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Biscarini F, Barateau L, Pizza F, Plazzi G, Dauvilliers Y. Narcolepsy and rapid eye movement sleep. J Sleep Res 2024:e14277. [PMID: 38955433 DOI: 10.1111/jsr.14277] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/07/2024] [Revised: 06/06/2024] [Accepted: 06/09/2024] [Indexed: 07/04/2024]
Abstract
Since the first description of narcolepsy at the end of the 19th Century, great progress has been made. The disease is nowadays distinguished as narcolepsy type 1 and type 2. In the 1960s, the discovery of rapid eye movement sleep at sleep onset led to improved understanding of core sleep-related disease symptoms of the disease (excessive daytime sleepiness with early occurrence of rapid eye movement sleep, sleep-related hallucinations, sleep paralysis, rapid eye movement parasomnia), as possible dysregulation of rapid eye movement sleep, and cataplexy resembling an intrusion of rapid eye movement atonia during wake. The relevance of non-sleep-related symptoms, such as obesity, precocious puberty, psychiatric and cardiovascular morbidities, has subsequently been recognized. The diagnostic tools have been improved, but sleep-onset rapid eye movement periods on polysomnography and Multiple Sleep Latency Test remain key criteria. The pathogenic mechanisms of narcolepsy type 1 have been partly elucidated after the discovery of strong HLA class II association and orexin/hypocretin deficiency, a neurotransmitter that is involved in altered rapid eye movement sleep regulation. Conversely, the causes of narcolepsy type 2, where cataplexy and orexin deficiency are absent, remain unknown. Symptomatic medications to treat patients with narcolepsy have been developed, and management has been codified with guidelines, until the recent promising orexin-receptor agonists. The present review retraces the steps of the research on narcolepsy that linked the features of the disease with rapid eye movement sleep abnormality, and those that do not appear associated with rapid eye movement sleep.
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Affiliation(s)
- Francesco Biscarini
- Department of Biomedical and Neuromotor Sciences (DIBINEM), University of Bologna, Bologna, Italy
- IRCCS Istituto delle Scienze Neurologiche di Bologna, Bologna, Italy
| | - Lucie Barateau
- Sleep-Wake Disorders Unit, Department of Neurology, Gui-de-Chauliac Hospital, CHU Montpellier, Montpellier, France
- National Reference Centre for Orphan Diseases, Narcolepsy, Idiopathic Hypersomnia, and Kleine-Levin Syndrome, Montpellier, France
- Institute for Neurosciences of Montpellier, University of Montpellier, INSERM, Montpellier, France
| | - Fabio Pizza
- Department of Biomedical and Neuromotor Sciences (DIBINEM), University of Bologna, Bologna, Italy
- IRCCS Istituto delle Scienze Neurologiche di Bologna, Bologna, Italy
| | - Giuseppe Plazzi
- IRCCS Istituto delle Scienze Neurologiche di Bologna, Bologna, Italy
- Department of Biomedical, Metabolic and Neural Sciences, University of Modena and Reggio-Emilia, Modena, Italy
| | - Yves Dauvilliers
- Sleep-Wake Disorders Unit, Department of Neurology, Gui-de-Chauliac Hospital, CHU Montpellier, Montpellier, France
- National Reference Centre for Orphan Diseases, Narcolepsy, Idiopathic Hypersomnia, and Kleine-Levin Syndrome, Montpellier, France
- Institute for Neurosciences of Montpellier, University of Montpellier, INSERM, Montpellier, France
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Bechny M, Monachino G, Fiorillo L, van der Meer J, Schmidt MH, Bassetti CLA, Tzovara A, Faraci FD. Bridging AI and Clinical Practice: Integrating Automated Sleep Scoring Algorithm with Uncertainty-Guided Physician Review. Nat Sci Sleep 2024; 16:555-572. [PMID: 38827394 PMCID: PMC11143488 DOI: 10.2147/nss.s455649] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/19/2023] [Accepted: 04/18/2024] [Indexed: 06/04/2024] Open
Abstract
Purpose This study aims to enhance the clinical use of automated sleep-scoring algorithms by incorporating an uncertainty estimation approach to efficiently assist clinicians in the manual review of predicted hypnograms, a necessity due to the notable inter-scorer variability inherent in polysomnography (PSG) databases. Our efforts target the extent of review required to achieve predefined agreement levels, examining both in-domain (ID) and out-of-domain (OOD) data, and considering subjects' diagnoses. Patients and Methods A total of 19,578 PSGs from 13 open-access databases were used to train U-Sleep, a state-of-the-art sleep-scoring algorithm. We leveraged a comprehensive clinical database of an additional 8832 PSGs, covering a full spectrum of ages (0-91 years) and sleep-disorders, to refine the U-Sleep, and to evaluate different uncertainty-quantification approaches, including our novel confidence network. The ID data consisted of PSGs scored by over 50 physicians, and the two OOD sets comprised recordings each scored by a unique senior physician. Results U-Sleep demonstrated robust performance, with Cohen's kappa (K) at 76.2% on ID and 73.8-78.8% on OOD data. The confidence network excelled at identifying uncertain predictions, achieving AUROC scores of 85.7% on ID and 82.5-85.6% on OOD data. Independently of sleep-disorder status, statistical evaluations revealed significant differences in confidence scores between aligning vs discording predictions, and significant correlations of confidence scores with classification performance metrics. To achieve κ ≥ 90% with physician intervention, examining less than 29.0% of uncertain epochs was required, substantially reducing physicians' workload, and facilitating near-perfect agreement. Conclusion Inter-scorer variability limits the accuracy of the scoring algorithms to ~80%. By integrating an uncertainty estimation with U-Sleep, we enhance the review of predicted hypnograms, to align with the scoring taste of a responsible physician. Validated across ID and OOD data and various sleep-disorders, our approach offers a strategy to boost automated scoring tools' usability in clinical settings.
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Affiliation(s)
- Michal Bechny
- Institute of Computer Science, University of Bern, Bern, Switzerland
- Institute of Digital Technologies for Personalized Healthcare (Meditech), University of Applied Sciences and Arts of Southern Switzerland, Lugano, Switzerland
| | - Giuliana Monachino
- Institute of Computer Science, University of Bern, Bern, Switzerland
- Institute of Digital Technologies for Personalized Healthcare (Meditech), University of Applied Sciences and Arts of Southern Switzerland, Lugano, Switzerland
| | - Luigi Fiorillo
- Institute of Digital Technologies for Personalized Healthcare (Meditech), University of Applied Sciences and Arts of Southern Switzerland, Lugano, Switzerland
| | | | - Markus H Schmidt
- Department of Neurology, University Hospital of Bern, Bern, Switzerland
- Ohio Sleep Medicine Institute, Dublin, OH, USA
| | | | - Athina Tzovara
- Institute of Computer Science, University of Bern, Bern, Switzerland
- Department of Neurology, University Hospital of Bern, Bern, Switzerland
| | - Francesca D Faraci
- Institute of Digital Technologies for Personalized Healthcare (Meditech), University of Applied Sciences and Arts of Southern Switzerland, Lugano, Switzerland
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Gagnon K, Rey AE, Guignard-Perret A, Guyon A, Reynaud E, Herbillon V, Lina JM, Carrier J, Franco P, Mazza S. Sleep Stage Transitions and Sleep-Dependent Memory Consolidation in Children with Narcolepsy-Cataplexy. CHILDREN (BASEL, SWITZERLAND) 2023; 10:1702. [PMID: 37892365 PMCID: PMC10605014 DOI: 10.3390/children10101702] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/31/2023] [Revised: 10/09/2023] [Accepted: 10/12/2023] [Indexed: 10/29/2023]
Abstract
Electroencephalographic sleep stage transitions and altered first REM sleep period transitions have been identified as biomarkers of type 1 narcolepsy in adults, but not in children. Studies on memory complaints in narcolepsy have not yet investigated sleep-dependent memory consolidation. We aimed to explore stage transitions; more specifically altered REM sleep transition and its relationship with sleep-dependent memory consolidation in children with narcolepsy. Twenty-one children with narcolepsy-cataplexy and twenty-three healthy control children completed overnight polysomnography and sleep-dependent memory consolidation tests. Overnight transition rates (number of transitions per hour), global relative transition frequencies (number of transitions between a stage and all other stages/total number of transitions × 100), overnight transitions to REM sleep (transition from a given stage to REM/total REM transitions × 100), and altered first REM sleep period transitions (transitions from wake or N1 to the first REM period) were computed. Narcoleptic children had a significantly higher overnight transition rate with a higher global relative transition frequencies to wake. A lower sleep-dependent memory consolidation score found in children with narcolepsy was associated with a higher overnight transition frequency. As observed in narcoleptic adults, 90.48% of narcoleptic children exhibited an altered first REM sleep transition. As in adults, the altered sleep stage transition is also present in children with narcolepsy-cataplexy, and a higher transition rate could have an impact on sleep-dependent memory consolidation. These potential biomarkers could help diagnose type 1 narcolepsy in children more quickly; however, further studies with larger cohorts, including of those with type 2 narcolepsy and hypersomnia, are needed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Katia Gagnon
- Université Claude Bernard Lyon 1, CNRS, INSERM, Centre de Recherche en Neurosciences de Lyon CRNL U1028 UMR5292, FORGETTING, F-69500 Bron, France; (K.G.); (A.E.R.); (E.R.)
