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Hu Y, Sun X, Wang S, Zhou C, Lin L, Ding X, Han J, Zhou Y, Jin G, Wang Y, Zhang W, Shi H, Zhang Z, Yang X, Hua F. Toll-like receptor-2 gene knockout results in neurobehavioral dysfunctions and multiple brain structural and functional abnormalities in mice. Brain Behav Immun 2021; 91:257-266. [PMID: 33069798 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbi.2020.10.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/05/2020] [Revised: 10/01/2020] [Accepted: 10/06/2020] [Indexed: 12/28/2022] Open
Abstract
OBJECTIVE Toll-like receptor-2 (TLR2), a member of TLR family, plays an important role in the induction and regulation of immune/inflammation. TLR2 gene knockout (TLR2KO) mice have been widely used for animal models of neurological diseases. Since there is close relationship between immune system and neurobehavioral functions, it is important to clarify the exact role of TLR2 defect itself in neurobehavioral functions. The present study aimed to investigate the effect of TLR2KO on neurobehavioral functions in mice and the mechanisms underlying the observed changes. METHODS Male TLR2KO and wild type (WT) mice aged 3, 7, and 12 months were used for neurobehavioral testing and detection of protein expression by Western blot. Brain magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), electrophysiological recording, and Evans blue (EB) assay were applied to evaluate regional cerebral blood flow (rCBF), synaptic function, and blood-brain barrier (BBB) integrity in 12-month-old TLR2KO and age-matched WT mice. RESULTS Compared to WT mice, TLR2KO mice showed decreased cognitive function and locomotor activity, as well as increased anxiety, which developed from middle age (before 7-month-old) to old age. In addition, significantly reduced regional cerebral blood flow (rCBF), inhibited long-term potentiation (LTP), and increased blood-brain barrier (BBB) permeability were observed in 12-month-old TLR2KO mice. Furthermore, compared with age-matched WT mice, significant reduction in protein levels of tight junction proteins (ZO-1, Occludin, and Claudin-5) and increased neurofilament protein (SMI32) were observed in 7 and 12-month-old TLR2KO mice, and that myelin basic protein (MBP) decreased in 12-month-old TLR2KO mice. CONCLUSION Our data demonstrated that TLR2 defect resulted in significantly observable neurobehavioral dysfunctions in mice starting from middle age, as well as multiple abnormalities in brain structure, function, and molecular metabolism.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yuting Hu
- Department of Neurology, Affiliated Hospital of Xuzhou Medical University, China; Institute of Neurological Diseases, Xuzhou Medical University, China
| | - Xiaoyu Sun
- Department of Neurology, Affiliated Hospital of Xuzhou Medical University, China; Institute of Neurological Diseases, Xuzhou Medical University, China
| | - Shang Wang
- Department of Neurology, Affiliated Hospital of Xuzhou Medical University, China; Institute of Neurological Diseases, Xuzhou Medical University, China
| | - Chao Zhou
- Department of Neurology, Affiliated Hospital of Xuzhou Medical University, China; Institute of Neurological Diseases, Xuzhou Medical University, China
| | - Li Lin
- Department of Neurology, Affiliated Hospital of Xuzhou Medical University, China; Institute of Neurological Diseases, Xuzhou Medical University, China
| | - Xiaohui Ding
- Department of Histology and Embryology, Shenyang Medical College, China
| | - Jingjing Han
- Department of Neurology, Affiliated Hospital of Xuzhou Medical University, China; Institute of Neurological Diseases, Xuzhou Medical University, China
| | - Yan Zhou
- Department of Neurology, Affiliated Hospital of Xuzhou Medical University, China; Institute of Neurological Diseases, Xuzhou Medical University, China
| | - Guoliang Jin
- Department of Neurology, Affiliated Hospital of Xuzhou Medical University, China; Institute of Neurological Diseases, Xuzhou Medical University, China
| | - Yuqiao Wang
- Department of Neurology, Affiliated Hospital of Xuzhou Medical University, China; Institute of Neurological Diseases, Xuzhou Medical University, China
| | - Wei Zhang
- Department of Neurology, Affiliated Hospital of Xuzhou Medical University, China; Institute of Neurological Diseases, Xuzhou Medical University, China
| | - Hongjuan Shi
- Department of Neurology, Affiliated Hospital of Xuzhou Medical University, China; Institute of Neurological Diseases, Xuzhou Medical University, China
| | - Zuohui Zhang
- Department of Neurology, Affiliated Hospital of Xuzhou Medical University, China; Institute of Neurological Diseases, Xuzhou Medical University, China
| | - Xinxin Yang
- Department of Neurology, Affiliated Hospital of Xuzhou Medical University, China; Institute of Neurological Diseases, Xuzhou Medical University, China
| | - Fang Hua
- Department of Neurology, Affiliated Hospital of Xuzhou Medical University, China; Institute of Neurological Diseases, Xuzhou Medical University, China.
