µM comparing with standard PEP inhibitor bacitracin (IC50 = 125 ± 1.50 µM). Moreover, mechanistic study was performed for the most active compounds 7 and 8 with Ki values 24.10 ± 0.0076 and 23.67 ± 0.0084 µM respectively. Further, the in silico studies suggested that the compounds exhibited potential interactions and significant molecular conformations, thereby elucidating the structural basis for their inhibitory effects.
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Affiliation(s)
- Saeed Ullah
- Dr. Panjwani Center for Molecular Medicine and Drug Research, International Center for Chemical and Biological Sciences, University of Karachi, Karachi, 75270, Pakistan
| | - Farheen Mansoor
- Dr. Panjwani Center for Molecular Medicine and Drug Research, International Center for Chemical and Biological Sciences, University of Karachi, Karachi, 75270, Pakistan
| | - Salman Ali Khan
- Tunneling Group, Biotechnology Centre, Doctoral School, Silesian University of Technology, Akademicka 2, 44-100, Gliwice, Poland.
| | - Uzma Jabeen
- Department of Biochemistry, Federal Urdu University of Karachi, Gulshan-e-Iqbal, Karachi, 75300, Pakistan
| | - Amany I Almars
- Department of Medial Laboratory Sciences, Faculty of Applied Medical Science, King Abdulaziz University, 21589, Jeddah, Saudi Arabia
| | - Hailah M Almohaimeed
- Department of Basic Science, College of Medicine, Princess Nourah Bint Abdulrahman University, P.O. Box 84428, 11671, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia
| | - Ahmed M Basri
- Department of Medial Laboratory Sciences, Faculty of Applied Medical Science, King Abdulaziz University, 21589, Jeddah, Saudi Arabia
| | - Fahad M Alshabrmi
- Department of Medical Laboratories, College of Applied Medical Sciences, Qassim University, 51452, Buraydah, Saudi Arabia
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Vizzini A, Alvarado P, Consiglio G, Marchetti M, Xu J. Family matters inside the order Agaricales: systematic reorganization and classification of incertae sedis clitocyboid, pleurotoid and tricholomatoid taxa based on an updated 6-gene phylogeny. Stud Mycol 2024; 107:67-148. [PMID: 38600959 PMCID: PMC11003440 DOI: 10.3114/sim.2024.107.02] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/28/2023] [Accepted: 12/17/2023] [Indexed: 04/12/2024] Open
Abstract
The phylogenetic position of several clitocyboid/pleurotoid/tricholomatoid genera previously considered incertae sedis is here resolved using an updated 6-gene dataset of Agaricales including newly sequenced lineages and more complete data from those already analyzed before. Results allowed to infer new phylogenetic relationships, and propose taxonomic novelties to accommodate them, including up to ten new families and a new suborder. Giacomia (for which a new species from China is here described) forms a monophyletic clade with Melanoleuca (Melanoleucaceae) nested inside suborder Pluteineae, together with the families Pluteaceae, Amanitaceae (including Leucocortinarius), Limnoperdaceae and Volvariellaceae. The recently described family Asproinocybaceae is shown to be a later synonym of Lyophyllaceae (which includes also Omphaliaster and Trichocybe) within suborder Tricholomatineae. The families Biannulariaceae, Callistosporiaceae, Clitocybaceae, Fayodiaceae, Macrocystidiaceae (which includes Pseudoclitopilus), Entolomataceae, Pseudoclitocybaceae (which includes Aspropaxillus), Omphalinaceae (Infundibulicybe and Omphalina) and the new families Paralepistaceae and Pseudoomphalinaceae belong also to Tricholomatineae. The delimitation of the suborder Pleurotineae (= Schizophyllineae) is discussed and revised, accepting five distinct families within it, viz. Pleurotaceae, Cyphellopsidaceae, Fistulinaceae, Resupinataceae and Schizophyllaceae. The recently proposed suborder Phyllotopsidineae (= Sarcomyxineae) is found to encompass the families Aphroditeolaceae, Pterulaceae, Phyllotopsidaceae, Radulomycetaceae, Sarcomyxaceae (which includes Tectella), and Stephanosporaceae, all of them unrelated to Pleurotaceae (suborder Pleurotineae) or Typhulaceae (suborder Typhulineae). The new family Xeromphalinaceae, encompassing the genera Xeromphalina and Heimiomyces, is proposed within Marasmiineae. The suborder Hygrophorineae is here reorganized into the families Hygrophoraceae, Cantharellulaceae, Cuphophyllaceae, Hygrocybaceae and Lichenomphaliaceae, to homogenize the taxonomic rank of the main clades inside all suborders of Agaricales. Finally, the genus Hygrophorocybe is shown to represent a distinct clade inside Cuphophyllaceae, and the new combination H. carolinensis is proposed. Taxonomic novelties: New suborder: Typhulineae Vizzini, Consiglio & P. Alvarado. New families: Aphroditeolaceae Vizzini, Consiglio & P. Alvarado, Melanoleucaceae Locq. ex Vizzini, Consiglio & P. Alvarado, Paralepistaceae Vizzini, Consiglio & P. Alvarado, Pseudoomphalinaceae Vizzini, Consiglio & P. Alvarado, Volvariellaceae Vizzini, Consiglio & P. Alvarado, Xeromphalinaceae Vizzini, Consiglio & P. Alvarado. New species: Giacomia sinensis J.Z. Xu. Stat. nov.: Cantharellulaceae (Lodge, Redhead, Norvell & Desjardin) Vizzini, Consiglio & P. Alvarado, Cuphophyllaceae (Z.M. He & Zhu L. Yang) Vizzini, Consiglio & P. Alvarado, Hygrocybaceae (Padamsee & Lodge) Vizzini, Consiglio & P. Alvarado, Lichenomphaliaceae (Lücking & Redhead) Vizzini, Consiglio & P. Alvarado. New combination: Hygrophorocybe carolinensis (H.E. Bigelow & Hesler) Vizzini, Consiglio & P. Alvarado. New synonyms: Sarcomyxineae Zhu L. Yang & G.S. Wang, Schizophyllineae Aime, Dentinger & Gaya, Asproinocybaceae T. Bau & G.F. Mou. Incertae sedis taxa placed at family level: Aphroditeola Redhead & Manfr. Binder, Giacomia Vizzini & Contu, Hygrophorocybe Vizzini & Contu, Leucocortinarius (J.E. Lange) Singer, Omphaliaster Lamoure, Pseudoclitopilus Vizzini & Contu, Resupinatus Nees ex Gray, Tectella Earle, Trichocybe Vizzini. New delimitations of taxa: Hygrophorineae Aime, Dentinger & Gaya, Phyllotopsidineae Zhu L. Yang & G.S. Wang, Pleurotineae Aime, Dentinger & Gaya, Pluteineae Aime, Dentinger & Gaya, Tricholomatineae Aime, Dentinger & Gaya. Resurrected taxa: Fayodiaceae Jülich, Resupinataceae Jülich. Citation: Vizzini A, Alvarado P, Consiglio G, Marchetti M, Xu J (2024). Family matters inside the order Agaricales: systematic reorganization and classification of incertae sedis clitocyboid, pleurotoid and tricholomatoid taxa based on an updated 6-gene phylogeny. Studies in Mycology 107: 67-148. doi: 10.3114/sim.2024.107.02.
