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Assis MGC, Barbosa Junior JGG, Seffrin A, Ribeiro dos Anjos Souza V, Vivan L, Matos Rodrigues MA, de Lira CAB, Vancini RL, Knechtle B, Weiss K, Andrade MS. Maximal Oxygen Uptake, Muscular Oxidative Capacity, and Ventilatory Threshold in Amateur Triathletes: Eight-Month Training Follow-Up. Open Access J Sports Med 2024; 15:9-17. [PMID: 38505703 PMCID: PMC10950087 DOI: 10.2147/oajsm.s453875] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/23/2023] [Accepted: 03/11/2024] [Indexed: 03/21/2024] Open
Abstract
Purpose Endurance sports performance is influenced by several factors, including maximal oxygen uptake (⩒O2max), the percentage of ⩒O2max that can be sustained in endurance events, running economy, and body composition. Traditionally, ⩒O2max can be measured as an absolute value, adjusted for body mass, reflecting the athlete's central capacity (maximal cardiac output), or adjusted for lean mass (LM), reflecting the athlete's peripheral capacity (muscular oxidative capacity). The present study aims to evaluate absolute, total body mass, and lower limb LM-adjusted ⩒O2max, ventilatory thresholds (VT), respiratory compensation points (RCP), and body composition during two training periods separated by 8 months. Patients and Methods Thirteen competitive amateur triathletes [seven men (40.7±13.7 years old, 76.3±8.3kg, and 173.9±4.8cm) and six women (43.5±6.9 years old, 55.0±2.7kg, 164.9±5.2cm)] were evaluated for body composition with dual-energy X-ray absorptiometry and ⩒O2max, VT, RPC, and maximal aerobic speed (MAS) with a cardiorespiratory maximal treadmill test. Results The absolute ⩒O2max (p = 0.003, d = 1.05), body mass-adjusted ⩒O2max (p < 0.001, d = 1.2859), and MAS (p = 0.047, d = 0.6139) values differed significantly across evaluation periods. Lower limb LM-adjusted ⩒O2max (p = 0.083, d = -0.0418), %⩒O2max at VT (p = 0.541, d = -0.1746), speed at VT (p = 0.337, d = -0.2774), % ⩒O2max at RCP (p = 0.776, d = 0.0806), and speed at RCP (p = 0.436, d = 0.2234) showed no difference. Conclusion The sensitivities of ⩒O2max adjusted for body mass and ⩒O2max adjusted for LM to detect changes in physical training state differ. Furthermore, decreases in physical fitness level, as evaluated by ⩒O2max values, are not accompanied by changes in VT.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | - Aldo Seffrin
- Postgraduate Program in Translation Medicine, Federal University of São Paulo, São Paulo, Brazil
| | | | - Lavínia Vivan
- Postgraduate Program in Translation Medicine, Federal University of São Paulo, São Paulo, Brazil
| | | | | | - Rodrigo Luiz Vancini
- Center for Physical Education and Sports, Federal University of Espírito Santo, Espírito Santo, Brazil
| | - Beat Knechtle
- Institute of Primary Care, University of Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Katja Weiss
- Institute of Primary Care, University of Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
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Durkalec-Michalski K, Główka N, Nowaczyk PM, Laszczak A, Gogojewicz A, Suliburska J. Do Triathletes Periodize Their Diet and Do Their Mineral Content, Body Composition and Aerobic Capacity Change during Training and Competition Periods? Nutrients 2022; 15:nu15010006. [PMID: 36615663 PMCID: PMC9824709 DOI: 10.3390/nu15010006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/01/2022] [Revised: 12/15/2022] [Accepted: 12/16/2022] [Indexed: 12/29/2022] Open
Abstract
The triathlon is a demanding endurance multisport, which may strongly affect the nutritional status of athletes. The aim of this study was to find whether there are any differences in energy value and nutrient intake, body mass and body composition, aerobic performance and hair mineral status between training and competition periods and to assess whether there is a link between hair mineral content and physical capacity and nutrition. This observational study covered 20 triathletes aged 32 ± 7 years. The results of our study indicated performance improvement during the competition period (longer time to exhaustion (p = 0.025) and lower maximal oxygen uptake at the ventilatory threshold (%VO2max_VT; p = 0.047)). However, no differences were recorded in nutrition and body composition between two training vs. competition periods. There was a significant depletion in hair iron content during the competition period (p = 0.010). Furthermore, there were significant relationships between hair calcium content and absolute maximal oxygen uptake and %VO2max_VT during the training period. It is necessary to introduce nutritional education in the group of triathletes focused on exercise-oriented nutritional periodization following the requirements of the training and competition periods, thus preventing the risk of nutrient deficiencies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Krzysztof Durkalec-Michalski