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Liu F, Cheng X, Zhong S, Liu C, Jolkkonen J, Zhang X, Liang Y, Liu Z, Zhao C. Communications Between Peripheral and the Brain-Resident Immune System in Neuronal Regeneration After Stroke. Front Immunol 2020; 11:1931. [PMID: 33042113 PMCID: PMC7530165 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2020.01931] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/06/2020] [Accepted: 07/17/2020] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
Cerebral ischemia may cause irreversible neural network damage and result in functional deficits. Targeting neuronal repair after stroke potentiates the formation of new connections, which can be translated into a better functional outcome. Innate and adaptive immune responses in the brain and the periphery triggered by ischemic damage participate in regulating neural repair after a stroke. Immune cells in the blood circulation and gut lymphatic tissues that have been shaped by immune components including gut microbiota and metabolites can infiltrate the ischemic brain and, once there, influence neuronal regeneration either directly or by modulating the properties of brain-resident immune cells. Immune-related signalings and metabolites from the gut microbiota can also directly alter the phenotypes of resident immune cells to promote neuronal regeneration. In this review, we discuss several potential mechanisms through which peripheral and brain-resident immune components can cooperate to promote first the resolution of neuroinflammation and subsequently to improved neural regeneration and a better functional recovery. We propose that new insights into discovery of regulators targeting pro-regenerative process in this complex neuro-immune network may lead to novel strategies for neuronal regeneration.
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Affiliation(s)
- Fangxi Liu
- Neurology, The First Hospital of China Medical University, Shenyang, China
| | - Xi Cheng
- Neurology, The First Hospital of China Medical University, Shenyang, China
| | - Shanshan Zhong
- Neurology, The First Hospital of China Medical University, Shenyang, China
| | - Chang Liu
- Neurology, The First Hospital of China Medical University, Shenyang, China
| | - Jukka Jolkkonen
- A.I. Virtanen Institute and Institute of Clinical Medicine/Neurology, University of Eastern Finland, Kuopio, Finland
| | - Xiuchun Zhang
- Neurology, The First Hospital of China Medical University, Shenyang, China
| | - Yifan Liang
- Neurology, The First Hospital of China Medical University, Shenyang, China
| | - Zhouyang Liu
- Neurology, The First Hospital of China Medical University, Shenyang, China
| | - Chuansheng Zhao
- Neurology, The First Hospital of China Medical University, Shenyang, China.,Stroke Center, The First Hospital of China Medical University, Shenyang, China
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Xu S, Lu J, Shao A, Zhang JH, Zhang J. Glial Cells: Role of the Immune Response in Ischemic Stroke. Front Immunol 2020; 11:294. [PMID: 32174916 PMCID: PMC7055422 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2020.00294] [Citation(s) in RCA: 307] [Impact Index Per Article: 76.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/04/2019] [Accepted: 02/05/2020] [Indexed: 12/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Ischemic stroke, which accounts for 75-80% of all strokes, is the predominant cause of morbidity and mortality worldwide. The post-stroke immune response has recently emerged as a new breakthrough target in the treatment strategy for ischemic stroke. Glial cells, including microglia, astrocytes, and oligodendrocytes, are the primary components of the peri-infarct environment in the central nervous system (CNS) and have been implicated in post-stroke immune regulation. However, increasing evidence suggests that glial cells exert beneficial and detrimental effects during ischemic stroke. Microglia, which survey CNS homeostasis and regulate innate