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Affiliation(s)
- A. Vizzini
- Department of Life Sciences and Systems Biology, University of Torino, Viale P.A. Mattioli 25, 10125 Turin, Italy
- Institute for Sustainable Plant Protection (IPSP-SS Turin), C.N.R., Viale P.A. Mattioli, 25, 10125 Turin, Italy
| | - P. Alvarado
- ALVALAB, Dr. Fernando Bongera st., Severo Ochoa bldg. S1.04, 33006 Oviedo, Spain
| | - G. Consiglio
- Via Ronzani 61, Casalecchio di Reno, 40033 Bologna, Italy
| | | | - J. Xu
- Agricultural College, Jilin Agriculture Science and Technology University, Jilin 132101, Jilin Province, P. R. China
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3
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Nagy L, Vonk P, Künzler M, Földi C, Virágh M, Ohm R, Hennicke F, Bálint B, Csernetics Á, Hegedüs B, Hou Z, Liu X, Nan S, Pareek M, Sahu N, Szathmári B, Varga T, Wu H, Yang X, Merényi Z. Lessons on fruiting body morphogenesis from genomes and transcriptomes of Agaricomycetes. Stud Mycol 2023; 104:1-85. [PMID: 37351542 PMCID: PMC10282164 DOI: 10.3114/sim.2022.104.01] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/10/2021] [Accepted: 12/02/2022] [Indexed: 01/09/2024] Open
Abstract
Fruiting bodies (sporocarps, sporophores or basidiomata) of mushroom-forming fungi (Agaricomycetes) are among the most complex structures produced by fungi. Unlike vegetative hyphae, fruiting bodies grow determinately and follow a genetically encoded developmental program that orchestrates their growth, tissue differentiation and sexual sporulation. In spite of more than a century of research, our understanding of the molecular details of fruiting body morphogenesis is still limited and a general synthesis on the genetics of this complex process is lacking. In this paper, we aim at a comprehensive identification of conserved genes related to fruiting body morphogenesis and distil novel functional hypotheses for functionally poorly characterised ones. As a result of this analysis, we report 921 conserved developmentally expressed gene families, only a few dozens of which have previously been reported to be involved in fruiting body development. Based on literature data, conserved expression patterns and functional annotations, we provide hypotheses on the potential role of these gene families in fruiting body development, yielding the most complete description of molecular processes in fruiting body morphogenesis to date. We discuss genes related to the initiation of fruiting, differentiation, growth, cell surface and cell wall, defence, transcriptional regulation as well as signal transduction. Based on these data we derive a general model of fruiting body development, which includes an early, proliferative phase that is mostly concerned with laying out the mushroom body plan (via cell division and differentiation), and a second phase of growth via cell expansion as well as meiotic events and sporulation. Altogether, our discussions cover 1 480 genes of Coprinopsis cinerea, and their orthologs in Agaricus bisporus, Cyclocybe aegerita, Armillaria ostoyae, Auriculariopsis ampla, Laccaria bicolor, Lentinula edodes, Lentinus tigrinus, Mycena kentingensis, Phanerochaete chrysosporium, Pleurotus ostreatus, and Schizophyllum commune, providing functional hypotheses for ~10 % of genes in the genomes of these species. Although experimental evidence for the role of these genes will need to be established in the future, our data provide a roadmap for guiding functional analyses of fruiting related genes in the Agaricomycetes. We anticipate that the gene compendium presented here, combined with developments in functional genomics approaches will contribute to uncovering the genetic bases of one of the most spectacular multicellular developmental processes in fungi. Citation: Nagy LG, Vonk PJ, Künzler M, Földi C, Virágh M, Ohm RA, Hennicke F, Bálint B, Csernetics Á, Hegedüs B, Hou Z, Liu XB, Nan S, M. Pareek M, Sahu N, Szathmári B, Varga T, Wu W, Yang X, Merényi Z (2023). Lessons on fruiting body morphogenesis from genomes and transcriptomes of Agaricomycetes. Studies in Mycology 104: 1-85. doi: 10.3114/sim.2022.104.01.