| | - Amandine E. Rey
- Université Claude Bernard Lyon 1, CNRS, INSERM, Centre de Recherche en Neurosciences de Lyon CRNL U1028 UMR5292, FORGETTING, F-69500 Bron, France; (K.G.); (A.E.R.); (E.R.)
| | - Anne Guignard-Perret
- National Reference Center for Narcolepsy in the Service of Epilepsy, Sleep and Neuropediatric Functional Explorations of the Woman Mother Child Hospital of Bron, 59, bd Pinel, F-69677 Bron, France; (A.G.-P.); (A.G.); (V.H.); (P.F.)
| | - Aurore Guyon
- National Reference Center for Narcolepsy in the Service of Epilepsy, Sleep and Neuropediatric Functional Explorations of the Woman Mother Child Hospital of Bron, 59, bd Pinel, F-69677 Bron, France; (A.G.-P.); (A.G.); (V.H.); (P.F.)
- Université Claude Bernard Lyon 1, CNRS, INSERM, Centre de Recherche en Neurosciences de Lyon CRNL U1028 UMR5292, WAKING, F-69500 Bron, France
| | - Eve Reynaud
- Université Claude Bernard Lyon 1, CNRS, INSERM, Centre de Recherche en Neurosciences de Lyon CRNL U1028 UMR5292, FORGETTING, F-69500 Bron, France; (K.G.); (A.E.R.); (E.R.)
| | - Vania Herbillon
- National Reference Center for Narcolepsy in the Service of Epilepsy, Sleep and Neuropediatric Functional Explorations of the Woman Mother Child Hospital of Bron, 59, bd Pinel, F-69677 Bron, France; (A.G.-P.); (A.G.); (V.H.); (P.F.)
- Université Claude Bernard Lyon 1, CNRS, INSERM, Centre de Recherche en Neurosciences de Lyon CRNL U1028 UMR5292, EDUWELL, F-69500 Bron, France
| | - Jean-Marc Lina
- Department of Electrical Engineering, École de Technologie Supérieure, Montréal, QC H3C 1K3, Canada;
| | - Julie Carrier
- Department of Psychology, Université de Montréal, Montréal, QC H3C 3J7, Canada;
| | - Patricia Franco
- National Reference Center for Narcolepsy in the Service of Epilepsy, Sleep and Neuropediatric Functional Explorations of the Woman Mother Child Hospital of Bron, 59, bd Pinel, F-69677 Bron, France; (A.G.-P.); (A.G.); (V.H.); (P.F.)
- Université Claude Bernard Lyon 1, CNRS, INSERM, Centre de Recherche en Neurosciences de Lyon CRNL U1028 UMR5292, WAKING, F-69500 Bron, France
| | - Stéphanie Mazza
- Université Claude Bernard Lyon 1, CNRS, INSERM, Centre de Recherche en Neurosciences de Lyon CRNL U1028 UMR5292, FORGETTING, F-69500 Bron, France; (K.G.); (A.E.R.); (E.R.)
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Dworetz A, Trotti LM, Sharma S. Novel Objective Measures of Hypersomnolence. CURRENT SLEEP MEDICINE REPORTS 2023; 9:45-55. [PMID: 37193087 PMCID: PMC10168608 DOI: 10.1007/s40675-022-00245-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 12/15/2022] [Indexed: 01/11/2023]
Abstract
Purpose of review To provide a brief overview of current objective measures of hypersomnolence, discuss proposed measure modifications, and review emerging measures. Recent findings There is potential to optimize current tools using novel metrics. High-density and quantitative EEG-based measures may provide discriminative informative. Cognitive testing may quantify cognitive dysfunction common to hypersomnia disorders, particularly in attention, and objectively measure pathologic sleep inertia. Structural and functional neuroimaging studies in narcolepsy type 1 have shown considerable variability but so far implicate both hypothalamic and extra-hypothalamic regions; fewer studies of other CDH have been performed. There is recent renewed interest in pupillometry as a measure of alertness in the evaluation of hypersomnolence. Summary No single test captures the full spectrum of disorders and use of multiple measures will likely improve diagnostic precision. Research is needed to identify novel measures and disease-specific biomarkers, and to define combinations of measures optimal for CDH diagnosis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alex Dworetz
- Sleep Disorders Center, Atlanta Veterans Affairs Medical Center, Atlanta, GA
| | - Lynn Marie Trotti
- Sleep Center, Emory Healthcare, Atlanta, GA
- Department of Neurology, Emory University School of Medicine, Atlanta, GA
| | - Surina Sharma
- Sleep Center, Emory Healthcare, Atlanta, GA
- Deparment of Medicine, Emory University School of Medicine, Atlanta, GA
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Romigi A, Caccamo M, Testa F, Ticconi D, Cappellano S, Di Gioia B, Vitrani G, Rosenzweig I, Centonze D. Muscle atonia index during multiple sleep latency test: A possible marker to differentiate narcolepsy from other hypersomnias. Clin Neurophysiol 2023; 149:25-31. [PMID: 36870217 DOI: 10.1016/j.clinph.2023.01.019] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/14/2022] [Revised: 01/15/2023] [Accepted: 01/23/2023] [Indexed: 02/16/2023]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE The complexity and delay of the diagnosis of narcolepsy require several diagnostic tests and invasive procedures such as lumbar puncture. Our study aimed to determine the changes in muscle tone (atonia index, AI) at different levels of vigilance during the entire multiple sleep latency test (MSLT) and each nap in people with narcolepsy type 1 (NT1) and 2 (NT2) compared with other hypersomnias and its potential diagnostic value. METHODS Twenty-nine patients with NT1 (11 M 18F, mean age 34.9 years, SD 16.8) and sixteen with NT2 (10 M 6F, mean age 39 years, SD 11.8) and 20 controls with other hypersomnias (10 M, 10F mean age 45.1 years, SD 15.1) were recruited. AI was evaluated at different levels of vigilance (Wake and REM sleep) in each nap and throughout the MSLT of each group. The validity of AI in identifying patients with narcolepsy (NT1 and NT2) was analyzed using receiver operating characteristic (ROC) curves. RESULTS AI during wakefulness (WAI) was significantly higher in the narcolepsy groups (NT1 and NT2 p < 0.001) compared to the hypersomniac group. AI during REM sleep (RAI) (p = 0.03) and WAI in nap with sudden onsets of REM sleep periods (SOREMP) (p = 0.001) were lower in NT1 than in NT2. The ROC curves showed high AUC values for WAI (NT1 0.88; Best Cut-off > 0.57, Sensitivity 79.3 % Specificity 90 %; NT2 0.89 Best Cut-off > 0.67 Sensitivity 87.5 % Specificity 95 %; NT1 and NT2 0.88 Best Cut-off > 0.57 Sensitivity 82.2 % Specificity 90 %) in discriminating subjects suffering from other hypersomnias. RAI and WAI in nap with SOREMP showed a poor AUC value (RAI AUC: 0.7 Best cutoff 0.7 Sensitivity 50 % Specificity 87.5 %; WAI in nap before SOREMP AUC: 0.66, Best cut-off < 0.82 sensitivity 61.9 % and specificity 67.35 %) differentiating NT1 and NT2. CONCLUSIONS WAI may represent an encouraging electrophysiological marker of narcolepsy and suggests a vulnerable tendency to dissociative wake / sleep dysregulation lacking in other forms of hypersomnia. SIGNIFICANCE AI during wakefulness may help distinguish between narcolepsy and other hypersomnias.