- Department of Sports Dietetics, Poznan University of Physical Education, 61-871 Poznań, Poland
- Department of Physiology and Biochemistry, Faculty of Physical Education and Sport, Charles University, 162 52 Prague, Czech Republic
- Correspondence:
| | - Natalia Główka
- Department of Sports Dietetics, Poznan University of Physical Education, 61-871 Poznań, Poland
| | - Paulina M. Nowaczyk
- Department of Sports Dietetics, Poznan University of Physical Education, 61-871 Poznań, Poland
| | - Anna Laszczak
- Department of Sports Dietetics, Poznan University of Physical Education, 61-871 Poznań, Poland
| | - Anna Gogojewicz
- Department of Food and Nutrition, Poznan University of Physical Education, 61-871 Poznań, Poland
| | - Joanna Suliburska
- Department of Human Nutrition and Dietetics, Poznań University of Life Sciences, 60-624 Poznań, Poland
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Olaya-Cuartero J, Fernández-Sáez J, Østerlie O, Ferriz-Valero A. Concordance Analysis between the Segments and the Overall Performance in Olympic Triathlon in Elite Triathletes. BIOLOGY 2022; 11:biology11060902. [PMID: 35741422 PMCID: PMC9220313 DOI: 10.3390/biology11060902] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/04/2022] [Revised: 05/30/2022] [Accepted: 06/09/2022] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
Simple Summary Due to the complexity of the triathlon, it is difficult to analyse overall performance. To date, the analysis of performance in triathlon has been widely studied through time or position in the three segments and in the overall result, which is what defines the medals and the goal of the competition, but it can have some limitations. As an alternative, the purpose of this study is to analyse the concordance between each of the triathlon segments (swimming, cycling, and running) and the overall performance in the Olympic triathlon in elite triathletes. The main results of the present study show that performance in the cycling segment presents the best concordance with overall performance. In conclusion, the cycling performance indicator could be an alternative to anticipate the overall performance in the competition. For this reason, the cycling segment would not be a smooth transition toward running in the Olympic distance event. Abstract To date, the performance in triathlon has been measured through time or position. Although this is what defines the medals and the goal of the competition, it can have some limitations. As an alternative, the purpose of this study is to assess the degree of concordance of performance between each of the triathlon disciplines with overall performance through the triathlon performance indicator for the Olympic distance event. The official results from the World Triathlon Series for Olympic distance events from 2000 to 2019 were examined. A total of 11,263 entries were analysed, 6273 corresponding to elite men and 4990 to elite women. Moderate agreement was found between the running performance and overall performance in both elite men ICCa = 0.538 and elite women ICCa = 0.581. Moreover, moderate agreement was found between swimming performance and overall performance in both elite men ICCa = 0.640 and elite women ICCa = 0.613. Finally, good agreement was found between cycling performance and overall performance also in both elite men ICCa = 0.777 and elite women ICCa = 0.816. The main results of the present study show that the cycling performance indicator could be an alternative to anticipate the overall performance in the competition for the Olympic distance event.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - José Fernández-Sáez
- Terres de l’Ebre Research Support Unit, Jordi Gol i Gurina University Institute for Primary Health Care Research (IDIAPJGol), 43500 Tortosa, Spain;
- Research Unit, Terres de l’Ebre Territorial Management, Catalan Institute of Health, 43500 Tortosa, Spain
- Facultat de Enfermería, Campus Terres de l’Ebre, Universitat Rovira i Virgili, 43500 Tortosa, Spain
| | - Ove Østerlie
- Department of Teacher Education, Faculty of Social and Educational Science, NTNU–Norwegian University of Science and Technology, 7491 Trondheim, Norway
- Correspondence: ; Tel.: +47-73412618
| | - Alberto Ferriz-Valero
- Department of General and Specific Didactics, University of Alicante, 03690 Alicante, Spain;