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Affiliation(s)
- L.G. Nagy
- Synthetic and Systems Biology Unit, Biological Research Center, Szeged, 6726, Hungary;
| | - P.J. Vonk
- Microbiology, Department of Biology, Faculty of Science, Utrecht University, Padualaan 8, 3584 CH, Utrecht, The Netherlands;
| | - M. Künzler
- Institute of Microbiology, Department of Biology, Eidgenössische Technische Hochschule (ETH) Zürich, Zürich, Switzerland;
| | - C. Földi
- Synthetic and Systems Biology Unit, Biological Research Center, Szeged, 6726, Hungary;
| | - M. Virágh
- Synthetic and Systems Biology Unit, Biological Research Center, Szeged, 6726, Hungary;
| | - R.A. Ohm
- Microbiology, Department of Biology, Faculty of Science, Utrecht University, Padualaan 8, 3584 CH, Utrecht, The Netherlands;
| | - F. Hennicke
- Project Group Genetics and Genomics of Fungi, Chair Evolution of Plants and Fungi, Ruhr-University Bochum, 44780, Bochum, North Rhine-Westphalia, Germany;
| | - B. Bálint
- Synthetic and Systems Biology Unit, Biological Research Center, Szeged, 6726, Hungary;
| | - Á. Csernetics
- Synthetic and Systems Biology Unit, Biological Research Center, Szeged, 6726, Hungary;
| | - B. Hegedüs
- Synthetic and Systems Biology Unit, Biological Research Center, Szeged, 6726, Hungary;
| | - Z. Hou
- Synthetic and Systems Biology Unit, Biological Research Center, Szeged, 6726, Hungary;
| | - X.B. Liu
- Synthetic and Systems Biology Unit, Biological Research Center, Szeged, 6726, Hungary;
| | - S. Nan
- Institute of Applied Mycology, Huazhong Agricultural University, 430070 Hubei Province, PR China
| | - M. Pareek
- Synthetic and Systems Biology Unit, Biological Research Center, Szeged, 6726, Hungary;
| | - N. Sahu
- Synthetic and Systems Biology Unit, Biological Research Center, Szeged, 6726, Hungary;
| | - B. Szathmári
- Synthetic and Systems Biology Unit, Biological Research Center, Szeged, 6726, Hungary;
| | - T. Varga
- Synthetic and Systems Biology Unit, Biological Research Center, Szeged, 6726, Hungary;
| | - H. Wu
- Synthetic and Systems Biology Unit, Biological Research Center, Szeged, 6726, Hungary;
| | - X. Yang
- Institute of Applied Mycology, Huazhong Agricultural University, 430070 Hubei Province, PR China
| | - Z. Merényi
- Synthetic and Systems Biology Unit, Biological Research Center, Szeged, 6726, Hungary;
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4
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Meyer M, Slot J. The evolution and ecology of psilocybin in nature. Fungal Genet Biol 2023; 167:103812. [PMID: 37210028 DOI: 10.1016/j.fgb.2023.103812] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/13/2023] [Revised: 04/19/2023] [Accepted: 05/12/2023] [Indexed: 05/22/2023]
Abstract
Fungi produce diverse metabolites that can have antimicrobial, antifungal, antifeedant, or psychoactive properties. Among these metabolites are the tryptamine-derived compounds psilocybin, its precursors, and natural derivatives (collectively referred to as psiloids), which have played significant roles in human society and culture. The high allocation of nitrogen to psiloids in mushrooms, along with evidence of convergent evolution and horizontal transfer of psilocybin genes, suggest they provide a selective benefit to some fungi. However, no precise ecological roles of psilocybin have been experimentally determined. The structural and functional similarities of psiloids to serotonin, an essential neurotransmitter in animals, suggest that they may enhance the fitness of fungi through interference with serotonergic processes. However, other ecological mechanisms of psiloids have been proposed. Here, we review the literature pertinent to psilocybin ecology and propose potential adaptive advantages psiloids may confer to fungi.
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Affiliation(s)
- Matthew Meyer
- Department of Plant Pathology, The Ohio State University, Columbus, OH 43210, USA; Environmental Science Graduate Program, The Ohio State University, Columbus, OH 43210, USA; Center for Psychedelic Drug Research and Education, The Ohio State University, Columbus, OH 43210, USA.
| | - Jason Slot
- Department of Plant Pathology, The Ohio State University, Columbus, OH 43210, USA; Center for Psychedelic Drug Research and Education, The Ohio State University, Columbus, OH 43210, USA.
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5
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Drott MT, Park SC, Wang YW, Harrow L, Keller NP, Pringle A. Pangenomics of the death cap mushroom Amanita phalloides, and of Agaricales, reveals dynamic evolution of toxin genes in an invasive range. THE ISME JOURNAL 2023:10.1038/s41396-023-01432-x. [PMID: 37221394 DOI: 10.1038/s41396-023-01432-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/10/2022] [Revised: 05/01/2023] [Accepted: 05/04/2023] [Indexed: 05/25/2023]
Abstract
The poisonous European mushroom Amanita phalloides (the "death cap") is invading California. Whether the death caps' toxic secondary metabolites are evolving as it invades is unknown. We developed a bioinformatic pipeline to identify the MSDIN genes underpinning toxicity and probed 88 death cap genomes from an invasive Californian population and from the European range, discovering a previously unsuspected diversity of MSDINs made up of both core and accessory elements. Each death cap individual possesses a unique suite of MSDINs, and toxin genes are significantly differentiated between Californian and European samples. MSDIN genes are maintained by strong natural selection, and chemical profiling confirms MSDIN genes are expressed and result in distinct phenotypes; our chemical profiling also identified a new MSDIN peptide. Toxin genes are physically clustered within genomes. We contextualize our discoveries by probing for MSDINs in genomes from across the order Agaricales, revealing MSDIN diversity originated in independent gene family expansions among genera. We also report the discovery of an MSDIN in an Amanita outside the "lethal Amanitas" clade. Finally, the identification of an MSDIN gene and its associated processing gene (POPB) in Clavaria fumosa suggest the origin of MSDINs is older than previously suspected. The dynamic evolution of MSDINs underscores their potential to mediate ecological interactions, implicating MSDINs in the ongoing invasion. Our data change the understanding of the evolutionary history of poisonous mushrooms, emphasizing striking parallels to convergently evolved animal toxins. Our pipeline provides a roadmap for exploring secondary metabolites in other basidiomycetes and will enable drug prospecting.