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Affiliation(s)
- A Romigi
- IRCCS Neuromed Istituto Neurologico Mediterraneo, Sleep Medicine Center, Via Atinense 18, Pozzilli, IS, Italy.
| | - M Caccamo
- IRCCS Neuromed Istituto Neurologico Mediterraneo, Sleep Medicine Center, Via Atinense 18, Pozzilli, IS, Italy
| | - F Testa
- IRCCS Neuromed Istituto Neurologico Mediterraneo, Sleep Medicine Center, Via Atinense 18, Pozzilli, IS, Italy
| | - D Ticconi
- IRCCS Neuromed Istituto Neurologico Mediterraneo, Sleep Medicine Center, Via Atinense 18, Pozzilli, IS, Italy
| | - S Cappellano
- IRCCS Neuromed Istituto Neurologico Mediterraneo, Sleep Medicine Center, Via Atinense 18, Pozzilli, IS, Italy
| | - B Di Gioia
- IRCCS Neuromed Istituto Neurologico Mediterraneo, Sleep Medicine Center, Via Atinense 18, Pozzilli, IS, Italy
| | - G Vitrani
- IRCCS Neuromed Istituto Neurologico Mediterraneo, Sleep Medicine Center, Via Atinense 18, Pozzilli, IS, Italy
| | - I Rosenzweig
- Sleep Disorders Centre, Guy's and St Thomas' NHS Foundation Trust, London, UK; Sleep and Brain Plasticity Centre, Department of Neuroimaging, Institute of Psychiatry, Psychology and Neuroscience (IoPPN), King's College London, UK
| | - D Centonze
- IRCCS Neuromed Istituto Neurologico Mediterraneo, Sleep Medicine Center, Via Atinense 18, Pozzilli, IS, Italy
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Mayà G, Gaig C, Iranzo A, Santamaria J. Temporal distribution of sleep onset REM periods and N3 sleep in the MSLT and night polysomnogram of narcolepsy type 1 and other hypersomnias. Sleep Med 2023; 102:32-38. [PMID: 36592569 DOI: 10.1016/j.sleep.2022.12.018] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/29/2022] [Revised: 12/02/2022] [Accepted: 12/20/2022] [Indexed: 12/24/2022]
Abstract
INTRODUCTION The presence of ≥2 sleep onset REM periods (SOREMP) in the Multiple Sleep Latency Test (MSLT) and the previous night polysomnogram (PSG) is part of the diagnostic criteria of narcolepsy, with every SOREMP having the same diagnostic value, despite evidence suggesting that time of SOREMP appearance and their preceding sleep stage might be relevant. We studied the temporal distribution of SOREMPs and associated sleep stages in the MSLT of patients with narcolepsy type 1 (NT1) and other hypersomnias (OH). METHODS We reviewed consecutive five-nap MSLTs and their preceding PSG from 83 untreated adult patients with hypersomnolence and ≥1 SOREMPs. Wake/N1(W/N1)-SOREMPs, N2-SOREMPs, and N3 sleep presence and time of appearance were analyzed. RESULTS Thirty-nine patients had NT1 and 44 OH. There were 183 (78%) SOREMPs in patients with NT1 and 83 (31%) in OH. Sixty-seven percent of SOREMPs in NT1 were from W/N1, and 20% -none from wake-in OH (p < 0.001). Most patients (94%) with ≥2 W/N1-SOREMPs had NT1 (specificity 95%, sensitivity 82%). In patients with NT1 but not in OH, W/N1-SOREMPs decreased throughout the day (from 79% in the 1st nap to 33% in the preceding night, p < 0.001), whereas N2-SOREMPs did not change. N3 sleep frequency in the 5th nap was higher in NT1 than in OH (28% vs. 7%, p:0.009). Nocturnal-SOREMP plus ≥4 daytime SOREMPs, Wake-REM transitions, and REM followed by N3 were only seen in NT1. CONCLUSION Measuring the sleep stage sequence and temporal distribution of SOREMP helps to identify patients with narcolepsy in the MSLT.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gerard Mayà
- Sleep Disorders Center, Neurology Service, Hospital Clínic de Barcelona, Universitat de Barcelona, August Pi i Sunyer Biomedical Research Institute (IDIBAPS), CIBERNED: CB06/05/0018-ISCIII, Barcelona, Spain.
| | - Carles Gaig
- Sleep Disorders Center, Neurology Service, Hospital Clínic de Barcelona, Universitat de Barcelona, August Pi i Sunyer Biomedical Research Institute (IDIBAPS), CIBERNED: CB06/05/0018-ISCIII, Barcelona, Spain.
| | - Alex Iranzo
- Sleep Disorders Center, Neurology Service, Hospital Clínic de Barcelona, Universitat de Barcelona, August Pi i Sunyer Biomedical Research Institute (IDIBAPS), CIBERNED: CB06/05/0018-ISCIII, Barcelona, Spain.
| | - Joan Santamaria
- Sleep Disorders Center, Neurology Service, Hospital Clínic de Barcelona, Universitat de Barcelona, August Pi i Sunyer Biomedical Research Institute (IDIBAPS), CIBERNED: CB06/05/0018-ISCIII, Barcelona, Spain.
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Kawamura A, Yoshiike T, Matsuo M, Kadotani H, Oike Y, Kawasaki M, Kurumai Y, Nagao K, Takami M, Yamada N, Kuriyama K. Comparison of the usability of an automatic sleep staging program via portable 1-channel electroencephalograph and manual sleep staging with traditional polysomnography. Sleep Biol Rhythms 2023; 21:85-95. [PMID: 38468906 PMCID: PMC10899901 DOI: 10.1007/s41105-022-00421-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/07/2022] [Accepted: 08/16/2022] [Indexed: 10/15/2022]
Abstract
Automatic algorithms are a proposed alternative to manual assessment of polysomnography data for analyzing sleep structure; however, none are acceptably accurate for clinical use. We investigated the feasibility of an automated sleep stage scoring system called Sleep Scope, which is intended for use with portable 1-channel electroencephalograph, and compared it with the traditional polysomnography scoring method. Twenty-six outpatients and fourteen healthy volunteers underwent Sleep Scope and polysomnography assessments simultaneously. Polysomnography records were manually scored by three sleep experts. Sleep Scope records were scored using a dedicated auto-staging algorithm. Sleep parameters, including total sleep time, sleep latency, wake after sleep onset, and sleep efficiency, were calculated. The epoch-by-epoch pairwise concordance based on the classification of sleep into five stages (i.e., wake, rapid eye movement, N1, N2, and N3) was also evaluated after validating homogeneity and bias between Sleep Scope and polysomnography. Compared with polysomnography, Sleep Scope seemed to overestimate sleep latency by approximately 3 min, but there was no consistent tendency in bias in other sleep parameters. The Κ values ranged from 0.66 to 0.75 for experts' inter-rater polysomnography scores and from 0.62 to 0.67 for Sleep Scope versus polysomnography scores, which indicated sufficient agreement in the determination of sleep stages based on the Landis and Koch criteria. We observed sufficient concordance between Sleep Scope and polysomnography despite lower concordance in sleep disorder patients. Thus, this auto-staging system might serve as a novel clinical tool for reducing the time and expenses required of medical staff and patients. Supplementary Information The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1007/s41105-022-00421-5.