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Rauter S, Simenko J. Morphological Asymmetries Profile and the Difference between Low- and High-Performing Road Cyclists Using 3D Scanning. BIOLOGY 2021; 10:1199. [PMID: 34827192 PMCID: PMC8615123 DOI: 10.3390/biology10111199] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/25/2021] [Revised: 11/14/2021] [Accepted: 11/15/2021] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
The aims of this study are: (1) to identify morphological asymmetries in road cycling by using a novel 3D scanning method and electrical bioimpedance, (2) to investigate possible asymmetries in road cyclists of low (LPG) and high (HPG) performance group, (3) to compare the number of morphological asymmetries between HPG and LPG of cyclists, and (4) to explore correlations between asymmetry scores and competition performance. Body composition and 3D anthropometric measurements were conducted on 48 top-level male road cyclists (178.98 ± 5.39 cm; 68.37 ± 5.31 kg) divided into high (n = 22) and low (n = 26) performance groups. Competition performance (CP) is represented through racing points gathered at the end of the competition season. The latter was used to divide road cyclists into low- and high-performing groups. One-way ANOVA was used to determine differences between groups, while paired-samples T-test and Absolute Asymmetry index (AA) were calculated (p ≤ 0.05) for paired variables inside the groups, and the Spearman correlation coefficient was used to explore correlations between AA and CP. Results showed statistically significant differences between the left and right side of different body segments (16 paired variables) among low-performing road cyclists in five paired variables of the upper body: elbow girth (4.35, p = 0.000), forearm girth (6.31, p = 0.000), arm surface area (2.54, p = 0.018), and arm volume (2.71, p = 0.012); and six paired variables of the lower body: leg lean mass (5.85, p = 0.000), leg length (3.04, p = 0.005), knee girth (4.93, p = 0.000), calf girth (5.25, p = 0.000), leg surface area (4.03, p = 0.000), and leg volume (5.3, p = 0.000). Altogether, the high-performing group of road cyclists statistically differed only in 2 out of 16 paired variables of the upper body: elbow girth (4.93, p = 0.000) and in forearm girth (5.12, p = 0.000). Low- and high-performing groups were statistically significantly different in the asymmetry of leg lean mass F(1,46) = 6.25, p = 0.016 and asymmetry of the calf girth F(1,46) = 7.44, p = 0.009. AA of calf girth on the total sample (n = 48) showed a significant correlation with CP (r = -0.461; p = 0.001). In conclusion, the study's main finding was that high-performance road cyclists are more symmetrical than the low-performance group, for which it is significant to have a higher amount of morphological asymmetries.
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Affiliation(s)
- Samo Rauter
- Faculty for Sport, University of Ljubljana, 1000 Ljubljana, Slovenia;
| | - Jozef Simenko
- Essex Pathways Department, University of Essex, Colchester CO4 3SQ, UK
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Structural and functional body components in athletic health and performance phenotypes. Eur J Clin Nutr 2018; 73:215-224. [PMID: 30287933 DOI: 10.1038/s41430-018-0321-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 44] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/05/2018] [Accepted: 09/06/2018] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
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Marcos-Serrano M, Olcina G, Crespo C, Brooks D, Timon R. Urinary Steroid Profile in Ironman Triathletes. J Hum Kinet 2018; 61:109-117. [PMID: 29599864 PMCID: PMC5873341 DOI: 10.1515/hukin-2017-0130] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/15/2022] Open
Abstract
The aim of this study was to determine variations in the urinary steroid profile of triathletes following an Ironman event. A total of 10 male participants (age = 36.0 ± 1.27 years; body height = 179.29 ± 10.77 cm; body mass = 74.50 ± 1.04 kg) completed an Ironman Championship. Urine samples were collected before, immediately after, and 24 hours following the race. Gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC/MS) was used to detect and quantify catabolic and anabolic hormones: Androsterone, Dehydroepiandrosteone (DHEA), Androstenedione and Testosterone (T), Betaestradiol, Estrone, Progesterone, Cortisol (C), Cortisone, Tetrahydrocortisol (THE) and Tetrahydrocortisone (THF). These were measured in their glucuroconjugated and free forms. Androsterone (3297.80 ± 756.83 vs. 2154.26 ± 1375.38), DHEA (47.80 ± 19.21 vs. 32.62 ± 15.96) and Beta-estradiol (59.36 ± 11.7 vs. 41.67 ± 10.59) levels decreased after the event. The significant decrease of DHEA (47.80 ± 19.21 vs. 32.11 ± 14.03) remained at 24 hours. Cortisol (200.38 ± 56.60 vs. 257.10 ± 74.00) and THE (238.65 ± 81.55 vs. 289.62 ± 77.13) increased after exercise and remained elevated 24 hours later (200.38 ± 56.60 vs. 252.48 ± 62.09; 238.65 ± 81.55 vs. 284.20 ± 66.66). The following anabolic/catabolic ratios fell after exercise: T/C (0.85 ± 0.54 vs. 0.54 ± 0.29), T/THE (0.66 ± 0.29 vs. 0.40 ± 0.08), T/THE+THF (0.38 ± 0.17 vs. 0.24 ± 0.06), DHEA/THE (0.22 ± 0.05 vs. 0.12 ± 0.05), DHEA/THF (0.34 ± 0.02 vs. 0.21 ± 0.01) and DHEA/THE+THF (0.12 ± 0.02 vs. 0.08 ± 0.03). The steroid profile showed that athletes were fatigued after finishing the competition and a catabolic state remained 24 hours later.