Sex Differences in Verbal Fluency Among Young Adults

Sex and gender correlates of sexually polymorphic cognition

BACKGROUND

Sexually polymorphic cognition (SPC) results from the interaction between biological (birth-assigned sex (BAS), sex hormones) and socio-cultural (gender identity, gender roles, sexual orientation) factors. The literature remains quite mixed regarding the magnitude of the effects of these variables. This project used a battery of classic cognitive tests designed to assess the influence of sex hormones on cognitive performance. At the same time, we aimed to assess the inter-related and respective effects that BAS, sex hormones, and gender-related factors have on SPC.

METHODS

We recruited 222 adults who completed eight cognitive tasks that assessed a variety of cognitive domains during a 150-min session. Subgroups were separated based on gender identity and sexual orientation and recruited as follows: cisgender heterosexual men (n = 46), cisgender non-heterosexual men (n = 36), cisgender heterosexual women (n = 36), cisgender non-heterosexual women (n = 38), gender diverse (n = 66). Saliva samples were collected before, during, and after the test to assess testosterone, estradiol, progesterone, cortisol, and dehydroepiandrosterone. Psychosocial variables were derived from self-report questionnaires.

RESULTS

Cognitive performance reflects sex and gender differences that are partially consistent with the literature. Interestingly, biological factors seem to better explain differences in male-typed cognitive tasks (i.e., spatial), while psychosocial factors seem to better explain differences in female-typed cognitive tasks (i.e., verbal).

CONCLUSION

Our results establish a better comprehension of SPC over and above the effects of BAS as a binary variable. We highlight the importance of treating sex as a biological factor and gender as a socio-cultural factor together since they collectively influence SPC.

Verbal Abilities: Sex Differences in Children at Different Ages

Background

The assertion of sex differences in verbal abilities is a highly controversial subject. Some studies have demonstrated a female advantage; other studies have found higher rates in males. The results depended on the type of verbal ability that was studied, the cultural context, and the ages of the subjects. There are two types of theories that have been developed to explain the existence of sex differences in cognitive abilities. Social theories explain the differences as caused by social determinants. Biological theories consider biological factors such as prenatal development conditions and hormone levels, among others, as the cause of sex differences.

Objective

To investigate sex differences in verbal abilities in children of different ages.

Design

Two different editions of Wechsler tests were used. For children age 2.5 to 5 years, the Wechsler Preschool Primary Scale of Intelligence (WPPSI-IV) was used. For children age 6 and older, we administered the Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children (WISC-V). The total sample included 313 children.

Results

The study found significant sex differences in performance on the Verbal Comprehension Scale in children of different ages. At the age of 2 to 4 years, the girls performed better than the boys. In the group of boys, there was a significant increase in verbal abilities at the age of 8-9 years. By the age of 10-11 years, boys began outperforming girls on the Verbal Comprehension Index. Scores on the Verbal Comprehension and Visual Spatial subtests for the boy sample showed stronger correlations than in the girl sample in all age groups.

Conclusion

Sex differences in verbal abilities varied depending on the age of the children. The boys showed a stronger integration of their verbal abilities into the structure of their intelligence than the girls.

The Effects of 12-Week Dual-Task Physical-Cognitive Training on Gait, Balance, Lower Extremity Muscle Strength, and Cognition in Older Adult Women: A Randomized Study

This study aims to investigate the effects of dual-task physical-cognitive the training on body balance (BB), gait performance (GP), lower limb muscle strength (LEMS), and cognitive performance (CP) in a group of cognitively normal older adult women (n = 44; 66.20 ± 4.05 years). Of these, 22 were randomly allocated to the dual-task training (DT) group, and 22 participated in the control group (CG). Assessments were performed at baseline, after 12 weeks of intervention, and at the end of 12 weeks of follow-up, using the following instruments: Timed Up & Go (TUG), Timed Up & Go manual (TUGm), Timed Up & Go cognitive (TUGc), Balance Test (TEC), sit-to-stand test (STS), and verbal fluency test (VF). After 12 weeks of DT training, participants showed a significant time × group interaction in all motor assessments (BB, GP, LEMS), as well as in three cognitive tests (VF-grouping, VF-exchange, VF-total). No time-group interaction effect was indicated for the VF-category test. At all evaluation times, CG members maintained constant physical and cognitive performance. We conclude that 12 weeks of physical-cognitive DT training was effective in promoting BB, GP, and LEMS, as well as CP in cognitively normal older adult women, with lasting effects up to 12 weeks after the intervention.