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Affiliation(s)
- Aoi Kawamura
- Department of Psychiatry, Shiga University of Medical Science, Otsu, Japan
- Department of Sleep-Wake Disorders, National Institute of Mental Health, National Center of Neurology and Psychiatry, 4-1-1 Ogawa-Higashi, Kodaira, Tokyo 187-8551 Japan
| | - Takuya Yoshiike
- Department of Sleep-Wake Disorders, National Institute of Mental Health, National Center of Neurology and Psychiatry, 4-1-1 Ogawa-Higashi, Kodaira, Tokyo 187-8551 Japan
| | - Masahiro Matsuo
- Department of Psychiatry, Shiga University of Medical Science, Otsu, Japan
| | - Hiroshi Kadotani
- Department of Psychiatry, Shiga University of Medical Science, Otsu, Japan
| | - Yuki Oike
- Department of Psychiatry, Shiga University of Medical Science, Otsu, Japan
| | - Midori Kawasaki
- Department of Psychiatry, Shiga University of Medical Science, Otsu, Japan
| | - Yuichi Kurumai
- Department of Psychiatry, Shiga University of Medical Science, Otsu, Japan
| | - Kentaro Nagao
- Department of Sleep-Wake Disorders, National Institute of Mental Health, National Center of Neurology and Psychiatry, 4-1-1 Ogawa-Higashi, Kodaira, Tokyo 187-8551 Japan
| | - Masanori Takami
- Department of Psychiatry, Shiga University of Medical Science, Otsu, Japan
| | - Naoto Yamada
- Department of Psychiatry, Shiga University of Medical Science, Otsu, Japan
| | - Kenichi Kuriyama
- Department of Psychiatry, Shiga University of Medical Science, Otsu, Japan
- Department of Sleep-Wake Disorders, National Institute of Mental Health, National Center of Neurology and Psychiatry, 4-1-1 Ogawa-Higashi, Kodaira, Tokyo 187-8551 Japan
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Shen N, Luo T, Chen C, Zhang Y, Zhu H, Zhou Y, Wang Y, Chen W. Towards an automatic narcolepsy detection on ambiguous sleep staging and sleep transition dynamics joint model. J Neural Eng 2022; 19. [PMID: 36001951 DOI: 10.1088/1741-2552/ac8c6b] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/30/2022] [Accepted: 08/24/2022] [Indexed: 11/11/2022]
Abstract
Objective.Mixing/dissociation of sleep stages in narcolepsy adds to the difficulty in automatic sleep staging. Moreover, automatic analytical studies for narcolepsy and multiple sleep latency test (MSLT) have only done automatic sleep staging without leveraging the sleep stage profile for further patient identification. This study aims to establish an automatic narcolepsy detection method for MSLT.Approach.We construct a two-phase model on MSLT recordings, where ambiguous sleep staging and sleep transition dynamics make joint efforts to address this issue. In phase 1, we extract representative features from electroencephalogram (EEG) and electrooculogram (EOG) signals. Then, the features are input to an EasyEnsemble classifier for automatic sleep staging. In phase 2, we investigate sleep transition dynamics, including sleep stage transitions and sleep stages, and output likelihood of narcolepsy by virtue of principal component analysis (PCA) and a logistic regression classifier. To demonstrate the proposed framework in clinical application, we conduct experiments on 24 participants from our hospital, considering ten patients with narcolepsy and fourteen patients with MSLT negative.Main results.Applying the two-phase leave-one-subject-out testing scheme, the model reaches an accuracy, sensitivity, and specificity of 87.5%, 80.0%, and 92.9% for narcolepsy detection. Influenced by disease pathology, accuracy of automatic sleep staging in narcolepsy appears to decrease compared to that in the non-narcoleptic population.Significance.This method can automatically and efficiently distinguish patients with narcolepsy based on MSLT. It probes into the amalgamation of automatic sleep staging and sleep transition dynamics for narcolepsy detection, which would assist clinic and neuroelectrophysiology specialists in visual interpretation and diagnosis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ning Shen
- Fudan University School of Information Science and Engineering, 220 Handan Road, Yangpu District, Shanghai, China, 2005 Songhu Road, Yangpu District, Shanghai, China, Shanghai, 200433, CHINA
| | - Tian Luo
- Department of Neurology, Children's Hospital of Fudan University, 399 Wanyuan Road, Minhang District, Shanghai, China, Shanghai, 201102, CHINA
| | - Chen Chen
- Fudan University Human Phenome Institute, 825 Zhangheng Road, Pudong District, Shanghai, China, Shanghai, 201203, CHINA
| | - Yanjiong Zhang
- Department of Neurology, Children's Hospital of Fudan University, 399 Wanyuan Road, Minhang District, Shanghai, China, Shanghai, 201102, CHINA
| | - Hangyu Zhu
- Fudan University School of Information Science and Engineering, 220 Handan Road, Yangpu District, Shanghai, China, 2005 Songhu Road, Yangpu District, Shanghai, China, Shanghai, 200433, CHINA
| | - Yuanfeng Zhou
- Department of Neurology, Children's Hospital of Fudan University, 399 Wanyuan Road, Minhang District, Shanghai, China, Shanghai, 201102, CHINA
| | - Yi Wang
- Department of Neurology, Children's Hospital of Fudan University, 399 Wanyuan Road, Minhang District, Shanghai, China, Shanghai, 201102, CHINA
| | - Wei Chen
- Department of Electronic Engineering, Fudan University, 220 Handan Road, Yangpu District, Shanghai, China, 2005 Songhu Road, Yangpu District, Shanghai, China, Shanghai, Shanghai, 200433, CHINA
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Honda M, Shigematsu Y, Shimada M, Honda Y, Tokunaga K, Miyagawa T. Low carnitine palmitoyltransferase 1 activity is a risk factor for narcolepsy type 1 and other hypersomnia. Sleep 2022; 45:6639424. [DOI: 10.1093/sleep/zsac160] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/06/2022] [Revised: 06/06/2022] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Abstract
Study Objectives
Narcolepsy type 1 (NT1) is associated with metabolic abnormalities but their etiology remains largely unknown. The gene for carnitine palmitoyltransferase 1B (CPT1B) and abnormally low serum acylcarnitine levels have been linked to NT1. To elucidate the details of altered fatty acid metabolism, we determined levels of individual acylcarnitines and evaluated CPT1 activity in patients with NT1 and other hypersomnia.
Methods
Blood samples from 57 NT1, 51 other hypersomnia patients, and 61 healthy controls were analyzed. The levels of 25 major individual acylcarnitines were determined and the C0/(t[C16] + t[C18]) ratio was used as a CPT1 activity marker. We further performed transcriptome analysis using independent blood samples from 42 NT1 and 42 healthy controls to study the relevance of fatty acid metabolism. NT1-specific changes in CPT1 activity and in expression of related genes were investigated.
Results
CPT1 activity was lower in patients with NT1 (p = 0.00064) and other hypersomnia (p = 0.0014) than in controls. Regression analysis revealed that CPT1 activity was an independent risk factor for NT1 (OR: 1.68; p = 0.0031) and for other hypersomnia (OR: 1.64; p = 0.0042). There was a significant interaction between obesity (BMI <25, ≥25) and the SNP rs5770917 status such that nonobese NT1 patients without risk allele had better CPT1 activity (p = 0.0089). The expression levels of carnitine-acylcarnitine translocase (CACT) and CPT2 in carnitine shuttle were lower in NT1 (p = 0.000051 and p = 0.00014, respectively).
Conclusions
These results provide evidences that abnormal fatty acid metabolism is involved in the pathophysiology of NT1 and other hypersomnia.
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Affiliation(s)
- Makoto Honda
- Sleep Disorders Project, Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, Tokyo Metropolitan Institute of Medical Science , Tokyo , Japan
- Japan Somnology Center and Seiwa Hospital, Institute of Neuropsychiatry , Tokyo , Japan
| | - Yosuke Shigematsu
- Department of Health Science, Faculty of Medical Sciences, University of Fukui , Fukui , Japan
| | - Mihoko Shimada
- Sleep Disorders Project, Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, Tokyo Metropolitan Institute of Medical Science , Tokyo , Japan
- Department of Human Genetics, Graduate School of Medicine, The University of Tokyo , Tokyo , Japan
- Genome Medical Science Project (Toyama), National Center for Global Health and Medicine , Tokyo , Japan
| | - Yoshiko Honda
- Sleep Disorders Project, Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, Tokyo Metropolitan Institute of Medical Science , Tokyo , Japan
| | - Katsushi Tokunaga
- Department of Human Genetics, Graduate School of Medicine, The University of Tokyo , Tokyo , Japan
- Genome Medical Science Project (Toyama), National Center for Global Health and Medicine , Tokyo , Japan
| | - Taku Miyagawa
- Sleep Disorders Project, Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, Tokyo Metropolitan Institute of Medical Science , Tokyo , Japan
- Department of Human Genetics, Graduate School of Medicine, The University of Tokyo , Tokyo , Japan
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10
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Decat N, Walter J, Koh ZH, Sribanditmongkol P, Fulcher BD, Windt JM, Andrillon T, Tsuchiya N. Beyond traditional sleep scoring: Massive feature extraction and data-driven clustering of sleep time series. Sleep Med 2022; 98:39-52. [PMID: 35779380 DOI: 10.1016/j.sleep.2022.06.013] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/11/2021] [Revised: 05/23/2022] [Accepted: 06/02/2022] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
The widely used guidelines for sleep staging were developed for the visual inspection of electrophysiological recordings by the human eye. As such, these rules reflect a limited range of features in these data and are therefore restricted in accurately capturing the physiological changes associated with sleep. Here we present a novel analysis framework that extensively characterizes sleep dynamics using over 7700 time-series features from the hctsa software. We used clustering to categorize sleep epochs based on the similarity of their time-series features, without relying on established scoring conventions. The resulting sleep structure overlapped substantially with that defined by visual scoring. However, we also observed discrepancies between our approach and traditional scoring. This divergence principally stemmed from the extensive characterization by hctsa features, which captured distinctive time-series properties within the traditionally defined sleep stages that are overlooked with visual scoring. Lastly, we report time-series features that are highly discriminative of stages. Our framework lays the groundwork for a data-driven exploration of sleep sub-stages and has significant potential to identify new signatures of sleep disorders and conscious sleep states.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nicolas Decat
- School of Psychological Sciences, Turner Institute for Brain and Mental Health, Monash University, Melbourne, Victoria, Australia
| | - Jasmine Walter
- Philosophy Department, Monash Centre for Consciousness and Contemplative Studies, Monash University, Melbourne, Victoria, Australia; Monash Centre for Consciousness and Contemplative Studies, Monash University, Melbourne, Victoria, Australia
| | - Zhao H Koh
- School of Psychological Sciences, Turner Institute for Brain and Mental Health, Monash University, Melbourne, Victoria, Australia
| | - Piengkwan Sribanditmongkol
- School of Psychological Sciences, Turner Institute for Brain and Mental Health, Monash University, Melbourne, Victoria, Australia
| | - Ben D Fulcher
- School of Physics, University of Sydney, Sydney, NSW, Australia
| | - Jennifer M Windt
- Philosophy Department, Monash Centre for Consciousness and Contemplative Studies, Monash University, Melbourne, Victoria, Australia; Monash Centre for Consciousness and Contemplative Studies, Monash University, Melbourne, Victoria, Australia
| | - Thomas Andrillon
- Philosophy Department, Monash Centre for Consciousness and Contemplative Studies, Monash University, Melbourne, Victoria, Australia; Paris Brain Institute, Sorbonne Université, Inserm-CNRS, Paris, 75013, France
| | - Naotsugu Tsuchiya
- School of Psychological Sciences, Turner Institute for Brain and Mental Health, Monash University, Melbourne, Victoria, Australia; Center for Information and Neural Networks (CiNet), National Institute of Information and Communications Technology (NICT), Suita, Osaka, 565-0871, Japan; Advanced Telecommunications Research Computational Neuroscience Laboratories, 2-2-2 Hikaridai, Seika-cho, Soraku-gun, Kyoto, 619-0288, Japan.