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Affiliation(s)
- Milton T Drott
- Department of Medical Microbiology and Immunology, Department of Bacteriology, University of Wisconsin, Madison, WI, USA.
- USDA-ARS Cereal Disease Laboratory, St. Paul, MN, USA.
| | - Sung Chul Park
- Department of Medical Microbiology and Immunology, Department of Bacteriology, University of Wisconsin, Madison, WI, USA
| | - Yen-Wen Wang
- Departments of Botany and Bacteriology, University of Wisconsin, Madison, WI, USA
| | - Lynn Harrow
- Departments of Botany and Bacteriology, University of Wisconsin, Madison, WI, USA
| | - Nancy P Keller
- Department of Medical Microbiology and Immunology, Department of Bacteriology, University of Wisconsin, Madison, WI, USA.
| | - Anne Pringle
- Departments of Botany and Bacteriology, University of Wisconsin, Madison, WI, USA.
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6
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Zhang YZ, Yan YY, Li HJ, Fan YG, Xu F. Toxin screening of Pseudosperma umbrinellum (Agaricals, Basidiomycota): First report of phalloidin in Inocybaceae mushroom. Toxicon 2022; 217:155-161. [PMID: 35998714 DOI: 10.1016/j.toxicon.2022.08.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/03/2022] [Revised: 08/03/2022] [Accepted: 08/08/2022] [Indexed: 10/15/2022]
Abstract
Pseudosperma species are widely distributed worldwide. Many of them cause poisoning incidents every year, and the toxin responsible for poisoning is muscarine, which could stimulate the parasympathetic nervous system. This study established a method using multiwalled carbon nanotube purification and liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry for the targeted screening of mushroom toxins (muscarine, isoxazole derivatives, tryptamine alkaloids, three amatoxins and three phallotoxins) from Pseudosperma umbrinellum, a common poisonous mushroom distributed in north and northwestern China. Surprisingly, in addition to muscarine, phalloidin was also detected in P. umbrinellum, and the contents were 3022.2 ± 604.4 to 4002.3 ± 804.6 mg/kg (k = 2; p = 95%) muscarine and 5.9 ± 1.2 to 9.3 ± 1.8 mg/kg (k = 2; p = 95%) phalloidin.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yi-Zhe Zhang
- National Institute of Occupational Health and Poison Control, Chinese Centre for Disease Control and Prevention, Beijing, China
| | - Ya-Ya Yan
- School of Public Health and Management, Ningxia Key Laboratory of Environmental Factors and Chronic Diseases Control, Ningxia Medical University, Yinchuan, Ningxia, China
| | - Hai-Jiao Li
- National Institute of Occupational Health and Poison Control, Chinese Centre for Disease Control and Prevention, Beijing, China.
| | - Yu-Guang Fan
- Key Laboratory of Tropical Translational Medicine of Ministry of Education, Tropical Environment and Health Laboratory, School of Pharmacy, Hainan Medical University, Haikou, Hainan, China.
| | - Fei Xu
- School of Public Health and Management, Ningxia Key Laboratory of Environmental Factors and Chronic Diseases Control, Ningxia Medical University, Yinchuan, Ningxia, China; Physical and Chemical Department, Ningxia Hui Autonomous Region Center for Disease Control and Prevention, Yinchuan, Ningxia, China.
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7
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He MQ, Wang MQ, Chen ZH, Deng WQ, Li TH, Vizzini A, Jeewon R, Hyde KD, Zhao RL. Potential benefits and harms: a review of poisonous mushrooms in the world. FUNGAL BIOL REV 2022. [DOI: 10.1016/j.fbr.2022.06.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
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8
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Genes and evolutionary fates of the amanitin biosynthesis pathway in poisonous mushrooms. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2022; 119:e2201113119. [PMID: 35533275 PMCID: PMC9171917 DOI: 10.1073/pnas.2201113119] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022] Open
Abstract
Why do unrelated poisonous mushrooms (Amanita, Galerina, and Lepiota) make the same deadly toxin, α-amanitin? One of the most effective and fast strategies for organisms to acquire new abilities is through horizontal gene transfer (HGT). With the help of genome sequencing and the finding of two genes for the amanitin biosynthetic pathway, we demonstrate that the pathway distribution resulted from HGT probably through an unknown ancestral fungal donor. In Amanita mushrooms, the pathway evolved, through a series of gene manipulations, to produce very high levels of toxins, generating “the deadliest mushroom known to mankind.” The deadly toxin α-amanitin is a bicyclic octapeptide biosynthesized on ribosomes. A phylogenetically disjunct group of mushrooms in Agaricales (Amanita, Lepiota, and Galerina) synthesizes α-amanitin. This distribution of the toxin biosynthetic pathway is possibly related to the horizontal transfer of metabolic gene clusters among taxonomically unrelated mushrooms with overlapping habitats. Here, our work confirms that two biosynthetic genes, P450-29 and FMO1, are oxygenases important for amanitin biosynthesis. Phylogenetic and genetic analyses of these genes strongly support their origin through horizontal transfer, as is the case for the previously characterized biosynthetic genes MSDIN and POPB. Our analysis of multiple genomes showed that the evolution of the α-amanitin biosynthetic pathways in the poisonous agarics in the Amanita, Lepiota, and Galerina clades entailed distinct evolutionary pathways including gene family expansion, biosynthetic genes, and genomic rearrangements. Unrelated poisonous fungi produce the same deadly amanitin toxins using variations of the same pathway. Furthermore, the evolution of the amanitin biosynthetic pathway(s) in Amanita species generates a much wider range of toxic cyclic peptides. The results reported here expand our understanding of the genetics, diversity, and evolution of the toxin biosynthetic pathway in fungi.