Women and men have a similar potential for malevolent creativity - But their underlying brain mechanisms are different

Research interest in gender differences in aggression and creative ideation cumulates in the phenomenon of malevolent creativity. Taking another critical step in understanding malevolent creativity, we investigated gender differences in brain activation and functional coupling of cortical sites in the EEG alpha band while n = 88 women and men purposefully generated malevolent creative ideas for taking revenge on others. Results showed that malevolent creativity performance between the genders was similar; however, their underlying EEG patterns were markedly different. While women exhibited a steep decrease of task-related alpha power from frontal to left central-temporal, men's malevolent creative ideation was characterized by a more diffuse pattern of task-related alpha power changes, along with decreased frontal-central coupling. Per interpretation, women's malevolent creative thinking may more strongly rely on controlled semantic memory retrieval and novel re-combination of social/relationship information, while men may utilize more automatic motor-related imagery that may predominantly facilitate physical revenge ideation. Our findings add novel evidence to the idea that women and men engage different neurocognitive strategies to achieve similar creative performance and may help to further illuminate the darker side of creative ideation.

Mental rotation, episodic memory, and executive control: Possible effects of biological sex and oral contraceptive use

Oral contraceptives (OCs) are one of the most common forms of hormonal birth control. A small literature suggests that OC use may affect visuospatial ability, episodic memory, and executive control. However, previous studies have been criticized for small sample sizes and the use of different, single cognitive tests. We investigated the degree to which biological sex and OC use might affect individual mental rotation, episodic memory, and executive control in a large sample of healthy, young adults (N = 155, including 52 OC users, 53 naturally cycling females, and 50 males) tested individually over videoconference. To measure cognition, we used a set of neuropsychological tasks inspired by Glisky and colleagues' two-factor episodic memory and executive control battery, from which two composite scores (based on principal component analysis) were derived for each participant. Our pre-registered analysis revealed a clear female advantage in episodic memory, independent of OC use. In an exploratory analysis, gist memory was elevated in OC users. Interestingly, we found no significant sex-related differences nor effects of OC use on mental rotation or executive control. Duration of OC use was also not related to any of our cognitive measures. These results suggest that the use of combined, monophasic OCs does not lead to many significant changes in cognition in young adults, although young females overall may have better episodic memory than young males. Additional studies, including longitudinal designs and looking in more detail at the menstrual cycle and OC use history, will further clarify the effects of different types of OCs and their duration of use on different aspects of cognition.

Sex/Gender Differences in Verbal Fluency and Verbal-Episodic Memory: A Meta-Analysis

Women are thought to fare better in verbal abilities, especially in verbal-fluency and verbal-memory tasks. However, the last meta-analysis on sex/gender differences in verbal fluency dates from 1988. Although verbal memory has only recently been investigated meta-analytically, a comprehensive meta-analysis is lacking that focuses on verbal memory as it is typically assessed, for example, in neuropsychological settings. On the basis of 496 effect sizes and 355,173 participants, in the current meta-analysis, we found that women/girls outperformed men/boys in phonemic fluency (ds = 0.12-0.13) but not in semantic fluency (ds = 0.01-0.02), for which the sex/gender difference appeared to be category-dependent. Women/girls also outperformed men/boys in recall (d = 0.28) and recognition (ds = 0.12-0.17). Although effect sizes are small, the female advantage was relatively stable over the past 50 years and across lifetime. Published articles reported stronger female advantages than unpublished studies, and first authors reported better performance for members of their own sex/gender. We conclude that a small female advantage in phonemic fluency, recall, and recognition exists and is partly subject to publication bias. Considerable variance suggests further contributing factors, such as participants' language and country/region.

Aberrant prefrontal functional connectivity during verbal fluency test is associated with reading comprehension deficits in autism spectrum disorder: An fNIRS study

Children with autism spectrum disorder (ASD) show marked difficulties in reading comprehension, a complex cognitive skill fundamental to successful daily functioning that is associated with core executive functions. However, the neurophysiological mechanisms underlying reading comprehension deficits in these children remain elusive. Twenty-one right-handed males with high-functioning ASD (mean age = 10.24 years) and 23 age-, IQ-, educational level-, sex- and handedness-matched typically developing (TD; mean age = 10.14 years) individuals underwent a reading comprehension test and the semantic verbal fluency test that tapped core executive functions underlying reading comprehension during concurrent prefrontal functional near-infrared spectroscopy (fNIRS) measurement. Participants’ information processing efficiency was also assessed. High-functioning ASD children exhibited general reading comprehension [main effect of group: F(1,40) = 7.58, p = 0.009], selective verbal fluency deficits [Group × category interaction: F(1,42) = 4.90, p = 0.032] and slower processing speed (t42 = 2.36, p = 0.023). Regarding the hemodynamics of the prefrontal cortex (PFC), although ASD individuals showed comparable patterns of PFC brain activation to their healthy counterparts, lower PFC intrahemispheric [main effect of group: F(1,42) = 11.36, p = 0.002] and interhemispheric [main effect of group: F(1,42) = 7.79, p = 0.008] functional connectivity were evident during the semantic verbal fluency test. At the whole-group level, poorer reading comprehension performance was associated with poorer performance in the semantic verbal fluency test (r42 = 0.508, p < 0.001). Moreover, poorer semantic verbal fluency test performance was associated with slower information processing speed (r42 = –0.312, p = 0.044), which is associated with reduced left medial PFC functional connectivity (r42 = –0.319, p = 0.040). Abnormal intrahemispheric and interhemispheric prefrontal hypoconnectivity is associated with deficits in executive processes essential for reading comprehension in ASD. Our study has provided important implications for the neuropsychological and neurophysiological mechanisms underlying reading comprehension deficits in ASD.