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marta Marcos-Serrano
- Department of Physical Education and Sport. Sports Science Faculty. University of Extremadura. Cáceres, Spain
| | - Guillermo Olcina
- Department of Physical Education and Sport. Sports Science Faculty. University of Extremadura. Cáceres, Spain
| | - Carmen Crespo
- Department of Physiology. Sports Science Faculty University of Extremadura. Cáceres, Spain
| | - Darrell Brooks
- School of Pharmacy & Biomedical Sciences. University of Central Lancashire. Preston, United Kingdom
| | - Rafael Timon
- Department of Physical Education and Sport. Sports Science Faculty. University of Extremadura. Cáceres, Spain
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Figueiredo P, Marques EA, Lepers R. Changes in Contributions of Swimming, Cycling, and Running Performances on Overall Triathlon Performance Over a 26-Year Period. J Strength Cond Res 2016; 30:2406-15. [PMID: 26808853 DOI: 10.1519/jsc.0000000000001335] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
Abstract
Figueiredo, P, Marques, EA, and Lepers, R. Changes in contributions of swimming, cycling, and running performances on overall triathlon performance over a 26-year period. J Strength Cond Res 30(9): 2406-2415, 2016-This study examined the changes in the individual contribution of each discipline to the overall performance of Olympic and Ironman distance triathlons among men and women. Between 1989 and 2014, overall performances and their component disciplines (swimming, cycling and running) were analyzed from the top 50 overall male and female finishers. Regression analyses determined that for the Olympic distance, the split times in swimming and running decreased over the years (r = 0.25-0.43, p ≤ 0.05), whereas the cycling split and total time remained unchanged (p > 0.05), for both sexes. For the Ironman distance, the cycling and running splits and the total time decreased (r = 0.19-0.88, p ≤ 0.05), whereas swimming time remained stable, for both men and women. The average contribution of the swimming stage (∼18%) was smaller than the cycling and running stages (p ≤ 0.05), for both distances and both sexes. Running (∼47%) and then cycling (∼36%) had the greatest contribution to overall performance for the Olympic distance (∼47%), whereas for the Ironman distance, cycling and running presented similar contributions (∼40%, p > 0.05). Across the years, in the Olympic distance, swimming contribution significantly decreased for women and men (r = 0.51 and 0.68, p < 0.001, respectively), whereas running increased for men (r = 0.33, p = 0.014). In the Ironman distance, swimming and cycling contributions changed in an undulating fashion, being inverse between the two segments, for both sexes (p < 0.01), whereas running contribution decreased for men only (r = 0.61, p = 0.001). These findings highlight that strategies to improve running performance should be the main focus on the preparation to compete in the Olympic distance; whereas, in the Ironman, both cycling and running are decisive and should be well developed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Pedro Figueiredo
- 1School of Physical Education, Federal University of Rio Grande do Sul, Porto Alegre, Brazil; 2Department of Kinesiology, University of Maryland, College Park, Maryland, USA; 3Laboratory of Epidemiology and Population Sciences, National Institute on Aging, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, Maryland, USA; 4Research Center in Sports Sciences, Health and Human Development (CIDESD), University Institute of Maia (ISMAI), Maia, Portugal; and 5INSERM U1093, Faculty of Sport Sciences, University of Burgundy, Dijon, France
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Knechtle B, Knechtle R, Stiefel M, Zingg MA, Rosemann T, Rüst CA. Variables that influence Ironman triathlon performance - what changed in the last 35 years? Open Access J Sports Med 2015; 6:277-90. [PMID: 26346992 PMCID: PMC4556299 DOI: 10.2147/oajsm.s85310] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/27/2022] Open