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11
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Honda M, Kimura S, Sasaki K, Wada M, Ito W. Absence of multiple sleep-onset rapid eye movement periods (SOREMPs) is not a specific feature of patients with pathological sleep prolongation. Sleep Biol Rhythms 2022; 20:107-114. [PMID: 38469062 PMCID: PMC10899981 DOI: 10.1007/s41105-021-00346-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/10/2021] [Accepted: 08/28/2021] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
Purpose Multiple sleep-onset rapid eye movement periods (SOREMPs) are involved in the pathophysiology of narcolepsy, but it is not clear whether the lack of multiple SOREMPs is associated with the pathophysiology of idiopathic hypersomnia or not. We examined the significance of multiple SOREMPs in patients with pathological sleep prolongation. Methods Participants were consecutive patients complaining of unexplained sleepiness and agreed to a 3-day-sleep studies; 24 h polysomnography (PSG) followed by standard PSG and multiple sleep latency test (MSLT). Forty-one (26 females, 21.9 ± 8.1 years old, BMI 20.4 ± 2.3 kg/m2) of 54 eligible patients without other sleep pathologies showed pathological sleep prolongation. We subdivided them into those with and without multiple SOREMPs on MSLT and compared clinical and PSG variables between groups. Results Six of 41 (14.6%) patients showed multiple SOREMPs on MSLT. There were almost no differences in sleep variables between those with and without multiple SOREMPs. We only found shorter mean sleep latency on MSLT and more REM cycles on 24 h PSG in those with multiple SOREMPs (adjusted p = 0.016 and 0.031). The frequencies of REM-related phenomena and clinical symptoms related to idiopathic hypersomnia were not different between groups. Conclusion Our results indicated that patients with pathological sleep prolongation had the same clinical profiles regardless of the status of SOREMPs, suggesting the absence of multiple SOREMPs, prerequisite for the diagnosis of idiopathic hypersomnia, is not a specific feature of pathological sleep prolongation. Confirmation of sleep prolongation alone could be a diagnostic tool for idiopathic hypersomnia.
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Affiliation(s)
- Makoto Honda
- Sleep Disorders Project, Tokyo Metropolitan Institute of Medical Science, 2-1-6, Kamikitazawa, Setagaya, Tokyo 156-8506 Japan
- Koishikawa Tokyo Hospital, Institute of Neuropsychiatry, 4-45-16 Otsuka, Bunkyo, Tokyo 112-0012 Japan
| | - Shinya Kimura
- Koishikawa Tokyo Hospital, Institute of Neuropsychiatry, 4-45-16 Otsuka, Bunkyo, Tokyo 112-0012 Japan
| | - Kaori Sasaki
- Koishikawa Tokyo Hospital, Institute of Neuropsychiatry, 4-45-16 Otsuka, Bunkyo, Tokyo 112-0012 Japan
| | - Masataka Wada
- Koishikawa Tokyo Hospital, Institute of Neuropsychiatry, 4-45-16 Otsuka, Bunkyo, Tokyo 112-0012 Japan
- Department of Neuropsychiatry, Keio University School of Medicine, 35 Shinanomachi, Shinjyuku, Tokyo 160-8582 Japan
| | - Wakako Ito
- Koishikawa Tokyo Hospital, Institute of Neuropsychiatry, 4-45-16 Otsuka, Bunkyo, Tokyo 112-0012 Japan
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12
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Um YH, Oh J, Kim SM, Kim TW, Seo HJ, Jeong JH, Hong SC. Differential characteristics of repeated polysomnography and multiple sleep latency test parameters in narcolepsy type 1 and type 2 patients: a longitudinal retrospective study. Sleep Breath 2021; 26:1939-1946. [PMID: 34820763 DOI: 10.1007/s11325-021-02525-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/15/2021] [Revised: 10/27/2021] [Accepted: 11/16/2021] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
PURPOSE Narcolepsy is a chronic disorder and its phenotype is dichotomized into narcolepsy type 1 (NT1) and narcolepsy type 2 (NT2). The clinical course and pathophysiological mechanisms of these two clinical entities and their differences are not adequately defined. This study aimed to explore the differential longitudinal patterns of polysomnography (PSG) and multiple sleep latency test (MSLT) in NT1 and NT2. METHODS In this retrospective study demographic characteristics, PSG, and MSLT parameters at baseline and follow-up were compared between NT1 and NT2 patients. Patients with both follow-up MSLT and PSG were selected for sub-group analysis. Baseline and follow-up MSLT and PSG parameters were compared. RESULTS Of 55 patients with narcolepsy, mean follow-up periods were 7.4 ± 3.5 years for NT1 and 5.5 ± 2.9 for NT2. Demographic data showed increased body mass index and prevalence of sleep paralysis in NT1. Baseline PSG characteristics between NT1 and NT2 showed decreased sleep latency (p = 0.016) and REM latency (p = 0.046) in NT1 group when compared with NT2. Nocturnal SOREMP on PSG was more prevalent in NT1 (p = 0.017), and half of NT2 patients with nocturnal SOREMP on PSG changed their diagnoses to NT1. On follow-up PSG, NT1 displayed reductions in sleep stage N2 (p = 0.006) and N3 (p = 0.048), while wake after sleep onset (WASO) (p = 0.023) and apnea-hypopnea index (AHI) (p = 0.007) were significantly increased. CONCLUSION Differential MSLT and PSG characteristics of NT1 and NT2 in at baseline and follow-up indicate that NT1 and NT2 are distinct disease phenotypes, and that they present with a contrasting course of disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yoo Hyun Um
- Department of Psychiatry, College of Medicine, St. Vincent's Hospital, The Catholic University of Korea, 93, Jungbu-daero, Paldal-guGyeonggi-do, Suwon-si, 16247, Republic of Korea
| | - Jihye Oh
- Department of Psychiatry, College of Medicine, Seoul St. Mary's Hospital, The Catholic University of Korea, Seoul, Republic of Korea
| | - Sung-Min Kim
- Department of Psychiatry, College of Medicine, St. Vincent's Hospital, The Catholic University of Korea, 93, Jungbu-daero, Paldal-guGyeonggi-do, Suwon-si, 16247, Republic of Korea
| | - Tae-Won Kim
- Department of Psychiatry, College of Medicine, St. Vincent's Hospital, The Catholic University of Korea, 93, Jungbu-daero, Paldal-guGyeonggi-do, Suwon-si, 16247, Republic of Korea
| | - Ho-Jun Seo
- Department of Psychiatry, College of Medicine, St. Vincent's Hospital, The Catholic University of Korea, 93, Jungbu-daero, Paldal-guGyeonggi-do, Suwon-si, 16247, Republic of Korea
| | - Jong-Hyun Jeong
- Department of Psychiatry, College of Medicine, St. Vincent's Hospital, The Catholic University of Korea, 93, Jungbu-daero, Paldal-guGyeonggi-do, Suwon-si, 16247, Republic of Korea
| | - Seung-Chul Hong
- Department of Psychiatry, College of Medicine, St. Vincent's Hospital, The Catholic University of Korea, 93, Jungbu-daero, Paldal-guGyeonggi-do, Suwon-si, 16247, Republic of Korea.