immune responses, are rapidly activated after ischemic stroke. Activated microglia release inflammatory cytokines that induce neuronal tissue injury. By contrast, anti-inflammatory cytokines and neurotrophic factors secreted by alternatively activated microglia are beneficial for recovery after ischemic stroke. Astrocyte activation and reactive gliosis in ischemic stroke contribute to limiting brain injury and re-establishing CNS homeostasis. However, glial scarring hinders neuronal reconnection and extension. Neuroinflammation affects the demyelination and remyelination of oligodendrocytes. Myelin-associated antigens released from oligodendrocytes activate peripheral T cells, thereby resulting in the autoimmune response. Oligodendrocyte precursor cells, which can differentiate into oligodendrocytes, follow an ischemic stroke and may result in functional recovery. Herein, we discuss the mechanisms of post-stroke immune regulation mediated by glial cells and the interaction between glial cells and neurons. In addition, we describe the potential roles of various glial cells at different stages of ischemic stroke and discuss future intervention targets.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shenbin Xu
- Department of Neurosurgery, The Second Affiliated Hospital, School of Medicine, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, China
| | - Jianan Lu
- Department of Neurosurgery, The Second Affiliated Hospital, School of Medicine, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, China
| | - Anwen Shao
- Department of Neurosurgery, The Second Affiliated Hospital, School of Medicine, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, China
| | - John H Zhang
- Department of Physiology and Pharmacology, School of Medicine, Loma Linda University, Loma Linda, CA, United States.,Department of Anesthesiology, School of Medicine, Loma Linda University, Loma Linda, CA, United States.,Department of Neurosurgery, School of Medicine, Loma Linda University, Loma Linda, CA, United States
| | - Jianmin Zhang
- Department of Neurosurgery, The Second Affiliated Hospital, School of Medicine, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, China.,Brain Research Institute, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, China.,Collaborative Innovation Center for Brain Science, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, China
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Jayaraj RL, Azimullah S, Beiram R, Jalal FY, Rosenberg GA. Neuroinflammation: friend and foe for ischemic stroke. J Neuroinflammation 2019; 16:142. [PMID: 31291966 PMCID: PMC6617684 DOI: 10.1186/s12974-019-1516-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 785] [Impact Index Per Article: 157.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/26/2019] [Accepted: 06/10/2019] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Stroke, the third leading cause of death and disability worldwide, is undergoing a change in perspective with the emergence of new ideas on neurodegeneration. The concept that stroke is a disorder solely of blood vessels has been expanded to include the effects of a detrimental interaction between glia, neurons, vascular cells, and matrix components, which is collectively referred to as the neurovascular unit. Following the acute stroke, the majority of which are ischemic, there is secondary neuroinflammation that both promotes further injury, resulting in cell death, but conversely plays a beneficial role, by promoting recovery. The proinflammatory signals from immune mediators rapidly activate resident cells and influence infiltration of a wide range of inflammatory cells (neutrophils, monocytes/macrophages, different subtypes of T cells, and other inflammatory cells) into the ischemic region exacerbating brain damage. In this review, we discuss how neuroinflammation has both beneficial as well as detrimental roles and recent therapeutic strategies to combat pathological responses. Here, we also focus on time-dependent