Abstract
OBJECTIVE This narrative review summarizes findings for Ironman triathlon performance and intends to determine potential predictor variables for Ironman race performance in female and male triathletes. METHODS A literature search was performed in PubMed using the terms "Ironman", "triathlon", and "performance". All resulting articles were searched for related citations. RESULTS Age, previous experience, sex, training, origin, anthropometric and physiological characteristics, pacing, and performance in split disciplines were predictive. Differences exist between the sexes for anthropometric characteristics. The most important predictive variables for a fast Ironman race time were age of 30-35 years (women and men), a fast personal best time in Olympic distance triathlon (women and men), a fast personal best time in marathon (women and men), high volume and high speed in training where high volume was more important than high speed (women and men), low body fat, low skin-fold thicknesses and low circumference of upper arm (only men), and origin from the United States of America (women and men). CONCLUSION These findings may help athletes and coaches to plan an Ironman triathlon career. Age and previous experience are important to find the right point in the life of a triathlete to switch from the shorter triathlon distances to the Ironman distance. Future studies need to correlate physiological characteristics such as maximum oxygen uptake with Ironman race time to investigate their potential predictive value and to investigate socio-economic aspects in Ironman triathlon.
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Affiliation(s)
- Beat Knechtle
- Gesundheitszentrum St Gallen, St Gallen, Switzerland ; Institute of Primary Care, University of Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Raphael Knechtle
- Institute of Primary Care, University of Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Michael Stiefel
- Institute of Primary Care, University of Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
| | | | - Thomas Rosemann
- Institute of Primary Care, University of Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
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Knechtle B, Zingg MA, Rosemann T, Stiefel M, Rüst CA. What predicts performance in ultra-triathlon races? - a comparison between Ironman distance triathlon and ultra-triathlon. Open Access J Sports Med 2015; 6:149-59. [PMID: 26056498 PMCID: PMC4445872 DOI: 10.2147/oajsm.s79273] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/02/2023] Open
Abstract
Objective This narrative review summarizes recent intentions to find potential predictor variables for ultra-triathlon race performance (ie, triathlon races longer than the Ironman distance covering 3.8 km swimming, 180 km cycling, and 42.195 km running). Results from studies on ultra-triathletes were compared to results on studies on Ironman triathletes. Methods A literature search was performed in PubMed using the terms “ultra”, “triathlon”, and “performance” for the aspects of “ultra-triathlon”, and “Ironman”, “triathlon”, and “performance” for the aspects of “Ironman triathlon”. All resulting papers were searched for related citations. Results for ultra-triathlons were compared to results for Ironman-distance triathlons to find potential differences. Results Athletes competing in Ironman and ultra-triathlon differed in anthropometric and training characteristics, where both Ironmen and ultra-triathletes profited from low body fat, but ultra-triathletes relied more on training volume, whereas speed during training was related to Ironman race time. The most important predictive variables for a fast race time in an ultra-triathlon from Double Iron (ie, 7.6 km swimming, 360 km cycling, and 84.4 km running) and longer were male sex, low body fat, age of 35–40 years, extensive previous experience, a fast time in cycling and running but not in swimming, and origins in Central Europe. Conclusion Any athlete intending to compete in an ultra-triathlon should be aware that low body fat and high training volumes are highly predictive for overall race time. Little is known about the physiological characteristics of these athletes and about female ultra-triathletes. Future studies need to investigate anthropometric and training characteristics of female ultra-triathletes and what motivates women to compete in these races. Future studies need to correlate physiological characteristics such as maximum oxygen uptake (VO2max) with ultra-triathlon race performance in order to investigate whether these characteristics are also predictive for ultra-triathlon race performance.