Exploring the sex and gender correlates of cognitive sex differences

The correlates of cognitive sex differences are yet to be fully understood. Many biological and psychosocial factors modulate these cognitive abilities leading to mixed results in the scientific literature. The current study aims to explore the different parameters potentially influencing cognitive abilities acting in synergy. Sex and gender correlates of cognitive functioning were assessed in a sample of individuals ages 18 to 45 years (N = 87) from diverse sexual orientations. Sex hormones were assessed via saliva samples at four timepoints throughout the testing. Gender roles, sexual orientation and socio-demographics were measured via self-report questionnaires. Participants completed mental rotation and verbal fluency tasks. Men performed better than women at mental rotation, while no significant difference was found for verbal fluency. Significant positive associations were observed between estradiol and word fluency for the naturally cycling women compared to the women using oral contraception. While controlling for sex hormones, a significant interaction effect of sex by gender roles was identified for mental rotation among masculine women. These exploratory results suggest an effect principally driven by sex and sex hormones on cognitive performance that will need to be furthered with larger studies.

Sex and gender difference in cognitive and behavioral studies in developmental age: An introduction

This paper introduces a special issue focused on sex and gender (s/g) cognitive/behavioral differences at developmental ages providing an overview of this multifaceted and debated topic. It will provide a description of the biological systems that are strongly interconnected to generate s/g differences, that is, genetic determinants, sex hormones, differences in brain structure, organization, and/or function, inherited or modifiable under environmental pressures. Developmental studies are rare. Some addressed whether s/g differences in cognitive/behavioral characteristics are evident early in life and are consistent throughout development, entailing that s/g differences can follow the evolving steps in girls and boys in different domains. The data are far from being homogeneous and consistent about s/g difference in language, social skills, and visuo/spatial abilities. The differences are small, often with overlapping performances, similar to what is seen in adulthood. Given that several variables and the interactions between them are implicated, further longitudinal studies adopting adequate assessment tools, very large size multicultural samples stratified in different, well-sized and precise age groups, considering biological and sociocultural variables, are needed. Due to the complexity of the issue, there is still the need to support and adopt an s/g difference approach also in cognitive and behavioral studies at developmental ages. Finally, these studies have not only scientific importance and relevant cultural, anthropological, and social implications, but are also useful for pedagogical programming as well as for the study of the different susceptibility to develop CNS diseases and consequently to promote different therapies and treatments.

The emotion word fluency test as an embedded performance validity indicator - Alone and in a multivariate validity composite

OBJECTIVE

This project was designed to cross-validate existing performance validity cutoffs embedded within measures of verbal fluency (FAS and animals) and develop new ones for the Emotion Word Fluency Test (EWFT), a novel measure of category fluency.

METHOD

The classification accuracy of the verbal fluency tests was examined in two samples (70 cognitively healthy university students and 52 clinical patients) against psychometrically defined criterion measures.

RESULTS

A demographically adjusted T-score of ≤31 on the FAS was specific (.88-.97) to noncredible responding in both samples. Animals T ≤ 29 achieved high specificity (.90-.93) among students at .27-.38 sensitivity. A more conservative cutoff (T ≤ 27) was needed in the patient sample for a similar combination of sensitivity (.24-.45) and specificity (.87-.93). An EWFT raw score ≤5 was highly specific (.94-.97) but insensitive (.10-.18) to invalid performance. Failing multiple cutoffs improved specificity (.90-1.00) at variable sensitivity (.19-.45).

CONCLUSIONS

Results help resolve the inconsistency in previous reports, and confirm the overall utility of existing verbal fluency tests as embedded validity indicators. Multivariate models of performance validity assessment are superior to single indicators. The clinical utility and limitations of the EWFT as a novel measure are discussed.