entry of immune cells to the ischemic area and the impact of other pathological mediators, including oxidative stress, excitotoxicity, matrix metalloproteinases (MMPs), high-mobility group box 1 (HMGB1), arachidonic acid metabolites, mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK), and post-translational modifications that could potentially perpetuate ischemic brain damage after the acute injury. Understanding the time-dependent role of inflammatory factors could help in developing new diagnostic, prognostic, and therapeutic neuroprotective strategies for post-stroke inflammation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Richard L. Jayaraj
- Department of Pharmacology and Therapeutics, College of Medicine and Health Sciences, United Arab Emirates University, Al-Ain, UAE
| | - Sheikh Azimullah
- Department of Pharmacology and Therapeutics, College of Medicine and Health Sciences, United Arab Emirates University, Al-Ain, UAE
| | - Rami Beiram
- Department of Pharmacology and Therapeutics, College of Medicine and Health Sciences, United Arab Emirates University, Al-Ain, UAE
| | - Fakhreya Y. Jalal
- Department of Pharmacology and Therapeutics, College of Medicine and Health Sciences, United Arab Emirates University, Al-Ain, UAE
| | - Gary A. Rosenberg
- Department of Neurology, University of New Mexico Health Sciences Center, Albuquerque, NM 87131 USA
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Wang G, Ding L, Gao C, Zhang N, Gan D, Sun Y, Xu L, Luo Q, Jiang Z. Neuroprotective effect of l-serine against white matter demyelination by harnessing and modulating inflammation in mice. Neuropharmacology 2018; 146:39-49. [PMID: 30452956 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuropharm.2018.11.025] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/18/2018] [Revised: 11/02/2018] [Accepted: 11/15/2018] [Indexed: 12/31/2022]
Abstract
Demyelination in white matter is the end product of numerous pathological processes. This study was designed to evaluate the neuroprotective effect of l-serine and the underlying mechanisms against the demyelinating injury of white matter. A model of focal demyelinating lesions (FDL) was established using the two-point stereotactic injection of 0.25% lysophosphatidylcholine (LPC, 10 μg per point) into the corpus callosum of mice. Mice were then intraperitoneally injected with one of three doses of l-serine (114, 342, or 1026 mg/kg) 2 h after FDL, and then twice daily for the next five days. Behavior tests and histological analysis were assessed for up to twenty-eight days post-FDL induction. Electron microscopy was used for ultrastructural investigation. In vitro, we applied primary co-cultures of microglia and oligodendrocytes for oxygen glucose deprivation (OGD). After establishing FDL, l-serine treatment: 1) improved spatial learning, memory and cognitive ability in mice, and relieved anxiety for 4 weeks post-FDL induction; 2) reduced abnormally dephosphorylated neurofilament proteins, increased myelin basic protein, and preserved anatomic myelinated axons; 3) inhibited microglia activation and reduced the release of inflammatory factors; 4) promoted recruitment and proliferation of oligodendrocyte progenitor cells, and the efficiency of subsequent remyelination on day twenty-eight post-FDL induction. In vitro experiments, showed that l-serine not only directly protected against oligodendrocytes from OGD damage, but also provided an indirect protective effect by regulating microglia. In our study, l-serine offered long-lasting behavioral and oligodendrocyte protection and promoted remyelination. Therefore, l-serine may be an effective clinical treatment aganist white matter injury.
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Affiliation(s)
- Guohua Wang
- Department of Neurophysiology and Neuropharmacology, Institute of Nautical Medicine and Co-innovation Center of Neuroregeneration, Nantong University, 9 Seyuan Road, Chongchuan District, Nantong, Jiangsu, 226019, China.
