A leadership elective course developed and taught by graduate students

Pharmacy Students' Perspective on Business Management for the Community Pharmacist

OBJECTIVE

Pharmacy students are important future stakeholders in community pharmacy, with business management being an integral part of practice. Thus, this study aims to determine pharmacy students' perceptions of the business management skills required of the community pharmacist and how these skills should be taught within the pharmacy curriculum.

METHODS

An explanatory sequential mixed-methods design involved the administration of an online survey to pharmacy students in years 1 and 4 across 2 Australian universities, followed by focus groups to gather in-depth perceptions. Survey responses were analyzed using descriptive statistics, and associations between years 1 and 4 and outcomes were explored. A hybrid approach of inductive and deductive thematic analysis was used for focus group transcriptions.

RESULTS

A total of 51 pharmacy students responded to the online survey, with 85% agreeing that business management is an essential part of the community pharmacist's skill set. Students indicated a preference for learning management during their community pharmacy placement, university workshops, and via mentorship. Although thematic analysis of student focus groups revealed a preference for learning clinical skills during their university education, business management was also recognized as important. Enthusiasm for management, however, could be increased by exposure to mentors who display leadership and are passionate about business management.

CONCLUSION

Pharmacy students considered business management as intrinsic to the role of community pharmacists and recommended a multimethod teaching approach to learning these skills. These findings could be used by pharmacy educators and the profession to inform both the content and the delivery of business management in pharmacy curricula.

"Why Didn't They Teach Us This?" A Qualitative Investigation of Pharmacist Stakeholder Perspectives of Business Management for Community Pharmacists

Expanding the scope of practice has provided an opportunity to reflect on the business management role of the community pharmacist. This study aimed to determine stakeholder perspectives of what business management skills are required for the community pharmacist, potential barriers impeding changes to management in the pharmacy program or community pharmacy setting, and strategies to improve the business management role of the profession. Purposively selected community pharmacists across two states in Australia were invited to participate in semi-structured phone interviews. A hybrid approach of inductive and deductive coding was used to transcribe and thematically analyse interviews. Twelve stakeholders described 35 business management skills in a community pharmacy, with 13 skills consistently used by participants. Thematic analysis revealed two barriers and two strategies to improve business management skills in both the pharmacy curriculum and community pharmacy. Strategies to improve business management across the profession include pharmacy programs covering recommended managerial content, learning from experience-based education and creation of a standardised mentorship program. There is an opportunity for business management culture change within the profession, and this may require community pharmacists developing a dual thinking process to appropriately balance professionalism and business management.

Scoping the required business management skills for community pharmacy: Perspectives of pharmacy stakeholders and pharmacy students

BACKGROUND

The literature is dearth in identification and categorization of business management skills required by community pharmacists. While community pharmacy stakeholders (predominantly community pharmacy owners, managers, and pharmacists) and pharmacy students are valuable sources for identifying business management skills, no review is currently available that synthesizes their knowledge. By identifying currently known business skills and organizing these into a managerial skills framework, this review provides a foundation skillset for community pharmacist business management.

METHODS

Six electronic databases were searched for published articles, with titles and abstracts screened according to inclusion criteria. Full articles meeting the specified criteria were assessed and skills identified were mapped to the human, conceptual, and technical skills of a business management framework.

RESULTS

Pharmacy stakeholders and students identified 36 business management skills/aptitudes required for community pharmacists. Pharmacy stakeholders most frequently identified the skills of communication, professionalism, general business management, leadership, and teamwork. Although the pharmacy students concurred with many of these skills, they more frequently identified confidence, entrepreneurship, and having prior experience or opportunity in a management role. A substantial number of identified skills/aptitudes were categorized under the human domain of the business management framework.

IMPLICATIONS

Community pharmacists require training in effective business management, with particular emphasis on human domain skills. The tertiary education system should consider implementing the skills/aptitudes revealed in this review into the pharmacy curriculum. Recruiting business minded personalities into the profession, particularly targeting students with an attraction to business management, is one strategy to improve management skills within the field.

Management, entrepreneurship, continuing professional development, and leadership education in United States doctor of pharmacy curricula: A scoping review

BACKGROUND

As doctor of pharmacy (PharmD) curricula must fulfill accreditation standards emphasizing managerial skills, entrepreneurship, continuing professional development (CPD), and leadership, there is interest among faculty to incorporate high-quality, evidence-based educational strategies. To date there has not been a comprehensive review of these four topics in one paper; therefore, we aimed to describe the landscape of the published literature and areas for future research.

METHODS

A keyword search of Academic Search Complete/Premier and OvidMedline databases identified articles published between 1 January 2000 and 31 December 2020. Inclusion criteria included primary, peer-reviewed literature describing the implementation and evaluation of teaching methodologies on aspects of management, entrepreneurship, CPD, or leadership in United States PharmD programs. Titles and abstracts were screened for inclusion. Key information regarding instructional design and assessment were retrieved to develop narrative summaries of activities and outcomes and to chart the student year of study, sample size, mode of delivery (didactic/experiential/co-curricular), type of experience (required/optional), and learning activity.