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9
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Kessler SC, Chooi YH. Out for a RiPP: challenges and advances in genome mining of ribosomal peptides from fungi. Nat Prod Rep 2022; 39:222-230. [PMID: 34581394 DOI: 10.1039/d1np00048a] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/02/2023]
Abstract
Covering up to June 2021Ribosomally synthesized and post-translationally modified peptides (RiPPs) from fungi are an underexplored class of natural products, despite their propensity for diverse bioactivities and unique structural features. Surveys of fungal genomes for biosynthetic gene clusters encoding RiPPs have been limited in their scope due to our incomplete understanding of fungal RiPP biosynthesis. Through recent discoveries, along with earlier research, a clearer picture has been emerging of the biosynthetic principles that underpin fungal RiPP pathways. In this Highlight, we trace the approaches that have been used for discovering currently known fungal RiPPs and show that all of them can be assigned to one of three distinct families based on hallmarks of their biosynthesis, which are in turn imprinted on their corresponding gene clusters. We hope that our systematic exposition of fungal RiPP structural and gene cluster features will facilitate more comprehensive approaches to genome mining efforts in the future.
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Affiliation(s)
- Simon C Kessler
- School of Molecular Sciences, The University of Western Australia, Perth, WA 6009, Australia.
| | - Yit-Heng Chooi
- School of Molecular Sciences, The University of Western Australia, Perth, WA 6009, Australia.
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10
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Lüli Y, Zhou S, Li X, Chen Z, Yang Z, Luo H. Differential Expression of Amanitin Biosynthetic Genes and Novel Cyclic Peptides in Amanita molliuscula. J Fungi (Basel) 2021; 7:384. [PMID: 34069263 PMCID: PMC8156247 DOI: 10.3390/jof7050384] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/28/2021] [Revised: 05/12/2021] [Accepted: 05/12/2021] [Indexed: 02/05/2023] Open
Abstract
Amanita molliuscula is a basal species of lethal Amanita and intrigues the field because it does not produce discernable α-amanitin when inspected by High Performance Liquid Chromatography (HPLC), which sets it apart from all known amanitin-producing (lethal) Amanita species. In order to study the underlining genetic basis of the phenotype, we sequenced this species through PacBio and Illumina RNA-Seq platforms. In total, 17 genes of the "MSDIN" family (named after the first five amino acid residues of the precursor peptides) were found in the genome and 11 of them were expressed at the transcription level. The expression pattern was not even but in a differential fashion: two of the MSDINs were highly expressed (FPKM value > 100), while the majority were expressed at low levels (FPKM value < 1). Prolyl oligopeptidease B (POPB) is the key enzyme in the amanitin biosynthetic pathway, and high expression of this enzyme was also discovered (FPKM value > 100). The two MSDINs with highest transcription further translated into two novel cyclic peptides, the structure of which is distinctive from all known cyclic peptides. The result illustrates the correlation between the expression and the final peptide products. In contrast to previous HPLC result, the genome of A. molliuscula harbors α-amanitin genes (three copies), but the product was in trace amount indicated by MS. Overall, transcription of MSDINs encoding major toxins (α-amanitin, β-amanitin, phallacidin and phalloidin) were low, showing that these toxins were not actively synthesized at the stage. Collectively, our results indicate that the amanitin biosynthetic pathway is highly active at the mature fruiting body stage in A. molliuscula, and due to the differential expression of MSDIN genes, the pathway produces only a few cyclic peptides at the time.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yunjiao Lüli
- Yunnan Key Laboratory for Fungal Diversity and Green Development, Kunming Institute of Botany, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Kunming 650201, China; (Y.L.); (S.Z.); (Z.Y.)
- CAS Key Laboratory for Plant Diversity and Biogeography of East Asia, Kunming Institute of Botany, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Kunming 650201, China
- University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100049, China
| | - Shengwen Zhou
- Yunnan Key Laboratory for Fungal Diversity and Green Development, Kunming Institute of Botany, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Kunming 650201, China; (Y.L.); (S.Z.); (Z.Y.)
- CAS Key Laboratory for Plant Diversity and Biogeography of East Asia, Kunming Institute of Botany, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Kunming 650201, China
- School of Life Sciences, Yunnan University, Kunming 650091, China
| | - Xuan Li
- Department of Environmental Science and Engineering, Kunming University of Science and Technology, Kunming 650091, China;
| | - Zuohong Chen
- College of Life Science, Hunan Normal University, Changsha 410081, China;
| | - Zhuliang Yang
- Yunnan Key Laboratory for Fungal Diversity and Green Development, Kunming Institute of Botany, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Kunming 650201, China; (Y.L.); (S.Z.); (Z.Y.)
- CAS Key Laboratory for Plant Diversity and Biogeography of East Asia, Kunming Institute of Botany, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Kunming 650201, China
| | - Hong Luo
- Yunnan Key Laboratory for Fungal Diversity and Green Development, Kunming Institute of Botany, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Kunming 650201, China; (Y.L.); (S.Z.); (Z.Y.)