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13
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Yoshino K, Inomoto S, Iyama A, Sakoda S. Dynamic sleep stage transition process analysis in patients with Parkinson's disease having sleep apnea syndrome. INFORMATICS IN MEDICINE UNLOCKED 2021. [DOI: 10.1016/j.imu.2021.100656] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/01/2022] Open
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14
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Romigi A, Caccamo M, Vitrani G, Testa F, Nicoletta C, Sarno AC, Di Gioia B, Centonze D. A false alarm of narcolepsy: obstructive sleep apnea masquerading as narcolepsy and vice-versa: two further controversial cases. Sleep Breath 2020; 25:367-370. [PMID: 32297143 DOI: 10.1007/s11325-020-02070-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/09/2019] [Revised: 02/02/2020] [Accepted: 03/23/2020] [Indexed: 12/01/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- A Romigi
- IRCCS Neuromed Sleep Medicine Center, Via Atinense 18, Pozzilli (IS), Italy.
| | - M Caccamo
- IRCCS Neuromed Sleep Medicine Center, Via Atinense 18, Pozzilli (IS), Italy
| | - G Vitrani
- IRCCS Neuromed Sleep Medicine Center, Via Atinense 18, Pozzilli (IS), Italy
| | - F Testa
- IRCCS Neuromed Sleep Medicine Center, Via Atinense 18, Pozzilli (IS), Italy
| | - C Nicoletta
- IRCCS Neuromed Sleep Medicine Center, Via Atinense 18, Pozzilli (IS), Italy
| | - A C Sarno
- IRCCS Neuromed Sleep Medicine Center, Via Atinense 18, Pozzilli (IS), Italy
| | - B Di Gioia
- IRCCS Neuromed Sleep Medicine Center, Via Atinense 18, Pozzilli (IS), Italy
| | - D Centonze
- IRCCS Neuromed Sleep Medicine Center, Via Atinense 18, Pozzilli (IS), Italy
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15
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Kawai R, Watanabe A, Fujita S, Hirose M, Esaki Y, Arakawa C, Iwata N, Kitajima T. Utility of the sleep stage sequence preceding sleep onset REM periods for the diagnosis of narcolepsy: a study in a Japanese cohort. Sleep Med 2020; 68:9-17. [PMID: 31999982 DOI: 10.1016/j.sleep.2019.04.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/19/2019] [Revised: 03/14/2019] [Accepted: 04/17/2019] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND The minimum narcolepsy criteria "mean sleep latency (MSL) ≤8 min and ≥2 sleep onset rapid eye movement (REM) periods (SOREMPs) on polysomnography (PSG) and the multiple sleep latency test (MSLT)," according to The International Classification of Sleep Disorders, Third Edition (ICSD-3), are not specific to narcolepsy. Recently, the characteristic sleep stage sequences preceding SOREMPs in narcolepsy have received attention, but their diagnostic utility remains unclear. METHODS We retrospectively reviewed PSG/MSLT records and chart data for 102 Japanese patients with hypersomnia and at least one SOREMP. We examined the sporadic rates of two sleep stage sequences preceding the SOREMPs-wakefulness or stage 1 to REM (W/S1→R) and stage 2 to REM (S2→R)-comparing these between patient groups with narcolepsy type 1 (N = 28), narcolepsy type 2 (N = 19), and other hypersomnia (N = 55). We also examined the utility of three simple indices using the occurrence of W/S1→R SOREMPs for distinguishing between narcolepsy and other hypersomnia in patients who satisfied the minimum narcolepsy criteria. RESULTS W/S1→R SOREMPs were significantly more frequent in narcolepsy than in other hypersomnia, and this tendency was also observed even in the patients who satisfied the minimum narcolepsy criteria. The three indices had moderate sensitivities and specificities for distinguishing between narcolepsy and other hypersomnia in patients satisfying the minimum narcolepsy criteria. CONCLUSIONS The W/S1→R pattern was observed significantly more frequently in narcolepsy than in other hypersomnia, suggesting it may help with differentiating narcolepsy from other hypersomnia in patients demonstrating the narcolepsy criteria, although its ability to do so may be modest.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ryoko Kawai
- Department of Psychiatry, Fujita Health University School of Medicine, Toyoake, Aichi, Japan
| | - Akiko Watanabe
- Department of Psychiatry, Fujita Health University School of Medicine, Toyoake, Aichi, Japan
| | - Shiho Fujita
- Department of Laboratory Medicine, Fujita Health University Hospital, Toyoake, Aichi, Japan
| | - Marina Hirose
- Department of Psychiatry, Fujita Health University School of Medicine, Toyoake, Aichi, Japan
| | - Yuichi Esaki
- Department of Psychiatry, Fujita Health University School of Medicine, Toyoake, Aichi, Japan
| | - Chiaki Arakawa
- Department of Psychiatry, Fujita Health University School of Medicine, Toyoake, Aichi, Japan
| | - Nakao Iwata
- Department of Psychiatry, Fujita Health University School of Medicine, Toyoake, Aichi, Japan
| | - Tsuyoshi Kitajima
- Department of Psychiatry, Fujita Health University School of Medicine, Toyoake, Aichi, Japan.
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16
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Cairns A, Bogan R. Comparison of the macro and microstructure of sleep in a sample of sleep clinic hypersomnia cases. Neurobiol Sleep Circadian Rhythms 2019; 6:62-69. [PMID: 31236521 PMCID: PMC6586604 DOI: 10.1016/j.nbscr.2019.02.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/22/2018] [Revised: 02/04/2019] [Accepted: 02/13/2019] [Indexed: 12/16/2022] Open
Abstract
The purpose of this study was to elucidate the differentiating or grouping EEG characteristics in various hypersomnias (type 1 and type 2 narcolepsy (N-1 and N-2) and idiopathic hypersomnia (IH) compared to an age-matched snoring reference group (SR). Polysomnogram sleep EEG was decomposed into a 4-frequency state model. The IH group had higher sleep efficiency (SE; 92.3% vs. 85.8%; sp < 0.05), lower WASO (IH = 35.4 vs. N-1 = 65.5 min; p < 0.01), but similar (i.e. high) arousal indices as N-1 (~33/h). N-1 and N-2 had earlier REM latency than IH and SR (N-1 = 64.8, N-2 = 76.3 vs. IH/SR = 118 min, p < 0.05). N-1 and N-2 showed an increase in MF1 segments (characteristic of stage 1 and REM) across the night as well as distinct oscillations every 2 h, but MF1 segment timing was advanced by 30 min compared to the SR group (p < 0.05). This suggests the presence of circadian organization to sleep that is timed earlier or of increased pressure and/or lability. MF1 demonstrated a mixed phenotype in IH, with an early 1st oscillation (like N-1 and N-2), 2nd oscillation that overlapped with the SR group, and a surge prior to wake (higher than all groups). This phenotype may reflect a heterogeneous group of individuals, with some having more narcolepsy-like characteristics (i.e. REM) than others. LF domain (delta surrogate) was enhanced in IH and N-1 and more rapidly dissipated compared to N-2 and SR (p < 0.05). This suggests an intact homeostatic sleep pattern that is of higher need/reduced efficiency whereas rapid dissipation may be an underlying mechanism for sleep disruption. Low frequency sleep (delta surrogate) was enhanced in Idiopathic Hypersomnia and Type 1 Narcolepsy and rapidly dissipated across the sleep period. Type 1 and 2 Narcoleptics demonstrated a mixed frequency 1 phenotype (REM surrogate) consistent with intact circadian control and advanced timing. Idiopathic hypersomnia was characterized by a variable mixed frequency 1 phenotype (REM surrogate), suggesting some with more “narcolepsy-like” REM characteristics than others.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Richard Bogan
- SleepMed, Inc., Columbia, SC, United States.,The University of South Carolina Medical School, Columbia, SC, United States.,The Medical University of South Carolina, Charleston, SC, United States.,Bogan Sleep Consultants, LLC, Columbia, SC, United States
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17
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A false alarm of narcolepsy: obstructive sleep apnea masquerading as narcolepsy and depression. Sleep Breath 2018; 23:873-877. [PMID: 30523556 DOI: 10.1007/s11325-018-1767-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/29/2018] [Revised: 11/24/2018] [Accepted: 11/29/2018] [Indexed: 01/18/2023]
Abstract
PURPOSE We report a case with symptoms and signs of obstructive sleep apnea (OSA), depression, and narcolepsy. Polysomnographic (PSG) and multiple sleep latency test (MSLT) findings, clinical characteristics, and diagnostic challenges in this case are discussed. METHODS A 23-year-old single male presented with excessive daytime sleepiness, low mood, lack of energy, and snoring for 3 years. In addition, he reported excessive weight gain, lack of interest in work, partial loss of muscle tone during excitations, and sleep attacks during work and driving. He had experienced three episodes of sleep paralysis. The patient underwent a sleep study including PSG and MSLT. RESULTS On baseline PSG, he had an apnea/hypopnea index (AHI) of 72.8/h. The MSLT showed a mean sleep latency of 3.8 min and two sleep-onset rapid eye movement periods (SOREMPs). On admission, he had an Epworth Sleepiness Scale (ESS) score of 21, and positive findings for depression in the clinical interview and psychometric scales. He was treated with continuous positive airway pressure without any medication. Follow-up PSG and MSLT were performed after 1 week, which showed an AHI of 0/h without SOREMPs. After 1 month, there was no sign of depression. CONCLUSIONS This study reflects that OSA can present with cataplexy-like features and false positive MSLT results for narcolepsy, as well as depressive symptoms. The case highlights the complexity in which OSA can present to physicians, and emphasizes that clinicians should be aware that OSA can mimic narcolepsy and present with depressive symptoms.