RESULTS

Thirty-five articles met inclusion criteria and were categorized: management (n = 12), entrepreneurship (n = 2), CPD (n = 7), and leadership (n = 14). The articles provided example activities that faculty across the country can consider implementing. Identified gaps included a focus on episodic and/or optional experiences and a relative lack of objective and longitudinal assessment practices.

IMPLICATIONS

This review describes educational methodologies for management, entrepreneurship, CPD, and leadership that can be replicated or adapted. Additional reports of innovative educational practices assessed through valid and reliable methods are needed.

An Advanced Pharmacy Practice Experience in Leadership Development

Objective. To describe the development and implementation of an advanced pharmacy practice experience (APPE) in leadership.Methods. A leadership APPE was created and continuously improved over five years from being mostly content-oriented to being more of an experiential offering by identifying and implementing rich, practical leadership experiences. Activities included PhotoVoice, Power of Full Engagement, What's Your Passion?, Transformational Leadership, Speech Acts, a Mindfulness Retreat, PeoplePack Dynamics, and a rowing experience at an Olympic training facility. After five years of developing and refining the APPE, faculty coordinators sought student feedback on the APPE beyond using a standardized APPE evaluation form students complete at the end of each rotation.Results. The majority of students agreed with all of the evaluation items. Items with the highest mean agreement included: content from previous didactic leadership courses were reinforced in the rotation; relevance of the rotation to one's career; rotation objectives facilitated learning; and a variety of teaching methods helped in applying knowledge to future practice. Analysis of comments regarding the leadership APPE identified three main themes: gratitude, development, and more connection.Conclusion. An elective APPE with the primary purpose of leadership training and development can be created and incorporated into the Doctor of Pharmacy curriculum. This leadership APPE can serve as an example for other institutions interested in implementing a similar experience.

The research of international and national educational standards on leadership development for pharmacy students

To estimate the level of usage of leadership development opportunities, International Pharmaceutical Federation official data and national educational and professional standards for pharmacy students in such countries as the USA, the United Kingdom, Australia, and Canada have been analyzed. According to the results, leadership knowledge and skills are of great importance to provide people with advanced pharmaceutical care. The most common leadership abilities for students getting pharmaceutical education deal with personal leadership (self-awareness, self-motivation, emotional intelligence, innovative mindset), teamwork, effective collaboration with other health professionals, building of a shared vision, resulting in the ability to become a change agent for sustainable development and improvement of health care system.

A Systematic Review of Leadership Definitions, Competencies, and Assessment Methods in Pharmacy Education

Objective. To characterize leadership definitions, competencies, and assessment methods used in pharmacy education, based on a systematic review of the literature. Findings. After undergoing title, abstract, and full-text review, 44 (10%) of 441 articles identified in the initial search were included in this report. Leadership or an aspect of leadership was defined in 37 (84%) articles, and specific leadership competencies were listed or described in 40 (91%) articles. The most common definitions of leadership involved motivating others toward the achievement of a specific goal and leading organizational change. Definitions of leadership in some articles required that individuals hold a formal leadership position whereas others did not. Only two leadership competencies were related to specific areas of knowledge. Most of the competencies identified were interpersonal and self-management skills. In terms of assessment, only one (2.3%) article assessed leadership effectiveness, and none assessed leadership development. Of the remaining 24 (55%) articles that included some type of assessment, most involved behavioral-based tools assessing individual attributes conceptually related to leadership (eg, strengths, emotional intelligence), or self-assessments regarding whether learning objectives in a leadership course had been met. Summary. Definitions for leadership in pharmacy varied considerably, as did leadership competencies. Most conceptualizations of leadership resembled a combination of established approaches rather than being grounded in a specific theory. If leadership development is to remain a focus within accreditation standards for Doctor of Pharmacy education, a consistent framework for operationalizing it is needed.

Curricular and Co-curricular Coverage of Leadership Competencies and the Influence of Extracurricular Engagement on Leadership Development

Objective. To evaluate coverage of leadership-related competencies in a Doctor of Pharmacy (PharmD) curriculum and the impact of co-curricular and extracurricular experiences on students' leadership perceptions and self-efficacy. Methods. Course syllabi were used to comprehensively map the PharmD curriculum to 11 competencies related to the Leadership CAPE outcome. A survey was developed and administered to all first year through fourth year pharmacy (P1-P4) students to evaluate their leadership experience and engagement, and to assess their attitudes and self-efficacy in 11 leadership competencies. Descriptive statistics were used to evaluate student level of engagement in leadership activities and the Mann-Whitney U test was used to compare students' attitudes and self-efficacy based on the extent of leadership engagement. Results. Curriculum mapping revealed that all competencies were covered in at least one course at the introductory or reinforce levels. There were 362 students (68% of all PharmD students) who completed the survey. When responses from students who reported active engagement in pharmacy student organizations (defined as e-board member or chair of committee, N=142 or 39% of respondents) were compared to the rest of the cohort, statistically significantly better attitudes and self-efficacy were seen in 7 of 11 competencies. Perceptions and self-efficacy of the 72 students (19.9%) who reported active engagement in non-pharmacy organizations did not significantly differ from those not actively involved in any organizations. Conclusion. The leadership competencies curriculum mapping exercise was useful in identifying gaps in coverage and depth of coverage, inconsistencies in course objectives accurately reflecting coverage of leadership topics and competencies, and considerations that should be given to co-curricular leadership development. Active leadership engagement in pharmacy student organizations should be encouraged because of associated improved leadership perceptions and self-efficacy.