| | - Lingzhi Ding
- Department of Neurophysiology and Neuropharmacology, Institute of Nautical Medicine and Co-innovation Center of Neuroregeneration, Nantong University, 9 Seyuan Road, Chongchuan District, Nantong, Jiangsu, 226019, China
| | - Chunyi Gao
- Department of Neurophysiology and Neuropharmacology, Institute of Nautical Medicine and Co-innovation Center of Neuroregeneration, Nantong University, 9 Seyuan Road, Chongchuan District, Nantong, Jiangsu, 226019, China
| | - Nianjiao Zhang
- Department of Neurophysiology and Neuropharmacology, Institute of Nautical Medicine and Co-innovation Center of Neuroregeneration, Nantong University, 9 Seyuan Road, Chongchuan District, Nantong, Jiangsu, 226019, China
| | - Deqiang Gan
- Department of Neurophysiology and Neuropharmacology, Institute of Nautical Medicine and Co-innovation Center of Neuroregeneration, Nantong University, 9 Seyuan Road, Chongchuan District, Nantong, Jiangsu, 226019, China
| | - Yechao Sun
- Department of Neurophysiology and Neuropharmacology, Institute of Nautical Medicine and Co-innovation Center of Neuroregeneration, Nantong University, 9 Seyuan Road, Chongchuan District, Nantong, Jiangsu, 226019, China
| | - Lihua Xu
- Department of Neurophysiology and Neuropharmacology, Institute of Nautical Medicine and Co-innovation Center of Neuroregeneration, Nantong University, 9 Seyuan Road, Chongchuan District, Nantong, Jiangsu, 226019, China
| | - Qianqian Luo
- Department of Neurophysiology and Neuropharmacology, Institute of Nautical Medicine and Co-innovation Center of Neuroregeneration, Nantong University, 9 Seyuan Road, Chongchuan District, Nantong, Jiangsu, 226019, China
| | - Zhenglin Jiang
- Department of Neurophysiology and Neuropharmacology, Institute of Nautical Medicine and Co-innovation Center of Neuroregeneration, Nantong University, 9 Seyuan Road, Chongchuan District, Nantong, Jiangsu, 226019, China.
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Xu Q, Du F, Zhang Y, Teng Y, Tao M, Chen AF, Jiang R. Preeclampsia serum induces human glomerular vascular endothelial cell hyperpermeability via the HMGB1-Caveolin-1 pathway. J Reprod Immunol 2018; 129:1-8. [PMID: 30007203 DOI: 10.1016/j.jri.2018.07.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/04/2018] [Revised: 05/13/2018] [Accepted: 07/03/2018] [Indexed: 01/01/2023]
Abstract
To explore new ideas about the pathogeny of preeclampsia (PE) proteinuria, this study focused on whether severe PE serum (PES) could induce high-molecular-weight protein (HMWP) hyperpermeability in glomerular endothelial cells (GEC) via the HMGB1-Caveolin-1 (CAV-1) pathway. Normal pregnancy serum (NPS) and severe PES were used to treat primary human GEC monolayer for 24 h. The CAV-1 inhibitor methyl-beta-cyclodextrin (MBCD), the HMGB1 inhibitor glycyrrhizicacid (GA), recombinant HMGB1 (rHMGB1) were also used to treat GEC monolayer that were stimulated by NPS or severe PES. The dynamic permeability of GEC to HMWP was detected by Evans blue-labeled BSA and CAV-1 expression in GEC was analyzed by immunofluorescence staining and Western blotting. We detected HMGB1 expression in placenta and serum in normal pregnancy and severe PE. The results showed that severe PES significantly promoted GEC hyperpermeability and CAV-1 expression. By inhibiting CAV-1 expression, MBCD reversed severe PES-induced GEC monolayer permeability. HMGB1 expression in PE placenta and serum was significantly increased. Compared with that in normal placenta, HMGB1expression was increased in the cytoplasm of syncytiotrophoblast cells in PE placenta. GA decreased the severe PES-induced hyperpermeability and CAV-1 expression in GEC. rHMGB1 induced high expression levels of CAV-1 and HMWP hyperpermeability in GEC. In conclusion, HMGB1 is increased in severe PE patients and induces the expression of CAV-1 in GEC. High expression of CAV-1 in GEC can promote HMWP hyperpermeability, which may contribute to the development of PE proteinuria.