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18
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Stephansen JB, Olesen AN, Olsen M, Ambati A, Leary EB, Moore HE, Carrillo O, Lin L, Han F, Yan H, Sun YL, Dauvilliers Y, Scholz S, Barateau L, Hogl B, Stefani A, Hong SC, Kim TW, Pizza F, Plazzi G, Vandi S, Antelmi E, Perrin D, Kuna ST, Schweitzer PK, Kushida C, Peppard PE, Sorensen HBD, Jennum P, Mignot E. Neural network analysis of sleep stages enables efficient diagnosis of narcolepsy. Nat Commun 2018; 9:5229. [PMID: 30523329 PMCID: PMC6283836 DOI: 10.1038/s41467-018-07229-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 154] [Impact Index Per Article: 25.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/01/2017] [Accepted: 10/15/2018] [Indexed: 01/01/2023] Open
Abstract
Analysis of sleep for the diagnosis of sleep disorders such as Type-1 Narcolepsy (T1N) currently requires visual inspection of polysomnography records by trained scoring technicians. Here, we used neural networks in approximately 3,000 normal and abnormal sleep recordings to automate sleep stage scoring, producing a hypnodensity graph-a probability distribution conveying more information than classical hypnograms. Accuracy of sleep stage scoring was validated in 70 subjects assessed by six scorers. The best model performed better than any individual scorer (87% versus consensus). It also reliably scores sleep down to 5 s instead of 30 s scoring epochs. A T1N marker based on unusual sleep stage overlaps achieved a specificity of 96% and a sensitivity of 91%, validated in independent datasets. Addition of HLA-DQB1*06:02 typing increased specificity to 99%. Our method can reduce time spent in sleep clinics and automates T1N diagnosis. It also opens the possibility of diagnosing T1N using home sleep studies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jens B Stephansen
- Center for Sleep Science and Medicine, Stanford University, Stanford, 94304, CA, USA
- Department of Electrical Engineering, Technical University of Denmark, Kongens Lyngby, 2800, Denmark
| | - Alexander N Olesen
- Center for Sleep Science and Medicine, Stanford University, Stanford, 94304, CA, USA
- Department of Electrical Engineering, Technical University of Denmark, Kongens Lyngby, 2800, Denmark
- Danish Center for Sleep Medicine, Rigshospitalet, Glostrup, 2600, Denmark
| | - Mads Olsen
- Center for Sleep Science and Medicine, Stanford University, Stanford, 94304, CA, USA
- Department of Electrical Engineering, Technical University of Denmark, Kongens Lyngby, 2800, Denmark
- Danish Center for Sleep Medicine, Rigshospitalet, Glostrup, 2600, Denmark
| | - Aditya Ambati
- Center for Sleep Science and Medicine, Stanford University, Stanford, 94304, CA, USA
| | - Eileen B Leary
- Center for Sleep Science and Medicine, Stanford University, Stanford, 94304, CA, USA
| | - Hyatt E Moore
- Center for Sleep Science and Medicine, Stanford University, Stanford, 94304, CA, USA
| | - Oscar Carrillo
- Center for Sleep Science and Medicine, Stanford University, Stanford, 94304, CA, USA
| | - Ling Lin
- Center for Sleep Science and Medicine, Stanford University, Stanford, 94304, CA, USA
| | - Fang Han
- Department of Pulmonary Medicine, Peking University People's Hospital, Beijing, 100044, China
| | - Han Yan
- Department of Pulmonary Medicine, Peking University People's Hospital, Beijing, 100044, China
| | - Yun L Sun
- Department of Pulmonary Medicine, Peking University People's Hospital, Beijing, 100044, China
| | - Yves Dauvilliers
- Sleep-Wake Disorders Center, Department of Neurology, Gui-de-Chauliac Hospital, CHU Montpellier, 34295, France
- INSERM, U1061, Université Montpellier 1, Montpellier, 34090, France
| | - Sabine Scholz
- Sleep-Wake Disorders Center, Department of Neurology, Gui-de-Chauliac Hospital, CHU Montpellier, 34295, France
- INSERM, U1061, Université Montpellier 1, Montpellier, 34090, France
| | - Lucie Barateau
- Sleep-Wake Disorders Center, Department of Neurology, Gui-de-Chauliac Hospital, CHU Montpellier, 34295, France
- INSERM, U1061, Université Montpellier 1, Montpellier, 34090, France
| | - Birgit Hogl
- Department of Neurology, Innsbruck Medical University, Innsbruck, 6020, Austria
| | - Ambra Stefani
- Department of Neurology, Innsbruck Medical University, Innsbruck, 6020, Austria
| | - Seung Chul Hong
- Department of Psychiatry, St. Vincent's Hospital, The Catholic University of Korea, Seoul, 16247, Korea
| | - Tae Won Kim
- Department of Psychiatry, St. Vincent's Hospital, The Catholic University of Korea, Seoul, 16247, Korea
| | - Fabio Pizza
- Department of Biomedical and Neuromotor Sciences, University of Bologna, Bologna, 40123, Italy
- IRCCS Istituto delle Scienze Neurologiche di Bologna, Bologna, 40139, Italy
| | - Giuseppe Plazzi
- Department of Biomedical and Neuromotor Sciences, University of Bologna, Bologna, 40123, Italy
- IRCCS Istituto delle Scienze Neurologiche di Bologna, Bologna, 40139, Italy
| | - Stefano Vandi
- Department of Biomedical and Neuromotor Sciences, University of Bologna, Bologna, 40123, Italy
- IRCCS Istituto delle Scienze Neurologiche di Bologna, Bologna, 40139, Italy
| | - Elena Antelmi
- Department of Biomedical and Neuromotor Sciences, University of Bologna, Bologna, 40123, Italy
- IRCCS Istituto delle Scienze Neurologiche di Bologna, Bologna, 40139, Italy
| | - Dimitri Perrin
- School of Electrical Engineering and Computer Science, Queensland University of Technology, Brisbane, 4001, Australia
| | - Samuel T Kuna
- Department of Medicine and Center for Sleep and Circadian Neurobiology, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, 19104, PA, USA
| | - Paula K Schweitzer
- Sleep Medicine and Research Center, St. Luke's Hospital, Chesterfield, 63017, MO, USA
| | - Clete Kushida
- Center for Sleep Science and Medicine, Stanford University, Stanford, 94304, CA, USA
| | - Paul E Peppard
- Department of Population Health Sciences, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, 53726, WI, USA
| | - Helge B D Sorensen
- Department of Electrical Engineering, Technical University of Denmark, Kongens Lyngby, 2800, Denmark
| | - Poul Jennum
- Danish Center for Sleep Medicine, Rigshospitalet, Glostrup, 2600, Denmark
| | - Emmanuel Mignot
- Center for Sleep Science and Medicine, Stanford University, Stanford, 94304, CA, USA.