- CAS Key Laboratory for Plant Diversity and Biogeography of East Asia, Kunming Institute of Botany, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Kunming 650201, China
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Zhou S, Li X, Lüli Y, Li X, Chen ZH, Yuan P, Yang ZL, Li G, Luo H. Novel Cyclic Peptides from Lethal Amanita Mushrooms through a Genome-Guided Approach. J Fungi (Basel) 2021; 7:204. [PMID: 33799506 PMCID: PMC7998459 DOI: 10.3390/jof7030204] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/16/2021] [Revised: 03/05/2021] [Accepted: 03/08/2021] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Most species in the genus Amanita are ectomycorrhizal fungi comprising both edible and poisonous mushrooms. Some species produce potent cyclic peptide toxins, such as α-amanitin, which places them among the deadliest organisms known to mankind. These toxins and related cyclic peptides are encoded by genes of the "MSDIN" family (named after the first five amino acid residues of the precursor peptides), and it is largely unknown to what extent these genes are expressed in the basidiocarps. In the present study, Amanita rimosa and Amanita exitialis were sequenced through the PacBio and Illumina techniques. Together with our two previously sequenced genomes, Amanita subjunquillea and Amanita pallidorosea, in total, 46 previously unknown MSDIN genes were discovered. The expression of over 80% of the MSDIN genes was demonstrated in A. subjunquillea. Through a combination of genomics and mass spectrometry, 12 MSDIN genes were shown to produce novel cyclic peptides. To further confirm the results, three of the cyclic peptides were chemically synthesized. The tandem mass spectrometry (MS/MS) spectra of the natural and the synthetic peptides shared a majority of the fragment ions, demonstrating an identical structure between each peptide pair. Collectively, the results suggested that the genome-guided approach is reliable for identifying novel cyclic peptides in Amanita species and that there is a large peptide reservoir in these mushrooms.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shengwen Zhou
- Yunnan Key Laboratory for Fungal Diversity and Green Development, Kunming Institute of Botany, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Kunming 650201, Yunnan, China; (S.Z.); (X.L.); (Y.L.); (P.Y.); (Z.L.Y.)
- CAS Key Laboratory for Plant Diversity and Biogeography of East Asia, Kunming Institute of Botany, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Kunming 650201, Yunnan, China
- School of Life Sciences, Yunnan University, Kunming 650091, Yunnan, China;
- University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100049, China
| | - Xincan Li
- Yunnan Key Laboratory for Fungal Diversity and Green Development, Kunming Institute of Botany, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Kunming 650201, Yunnan, China; (S.Z.); (X.L.); (Y.L.); (P.Y.); (Z.L.Y.)
- CAS Key Laboratory for Plant Diversity and Biogeography of East Asia, Kunming Institute of Botany, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Kunming 650201, Yunnan, China
- University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100049, China
| | - Yunjiao Lüli
- Yunnan Key Laboratory for Fungal Diversity and Green Development, Kunming Institute of Botany, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Kunming 650201, Yunnan, China; (S.Z.); (X.L.); (Y.L.); (P.Y.); (Z.L.Y.)
- CAS Key Laboratory for Plant Diversity and Biogeography of East Asia, Kunming Institute of Botany, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Kunming 650201, Yunnan, China
- University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100049, China
| | - Xuan Li
- Department of Environmental Science and Engineering, Kunming University of Science and Technology, Kunming 650091, Yunnan, China;
| | - Zuo H. Chen
- College of Life Science, Hunan Normal University, Changsha 410081, Hunan, China;
| | - Pengcheng Yuan
- Yunnan Key Laboratory for Fungal Diversity and Green Development, Kunming Institute of Botany, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Kunming 650201, Yunnan, China; (S.Z.); (X.L.); (Y.L.); (P.Y.); (Z.L.Y.)
- CAS Key Laboratory for Plant Diversity and Biogeography of East Asia, Kunming Institute of Botany, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Kunming 650201, Yunnan, China
- School of Life Sciences, Yunnan University, Kunming 650091, Yunnan, China;
- University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100049, China
| | - Zhu L. Yang
- Yunnan Key Laboratory for Fungal Diversity and Green Development, Kunming Institute of Botany, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Kunming 650201, Yunnan, China; (S.Z.); (X.L.); (Y.L.); (P.Y.); (Z.L.Y.)
- CAS Key Laboratory for Plant Diversity and Biogeography of East Asia, Kunming Institute of Botany, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Kunming 650201, Yunnan, China
| | - Guohong Li
- School of Life Sciences, Yunnan University, Kunming 650091, Yunnan, China;
| | - Hong Luo
- Yunnan Key Laboratory for Fungal Diversity and Green Development, Kunming Institute of Botany, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Kunming 650201, Yunnan, China; (S.Z.); (X.L.); (Y.L.); (P.Y.); (Z.L.Y.)