Psychological pain and depression: it's hard to speak when it hurts

OBJECTIVE

To investigate the neuropsychological features of depressed patients reporting high level of psychological pain.

METHODS

Sixty-two inpatients were included and divided into two groups according to the level of psychological pain assessed by a Likert scale. Cognitive abilities were assessed using the Trail Making Test, the Stroop test, and Verbal Fluency Test (semantic and phonemic verbal fluency). Univariate and multivariate analyses were performed to determine neuropsychological factors associated with a high level of psychological pain.

RESULTS

The median level of psychological pain was 8/10. High level of psychological pain was associated with poor phonemic verbal fluency performance in men (p = 0.009), but not in women, even after controlling for confounding factors (age, level of depression, anxiety). Groups did not differ on the Trail Making Test, the Stroop test, or the semantic verbal fluency measure.

CONCLUSION

Psychological pain is a specific clinical entity that should be considered to be more significant than just a symptom of depression. High level of psychological pain appears to be associated with a deficit of phonemic verbal fluency in depressed men. This finding could help to target psychotherapeutic treatments and improve screening.Key pointsPatients with high psychological pain do not differ on the Trail Making Test, the Stroop Test or the Sematic Verbal Fluency Measure to patients with low psychological painHigh psychological pain is associated with a deficit in phonemic verbal fluency in depressed menFuture research should aim to clarify gender differences in psychological pain in participants with and without major depressive disorder, as well as explore the complex relationship between cognition and the different forms of pain (psychological, physical and psychosomatic).

The role of sex chromosomes and sex hormones in vocal learning systems

Vocal learning is the ability to imitate and modify sounds through auditory experience, a rare trait found in only a few lineages of mammals and birds. It is a critical component of human spoken language, allowing us to verbally transmit speech repertoires and knowledge across generations. In many vocal learning species, the vocal learning trait is sexually dimorphic, where it is either limited to males or present in both sexes to different degrees. In humans, recent findings have revealed subtle sexual dimorphism in vocal learning/spoken language brain regions and some associated disorders. For songbirds, where the neural mechanisms of vocal learning have been well studied, vocal learning appears to have been present in both sexes at the origin of the lineage and was then independently lost in females of some subsequent lineages. This loss is associated with an interplay between sex chromosomes and sex steroid hormones. Even in species with little dimorphism, like humans, sex chromosomes and hormones still have some influence on learned vocalizations. Here we present a brief synthesis of these studies, in the context of sex determination broadly, and identify areas of needed investigation to further understand how sex chromosomes and sex steroid hormones help establish sexually dimorphic neural structures for vocal learning.

Sex differences in the social brain and in social cognition

Many studies have reported sex differences in empathy and social skills. In this review, several lines of empirical evidences about sex differences in functions and anatomy of social brain are discussed. The most relevant differences involve face processing, facial expression recognition, response to baby schema, the ability to see faces in things, the processing of social interactions, the response to the others' pain, interest in social information, processing of gestures and actions, biological motion, erotic, and affective stimuli. Sex differences in oxytocin-based parental response are also reported. In conclusion, the female and male brains show several neuro-functional differences in various aspects of social cognition, and especially in emotional coding, face processing, and response to baby schema. An interpretation of this sexual dimorphism is provided in the view of evolutionary psychobiology.

Individual Differences in Hemodynamic Responses Measured on the Head Due to a Long-Term Stimulation Involving Colored Light Exposure and a Cognitive Task: A SPA-fNIRS Study

When brain activity is measured by neuroimaging, the canonical hemodynamic response (increase in oxygenated hemoglobin ([O2Hb]) and decrease in deoxygenated hemoglobin ([HHb]) is not always seen in every subject. The reason for this intersubject-variability of the responses is still not completely understood. This study is performed with 32 healthy subjects, using the systemic physiology augmented functional near-infrared spectroscopy (SPA-fNIRS) approach. We investigate the intersubject variability of hemodynamic and systemic physiological responses, due to a verbal fluency task (VFT) under colored light exposure (CLE; blue and red). Five and seven different hemodynamic response patterns were detected in the subgroup analysis of the blue and red light exposure, respectively. We also found that arterial oxygen saturation and mean arterial pressure were positively correlated with [O2Hb] at the prefrontal cortex during the CLE-VFT independent of the color of light and classification of the subjects. Our study finds that there is substantial intersubject-variability of cerebral hemodynamic responses, which is partially explained by subject-specific systemic physiological changes induced by the CLE-VFT. This means that both subgroup analyses and the additional assessment of systemic physiology are of crucial importance to achieve a comprehensive understanding of the effects of a CLE-VFT on human subjects.