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Christensen JAE, Nikolic M, Hvidtfelt M, Kornum BR, Jennum P. Sleep spindle density in narcolepsy. Sleep Med 2017; 34:40-49. [DOI: 10.1016/j.sleep.2017.02.022] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/11/2016] [Revised: 02/03/2017] [Accepted: 02/16/2017] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
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Christensen JA, Kempfner L, Leonthin HL, Hvidtfelt M, Nikolic M, Kornum BR, Jennum P. Novel method for evaluation of eye movements in patients with narcolepsy. Sleep Med 2017; 33:171-180. [DOI: 10.1016/j.sleep.2016.10.016] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/16/2016] [Revised: 10/28/2016] [Accepted: 10/31/2016] [Indexed: 10/20/2022]
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Olsen AV, Stephansen J, Leary E, Peppard PE, Sheungshul H, Jennum PJ, Sorensen H, Mignot E. Diagnostic value of sleep stage dissociation as visualized on a 2-dimensional sleep state space in human narcolepsy. J Neurosci Methods 2017; 282:9-19. [PMID: 28219726 DOI: 10.1016/j.jneumeth.2017.02.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/05/2016] [Revised: 02/11/2017] [Accepted: 02/13/2017] [Indexed: 10/20/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Type 1 narcolepsy (NT1) is characterized by symptoms believed to represent Rapid Eye Movement (REM) sleep stage dissociations, occurrences where features of wake and REM sleep are intermingled, resulting in a mixed state. We hypothesized that sleep stage dissociations can be objectively detected through the analysis of nocturnal Polysomnography (PSG) data, and that those affecting REM sleep can be used as a diagnostic feature for narcolepsy. NEW METHOD A Linear Discriminant Analysis (LDA) model using 38 features extracted from EOG, EMG and EEG was used in control subjects to select features differentiating wake, stage N1, N2, N3 and REM sleep. Sleep stage differentiation was next represented in a 2D projection. Features characteristic of sleep stage differences were estimated from the residual sleep stage probability in the 2D space. Using this model we evaluated PSG data from NT1 and non-narcoleptic subjects. An LDA classifier was used to determine the best separation plane. COMPARISON WITH EXISTING METHODS This method replicates the specificity/sensitivity from the training set to the validation set better than many other methods. RESULTS Eight prominent features could differentiate narcolepsy and controls in the validation dataset. Using a composite measure and a specificity cut off 95% in the training dataset, sensitivity was 43%. Specificity/sensitivity was 94%/38% in the validation set. Using hypersomnia subjects, specificity/sensitivity was 84%/15%. Analyzing treated narcoleptics the specificity/sensitivity was 94%/10%. CONCLUSION Sleep stage dissociation can be used for the diagnosis of narcolepsy. However the use of some medications and presence of undiagnosed hypersomnolence patients impacts the result.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anders Vinther Olsen
- Center for Sleep Sciences and Medicine, Stanford School of Medicine, Palo Alto, CA, USA; Department of Electrical Engineering, Technical University of Denmark, Kongens Lyngby, Denmark.
| | - Jens Stephansen
- Center for Sleep Sciences and Medicine, Stanford School of Medicine, Palo Alto, CA, USA; Department of Electrical Engineering, Technical University of Denmark, Kongens Lyngby, Denmark
| | - Eileen Leary
- Center for Sleep Sciences and Medicine, Stanford School of Medicine, Palo Alto, CA, USA
| | - Paul E Peppard
- Department of Preventive medicine, U Madison Wisconsin Madison, Wisconsin, USA
| | - Hong Sheungshul
- Sleep Disorder Center, Catholic University, Seoul, South Korea
| | - Poul Jørgen Jennum
- Danish Center for Sleep Medicine, Department of Clinical Neurophysiology, Rigshospitalet, Denmark
| | - Helge Sorensen
- Department of Electrical Engineering, Technical University of Denmark, Kongens Lyngby, Denmark
| | - Emmanuel Mignot
- Center for Sleep Sciences and Medicine, Stanford School of Medicine, Palo Alto, CA, USA
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22
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Zhang X, Kantelhardt JW, Dong XS, Krefting D, Li J, Yan H, Pillmann F, Fietze I, Penzel T, Zhao L, Han F. Nocturnal Dynamics of Sleep–Wake Transitions in Patients With Narcolepsy. Sleep 2016; 40:2740618. [DOI: 10.1093/sleep/zsw050] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 12/20/2016] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
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23
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Sleep-wake patterns, non-rapid eye movement, and rapid eye movement sleep cycles in teenage narcolepsy. Sleep Med 2016; 33:47-56. [PMID: 28449905 DOI: 10.1016/j.sleep.2016.08.012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/19/2016] [Revised: 08/13/2016] [Accepted: 08/15/2016] [Indexed: 11/23/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND To further characterize sleep disorders associated with narcolepsy, we assessed the sleep-wake patterns, rapid eye movement (REM), and non-REM (NREM) sleep cycles in Chinese teenagers with narcolepsy. METHODS A total of 14 Chinese type 1 narcoleptic patients (13.4 ± 2.6 years of age) and 14 healthy age- and sex-matched control subjects (13.6 ± 1.8 years of age) were recruited. Ambulatory 24-h polysomnography was recorded for two days, with test subjects adapting to the instruments on day one and the study data collection performed on day two. RESULTS Compared with the controls, the narcoleptic patients showed a 1.5-fold increase in total sleep time over 24 h, characterized by enhanced slow-wave sleep and REM sleep. Frequent sleep-wake transitions were identified in nocturnal sleep with all sleep stages switching to wakefulness, with more awakenings and time spent in wakefulness after sleep onset. Despite eight cases of narcolepsy with sleep onset REM periods at night, the mean duration of NREM-REM sleep cycle episode and the ratio of REM/NREM sleep between patients and controls were not significantly different. CONCLUSION Our study identified hypersomnia in teenage narcolepsy despite excessive daytime sleepiness. Sleep fragmentation extended to all sleep stages, indicating impaired sleep-wake cycles and instability of sleep stages. The limited effects on NREM-REM sleep cycles suggest the relative conservation of ultradian regulation of sleep.
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Christensen JAE, Carrillo O, Leary EB, Peppard PE, Young T, Sorensen HBD, Jennum P, Mignot E. Sleep-stage transitions during polysomnographic recordings as diagnostic features of type 1 narcolepsy. Sleep Med 2015; 16:1558-66. [PMID: 26299470 PMCID: PMC8066516 DOI: 10.1016/j.sleep.2015.06.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/02/2015] [Revised: 05/30/2015] [Accepted: 06/18/2015] [Indexed: 01/01/2023]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE Type 1 narcolepsy/hypocretin deficiency is characterized by excessive daytime sleepiness, sleep fragmentation, and cataplexy. Short rapid eye movement (REM) latency (≤15 min) during nocturnal polysomnography (PSG) or during naps of the multiple sleep latency test (MSLT) defines a sleep-onset REM sleep period (SOREMP), a diagnostic hallmark. We hypothesized that abnormal sleep transitions other than SOREMPs can be identified in type 1 narcolepsy. METHODS Sleep-stage transitions (one to 10 epochs to one to five epochs of any other stage) and bout length features (one to 10 epochs) were extracted from PSGs. The first 15 min of sleep were excluded when a nocturnal SOREMP was recorded. F(0.1) measures and receiver operating characteristic curves were used to identify specific (≥98%) features. A data set of 136 patients and 510 sex- and age-matched controls was used for the training. A data set of 19 cases and 708 sleep-clinic patients was used for the validation. RESULTS (1) ≥5 transitions from ≥5 epochs of stage N1 or W to ≥2 epochs of REM sleep, (2) ≥22 transitions from ≥3 epochs of stage N2 or N3 to ≥2 epochs of N1 or W, and (3) ≥16 bouts of ≥6 epochs of N1 or W were found to be highly specific (≥98%). Sensitivity ranged from 16% to 30%, and it did not vary substantially with and without medication or a nocturnal SOREMP. In patients taking antidepressants, nocturnal SOREMPs occurred much less frequently (16% vs. 36%, p < 0.001). CONCLUSIONS Increased sleep-stage transitions notably from ≥2.5 min of W/N1 into REM are specifically diagnostic for narcolepsy independent of a nocturnal SOREMP.
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Affiliation(s)
- Julie Anja Engelhard Christensen
- Department of Electrical Engineering, Technical University of Denmark, Orsteds Plads 349, DK-2800 Kongens Lyngby, Denmark; Danish Center for Sleep Medicine, Department of Clinical Neurophysiology, Glostrup Hospital, Nordre Ringvej 57, DK-2600 Glostrup, Denmark; Stanford Center for Sleep Sciences and Medicine, Stanford University, 3165 Porter Drive, Palo Alto, CA 94304, USA
| | - Oscar Carrillo
- Stanford Center for Sleep Sciences and Medicine, Stanford University, 3165 Porter Drive, Palo Alto, CA 94304, USA
| | - Eileen B Leary
- Stanford Center for Sleep Sciences and Medicine, Stanford University, 3165 Porter Drive, Palo Alto, CA 94304, USA
| | - Paul E Peppard
- School of Medicine and Public Health, Health Sciences Learning Center, University of Wisconsin, 750 Highland Ave., Madison, WI 53705, USA
| | - Terry Young
- School of Medicine and Public Health, Health Sciences Learning Center, University of Wisconsin, 750 Highland Ave., Madison, WI 53705, USA
| | - Helge Bjarrup Dissing Sorensen
- Department of Electrical Engineering, Technical University of Denmark, Orsteds Plads 349, DK-2800 Kongens Lyngby, Denmark
| | - Poul Jennum
- Danish Center for Sleep Medicine, Department of Clinical Neurophysiology, Glostrup Hospital, Nordre Ringvej 57, DK-2600 Glostrup, Denmark; Center for Healthy Aging, University of Copenhagen, Norregade 10, DK-1017 Copenhagen, Denmark
| | - Emmanuel Mignot
- Stanford Center for Sleep Sciences and Medicine, Stanford University, 3165 Porter Drive, Palo Alto, CA 94304, USA.
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