- CAS Key Laboratory for Plant Diversity and Biogeography of East Asia, Kunming Institute of Botany, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Kunming 650201, Yunnan, China
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12
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He Z, Long P, Fang F, Li S, Zhang P, Chen Z. Diversity of MSDIN family members in amanitin-producing mushrooms and the phylogeny of the MSDIN and prolyl oligopeptidase genes. BMC Genomics 2020; 21:440. [PMID: 32590929 PMCID: PMC7318481 DOI: 10.1186/s12864-020-06857-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/23/2020] [Accepted: 06/22/2020] [Indexed: 11/14/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Amanitin-producing mushrooms, mainly distributed in the genera Amanita, Galerina and Lepiota, possess MSDIN gene family for the biosynthesis of many cyclopeptides catalysed by prolyl oligopeptidase (POP). Recently, transcriptome sequencing has proven to be an efficient way to mine MSDIN and POP genes in these lethal mushrooms. Thus far, only A. palloides and A. bisporigera from North America and A. exitialis and A. rimosa from Asia have been studied based on transcriptome analysis. However, the MSDIN and POP genes of many amanitin-producing mushrooms in China remain unstudied; hence, the transcriptomes of these speices deserve to be analysed. Results In this study, the MSDIN and POP genes from ten Amanita species, two Galerina species and Lepiota venenata were studied and the phylogenetic relationships of their MSDIN and POP genes were analysed. Through transcriptome sequencing and PCR cloning, 19 POP genes and 151 MSDIN genes predicted to encode 98 non-duplicated cyclopeptides, including α-amanitin, β-amanitin, phallacidin, phalloidin and 94 unknown peptides, were found in these species. Phylogenetic analysis showed that (1) MSDIN genes generally clustered depending on the taxonomy of the genus, while Amanita MSDIN genes clustered depending on the chemical substance; and (2) the POPA genes of Amanita, Galerina and Lepiota clustered and were separated into three different groups, but the POPB genes of the three distinct genera were clustered in a highly supported monophyletic group. Conclusions These results indicate that lethal Amanita species have the genetic capacity to produce numerous cyclopeptides, most of which are unknown, while lethal Galerina and Lepiota species seem to only have the genetic capacity to produce α-amanitin. Additionally, the POPB phylogeny of Amanita, Galerina and Lepiota conflicts with the taxonomic status of the three genera, suggesting that underlying horizontal gene transfer has occurred among these three genera.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zhengmi He
- College of Life Science, Hunan Normal University, Lushan Road, Changsha, 410081, China
| | - Pan Long
- College of Life Science, Hunan Normal University, Lushan Road, Changsha, 410081, China
| | - Fang Fang
- College of Life Science, Hunan Normal University, Lushan Road, Changsha, 410081, China
| | - Sainan Li
- College of Life Science, Hunan Normal University, Lushan Road, Changsha, 410081, China
| | - Ping Zhang
- College of Life Science, Hunan Normal University, Lushan Road, Changsha, 410081, China
| | - Zuohong Chen
- College of Life Science, Hunan Normal University, Lushan Road, Changsha, 410081, China.
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He Y, Zhang CH, Deng WQ, Zhou XY, Li TH, Li CH. Transcriptome sequencing analysis of the MSDIN gene family encoding cyclic peptides in lethal Amanita fuligineoides. Toxicon 2020; 183:61-68. [PMID: 32473253 DOI: 10.1016/j.toxicon.2020.05.015] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/19/2019] [Revised: 05/18/2020] [Accepted: 05/19/2020] [Indexed: 10/24/2022]
Abstract
Amanita fuligineoides, a lethal mushroom discovered in China, contains abundant cyclic peptide toxins that can cause fatal poisoning. However, the MSDIN gene family encoding for these cyclic peptides in A. fuligineoides has not been systematically studied. In this research, the transcriptome sequencing of A. fuligineoides was performed and its MSDIN family members were analyzed. A total of 4.41 Gb data containing 30833 unigenes was obtained; sequence alignments throughout several databases were done to obtain their functional annotations. Based on these annotations, MSDIN genes were found and verified by RT-PCR. A total of 29 different core peptides were obtained: 3 toxin genes, encoding β-amanitin (β-AMA), phalloidin (PHD), and phallacidin (PCD), and 26 genes encoding unknown cyclic peptides, 20 of which are reported for the first time and may encode for novel cyclic peptides. Analysis of the predicted precursor peptides indicated that octocyclic peptides were the main MSDIN peptides synthesized by A. fuligineoides, accounting for the 45%. A phylogenetic analysis suggested that studied precursor peptides could be clustered into 7 clades, which might represent different functionalities. Results suggested that A. fuligineoides might have a strong capacity to synthesize cyclopeptides, laying the foundation for their excavation and utilization.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yong He
- State Key Laboratory of Applied Microbiology Southern China, Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Microbial Culture Collection and Application, Guangdong Open Laboratory of Applied Microbiology, Guangdong Institute of Microbiology, Guangdong Academy of Sciences, Guangzhou, 510070, China.
| | - Cheng-Hua Zhang
- State Key Laboratory of Applied Microbiology Southern China, Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Microbial Culture Collection and Application, Guangdong Open Laboratory of Applied Microbiology, Guangdong Institute of Microbiology, Guangdong Academy of Sciences, Guangzhou, 510070, China.
| | - Wang-Qiu Deng
- State Key Laboratory of Applied Microbiology Southern China, Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Microbial Culture Collection and Application, Guangdong Open Laboratory of Applied Microbiology, Guangdong Institute of Microbiology, Guangdong Academy of Sciences, Guangzhou, 510070, China.
| | - Xiao-Yun Zhou
- College of Bioscience and Biotechnology, Hunan Agricultural University, Changsha, 410128, China.
| | - Tai-Hui Li
- State Key Laboratory of Applied Microbiology Southern China, Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Microbial Culture Collection and Application, Guangdong Open Laboratory of Applied Microbiology, Guangdong Institute of Microbiology, Guangdong Academy of Sciences, Guangzhou, 510070, China.
| | - Chuan-Hua Li
- Institute of Edible Fungi, Shanghai Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Shanghai, 201403, China.
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Vogt E, Künzler M. Discovery of novel fungal RiPP biosynthetic pathways and their application for the development of peptide therapeutics. Appl Microbiol Biotechnol 2019; 103:5567-5581. [PMID: 31147756 DOI: 10.1007/s00253-019-09893-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/04/2019] [Revised: 05/06/2019] [Accepted: 05/06/2019] [Indexed: 12/18/2022]
Abstract
Bioactive peptide natural products are an important source of therapeutics. Prominent examples are the antibiotic penicillin and the immunosuppressant cyclosporine which are both produced by fungi and have revolutionized modern medicine. Peptide biosynthesis can occur either non-ribosomally via large enzymes referred to as non-ribosomal peptide synthetases (NRPS) or ribosomally. Ribosomal peptides are synthesized as part of a larger precursor peptide where they are posttranslationally modified and subsequently proteolytically released. Such peptide natural products are referred to as ribosomally synthesized and posttranslationally modified peptides (RiPPs). Their biosynthetic pathways have recently received a lot of attention, both from a basic and applied research point of view, due to the discoveries of several novel posttranslational modifications of the peptide backbone. Some of these modifications were so far only known from NRPSs and significantly increase the chemical space covered by this class of peptide natural products. Latter feature, in combination with the promiscuity of the modifying enzymes and the genetic encoding of the peptide sequence, makes RiPP biosynthetic pathways attractive for synthetic biology approaches to identify novel peptide therapeutics via screening of de novo generated peptide libraries and, thus, exploit bioactive peptide natural products beyond their direct use as therapeutics. This review focuses on the recent discovery and characterization of novel RiPP biosynthetic pathways in fungi and their possible application for the development of novel peptide therapeutics.