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Affiliation(s)
- Qinyang Xu
- Obstetric Intensive Care Center, The Institute of Obstetrics and Gynecology, Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, Affiliated Sixth People's Hospital, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, Shanghai, China
| | - Fei Du
- Obstetric Intensive Care Center, The Institute of Obstetrics and Gynecology, Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, Affiliated Sixth People's Hospital, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, Shanghai, China
| | - Ye Zhang
- Obstetric Intensive Care Center, The Institute of Obstetrics and Gynecology, Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, Affiliated Sixth People's Hospital, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, Shanghai, China
| | - Yincheng Teng
- Obstetric Intensive Care Center, The Institute of Obstetrics and Gynecology, Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, Affiliated Sixth People's Hospital, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, Shanghai, China
| | - Minfang Tao
- Obstetric Intensive Care Center, The Institute of Obstetrics and Gynecology, Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, Affiliated Sixth People's Hospital, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, Shanghai, China
| | - Alex F Chen
- Department of Surgery, McGowan Institute of Regenerative Medicine, University of Pittsburgh School of Medicine, Pittsburgh, PA 15213, USA
| | - Rongzhen Jiang
- Obstetric Intensive Care Center, The Institute of Obstetrics and Gynecology, Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, Affiliated Sixth People's Hospital, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, Shanghai, China.
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Gülke E, Gelderblom M, Magnus T. Danger signals in stroke and their role on microglia activation after ischemia. Ther Adv Neurol Disord 2018; 11:1756286418774254. [PMID: 29854002 PMCID: PMC5968660 DOI: 10.1177/1756286418774254] [Citation(s) in RCA: 146] [Impact Index Per Article: 24.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/23/2018] [Accepted: 04/10/2018] [Indexed: 12/26/2022] Open
Abstract
Ischemic stroke is a major cause of death. Besides the direct damage resulting from oxygen and glucose deprivation, sterile inflammation plays a pivotal role in increasing cellular death. Damaged-associated molecular patterns (DAMPs) are passively released from dying cells and activate the innate immune system. Thus, they take part in the direct and rapid activation of the inflammatory response after stroke onset. In this review the role of the most important DAMPs, high mobility group box 1, heat and cold shock proteins, purines, and peroxiredoxins, are addressed. Moreover, intracellular pathways activated by DAMPs in microglia are illuminated.
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Affiliation(s)
- Eileen Gülke
- Department of Neurology, University Medical Center Hamburg-Eppendorf, Hamburg, Germany
| | - Mathias Gelderblom
- Department of Neurology, University Medical Center Hamburg-Eppendorf, Martinistraße 52, 20246 Hamburg, Germany
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High-mobility group box 1 facilitates migration of neural stem cells via receptor for advanced glycation end products signaling pathway. Sci Rep 2018. [PMID: 29540727 PMCID: PMC5852130 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-018-22672-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/22/2022] Open
Abstract
High-mobility group box 1 (HMGB1) facilitates neural stem cells (NSCs) proliferation and differentiation into neuronal linage. However, the effect of HMGB1 on NSCs migration is still elusive. The present study is to investigate the corelation between HMGB1 and NSCs migration and the potential mechanism. The results indicated that 1 ng/ml HMGB1 promoted NSCs proliferation using CCK8 assays. Moreover, data showed that 1 ng/ml HMGB1 facilitated NSCs migration via filopodia formation using phase-contrast and transwell assays. Furthermore, 1 ng/ml HMGB1 upregulated the expression of RAGE, one of the HMGB1 receptor, using western blotting assays and immunofluorescence staining. In addition, 1 ng/ml HMGB1 increased the percentage of filopodia formation using phalloidin staining. Meanwhile, the enhanced migration effect could be abrogated by 50 nM FPS-ZM1, one of the RAGE antagonist, and RAGE-specific siRNA through immunofluorescence and phalloidin staining. Together, our data demonstrate that HMGB1/RAGE axis facilitates NSCs migration via promoting filopodia formation, which might serve as a candidate for central nervous system (CNS) injury treatment and/or a preconditioning method for NSCs implantation.
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