Peer teaching as an educational tool in Pharmacy schools; fruitful or futile

BACKGROUND

In the past decade, various health care programs have implemented diverse types of peer-assisted learning (PAL) programs, in particularly peer teaching (PT), due to their reported benefits for students (both those undertaking teaching and those being taught), teachers, and educational institutes. Unfortunately, peer teaching is still under-recognized in pharmacy programs worldwide when compared to other health care programs. The aim of this review is to provide an overview of the published literature centered on formal PT programs that are implemented in pharmacy schools. In addition, this review focuses on the methodologies adopted for peer teacher recruitment and training as well as the benefits gained by students (both those undertaking teaching and those being taught). The rationales behind PT implementation are recapitulated as well. Finally, a simple scheme for successful implementation of PT activity is provided to serve as a groundwork for educators.

METHODS

Pre-defined key terms were used to search for experimental peer teaching activities in pharmacy schools between January 2000 and June 2016. Titles were selected based on pre-set eligibility criteria. Only complete research articles with clear design and evaluation sections were included in this review. Studies about inter-professional peer teaching activities between pharmacy students and other healthcare professions were also included.

RESULTS

Six relevant educational research articles containing peer teaching activities were included. A lot of variety exists between different pharmacy courses implementing PT, the format/setting of PT, how peer teachers are selected, and how training and evaluation are implemented. The studies reviewed confirmed that PT was well received by most of the students and had a positive impact on their learning outcome. These findings cannot be generalized due to the insufficient number of studies published beside their methodological limitations and inadequate descriptions of the PT format.

IMPLICATIONS

Though PT may be regarded as a feasible teaching strategy, care must be taken during implementation to ensure the fulfillment of the educational objectives. Proper validation of any PT initiative is required before incorporation into the pharmacy curriculum. More research using proper design and suitable sample sizes are recommended to determine the effect of PT activity on students' learning, skills development and confidence.

Assessing Opportunities for Student Pharmacist Leadership Development at Schools of Pharmacy in the United States

Objective. To summarize student pharmacist leadership development opportunities delivered by pharmacy programs, to describe selected opportunities, and to assess how these opportunities meet leadership development competencies. Methods. A multi-method study was conducted that comprised a systematic content analysis of pharmacy education journals, pharmacy program websites, and telephone interviews with key informants, which included open-ended questions and scaled responses. Results. Review of six articles, 37 American Association of Colleges of Pharmacy (AACP) Annual Meeting abstracts, and 138 websites resulted in the identification of 191 leadership development opportunities. These consisted of courses, projects/programs, and events/speaker series. Interviews with 12 key informants detailed unique events that developed leadership competencies. Formal assessments of student leadership development were limited and primarily focused on informal feedback and course evaluations. Conclusion. Most US pharmacy programs offer their students an array of opportunities to develop leadership abilities. Pharmacy programs should consider expanding opportunities beyond elective courses, learn from the successes of others to implement new leadership development opportunities, and bolster the assessment of student leadership competencies and outcomes.

Deliberate Integration of Student Leadership Development in Doctor of Pharmacy Programs

The CAPE 2013 Outcomes answered the call for increased student leadership development (SLD) by identifying leadership as a desired curricular goal. To meet this outcome, colleges and schools of pharmacy are advised to first identify a set of SLD competencies aligned with their institution's mission and goals and then organize these competencies into a SLD framework/model. Student leadership development should be integrated vertically and horizontally within the curriculum in a deliberate and longitudinal manner. It should include all student pharmacists, begin at the point of admission, and extend beyond extracurricular activities. The school's assessment plan should be aligned with the identified SLD competencies so student learning related to leadership is assessed. To accomplish these recommendations, a positive environment for SLD should be cultivated within the school, including administrative backing and resources, as well as support among the broader faculty for integrating SLD into the curriculum.

An analysis of motivation factors for students' pursuit of leadership positions

OBJECTIVE

To identify factors that influence student involvement and leadership within organizations and to assess the impact of involvement in organizations on professional skill development.

METHODS

A printed survey was administered to fourth-year pharmacy students at one college of pharmacy (N=202).

RESULTS

Most students (82%) indicated they were involved in at least one organization during pharmacy school and 58% reported holding a leadership position at some point. Factors with the largest impact on involvement in organizations were desire to present a well-rounded image to employers, ability to network, and interest in the activities sponsored by the organization. Involvement in professional organizations had a strong influence on their leadership, teamwork, confidence, and time-management skills.

CONCLUSION

That presenting a well-rounded image to employers and having the ability to network with mentors and peers drove student involvement in professional organizations may be reflective of increasing competition for residencies and jobs.