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Affiliation(s)
- Eva Vogt
- ETH Zürich, Department of Biology, Institute of Microbiology, Vladimir-Prelog-Weg 4, CH-8093, Zürich, Switzerland
| | - Markus Künzler
- ETH Zürich, Department of Biology, Institute of Microbiology, Vladimir-Prelog-Weg 4, CH-8093, Zürich, Switzerland.
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Luo S, Dong SH. Recent Advances in the Discovery and Biosynthetic Study of Eukaryotic RiPP Natural Products. Molecules 2019; 24:molecules24081541. [PMID: 31003555 PMCID: PMC6514808 DOI: 10.3390/molecules24081541] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/22/2019] [Revised: 04/15/2019] [Accepted: 04/18/2019] [Indexed: 12/22/2022] Open
Abstract
Natural products have played indispensable roles in drug development and biomedical research. Ribosomally synthesized and post-translationally modified peptides (RiPPs) are a group of fast-expanding natural products attribute to genome mining efforts in recent years. Most RiPP natural products were discovered from bacteria, yet many eukaryotic cyclic peptides turned out to be of RiPP origin. This review article presents recent advances in the discovery of eukaryotic RiPP natural products, the elucidation of their biosynthetic pathways, and the molecular basis for their biosynthetic enzyme catalysis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shangwen Luo
- State Key Laboratory of Applied Organic Chemistry, College of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Lanzhou University, Lanzhou 730000, China.
| | - Shi-Hui Dong
- State Key Laboratory of Applied Organic Chemistry, College of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Lanzhou University, Lanzhou 730000, China.
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Lüli Y, Cai Q, Chen ZH, Sun H, Zhu XT, Li X, Yang ZL, Luo H. Genome of lethal Lepiota venenata and insights into the evolution of toxin-biosynthetic genes. BMC Genomics 2019; 20:198. [PMID: 30849934 PMCID: PMC6408872 DOI: 10.1186/s12864-019-5575-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/11/2018] [Accepted: 02/28/2019] [Indexed: 12/29/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Genomes of lethal Amanita and Galerina mushrooms have gradually become available in the past ten years; in contrast the other known amanitin-producing genus, Lepiota, is still vacant in this aspect. A fatal mushroom poisoning case in China has led to acquisition of fresh L. venenata fruiting bodies, based on which a draft genome was obtained through PacBio and Illumina sequencing platforms. Toxin-biosynthetic MSDIN family and Porlyl oligopeptidase B (POPB) genes were mined from the genome and used for phylogenetic and statistical studies to gain insights into the evolution of the biosynthetic pathway. RESULTS The analysis of the genome data illustrated that only one MSDIN, named LvAMA1, exits in the genome, along with a POPB gene. No POPA homolog was identified by direct homology searching, however, one additional POP gene, named LvPOPC, was cloned and the gene structure determined. Similar to ApAMA1 in A. phalloides and GmAMA1 in G. marginata, LvAMA1 directly encodes α-amanitin. The two toxin genes were mapped to the draft genome, and the structures analyzed. Furthermore, phylogenetic and statistical analyses were conducted to study the evolution history of the POPB genes. Compared to our previous report, the phylogenetic trees unambiguously showed that a monophyletic POPB lineage clearly conflicted with the species phylogeny. In contrast, phylogeny of POPA genes resembled the species phylogeny. Topology and divergence tests showed that the POPB lineage was robust and these genes exhibited significantly shorter genetic distances than those of the house-keeping rbp2, a characteristic feature of genes with horizontal gene transfer (HGT) background. Consistently, same scenario applied to the only MSDIN, LvAMA1, in the genome. CONCLUSIONS To the best of our knowledge, this is the first reported genome of Lepiota. The analyses of the toxin genes indicate that the cyclic peptides are synthesized through a ribosomal mechanism. The toxin genes, LvAMA1 and LvPOPB, are not in the vicinity of each other. Phylogenetic and evolutionary studies suggest that HGT is the underlining cause for the occurrence of POPB and MSDIN in Amanita, Galerina and Lepiota, which are allocated in three distantly-related families.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yunjiao Lüli
- CAS Key Laboratory for Plant Diversity and Biogeography of East Asia, Kunming Institute of Botany, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Kunming, 650201 Yunnan China
- University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, 100049 China
| | - Qing Cai
- CAS Key Laboratory for Plant Diversity and Biogeography of East Asia, Kunming Institute of Botany, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Kunming, 650201 Yunnan China
| | - Zuo H. Chen
- College of Life Science, Hunan Normal University, Changsha, 410081 China
| | - Hu Sun
- CAS Key Laboratory for Plant Diversity and Biogeography of East Asia, Kunming Institute of Botany, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Kunming, 650201 Yunnan China
| | - Xue-Tai Zhu
- College of Life Sciences, Northwest Normal University, Lanzhou, 730030 China
| | - Xuan Li
- Department of Environmental Science and Engineering, Kunming University of Science and Technology, Kunming, 650091 Yunnan China
| | - Zhu L. Yang
- CAS Key Laboratory for Plant Diversity and Biogeography of East Asia, Kunming Institute of Botany, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Kunming, 650201 Yunnan China
| | - Hong Luo
- CAS Key Laboratory for Plant Diversity and Biogeography of East Asia, Kunming Institute of Botany, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Kunming, 650201 Yunnan China
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