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Affiliation(s)
- Beat Knechtle
- Institute of Primary Care, University of Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland ; Gesundheitszentrum St Gallen, St Gallen, Switzerland
| | | | - Thomas Rosemann
- Institute of Primary Care, University of Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Michael Stiefel
- Institute of Primary Care, University of Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
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Rüst CA, Rosemann T, Lepers R, Knechtle B. Gender difference in cycling speed and age of winning performers in ultra-cycling – the 508-mile “Furnace Creek” from 1983 to 2012. J Sports Sci 2014; 33:198-210. [DOI: 10.1080/02640414.2014.934705] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/25/2022]
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Knechtle B. Relationship of anthropometric and training characteristics with race performance in endurance and ultra-endurance athletes. Asian J Sports Med 2014; 5:73-90. [PMID: 25834701 PMCID: PMC4374609] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/15/2013] [Accepted: 12/17/2013] [Indexed: 10/31/2022] Open
Abstract
A variety of anthropometric and training characteristics have been identified as predictor variables for race performance in endurance and ultra-endurance athletes. Anthropometric characteristics such as skin-fold thicknesses, body fat, circumferences and length of limbs, body mass, body height, and body mass index were bi-variately related to race performance in endurance athletes such as swimmers in pools and in open water, in road and mountain bike cyclists, and in runners and triathletes over different distances. Additionally, training variables such as volume and speed were also bi-variately associated with race performance. Multi-variate regression analyses including anthropometric and training characteristics reduced the predictor variables mainly to body fat and speed during training units. Further multi-variate regression analyses including additionally the aspects of previous experience such as personal best times showed that mainly previous best time in shorter races were the most important predictors for ultra-endurance race times. Ultra-endurance athletes seemed to prepare differently for their races compared to endurance athletes where ultra-endurance athletes invested more time in training and completed more training kilometers at lower speed compared to endurance athletes. In conclusion, the most important predictor variables for ultra-endurance athletes were a fast personal best time in shorter races, a low body fat and a high speed during training units.
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Affiliation(s)
- Beat Knechtle
- Institute of General Practice and Health Services Research, University of Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland,Gesundheitszentrum St. Gallen, St. Gallen, Switzerland,Corresponding Author: Facharzt FMH für Allgemeinmedizin Gesundheitszentrum St. Gallen Vadianstrasse 26 9001 St. Gallen Switzerland
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Pozzi L, Knechtle B, Knechtle P, Rosemann T, Lepers R, Rüst CA. Sex and age-related differences in performance in a 24-hour ultra-cycling draft-legal event - a cross-sectional data analysis. BMC Sports Sci Med Rehabil 2014; 6:19. [PMID: 24883191 PMCID: PMC4039327 DOI: 10.1186/2052-1847-6-19] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/03/2014] [Accepted: 05/09/2014] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
Abstract
Background The purpose of this study was to examine the sex and age-related differences in performance in a draft-legal ultra-cycling event. Methods Age-related changes in performance across years were investigated in the 24-hour draft-legal cycling event held in Schötz, Switzerland, between 2000 and 2011 using multi-level regression analyses including age, repeated participation and environmental temperatures as co-variables. Results For all finishers, the age of peak cycling performance decreased significantly (β = −0.273, p = 0.036) from 38 ± 10 to 35 ± 6 years in females but remained unchanged (β = −0.035, p = 0.906) at 41.0 ± 10.3 years in males. For the annual fastest females and males, the age of peak cycling performance remained unchanged at 37.3 ± 8.5 and 38.3 ± 5.4 years, respectively. For all female and male finishers, males improved significantly (β = 7.010, p = 0.006) the cycling distance from 497.8 ± 219.6 km to 546.7 ± 205.0 km whereas females (β = −0.085, p = 0.987) showed an unchanged performance of 593.7 ± 132.3 km. The mean cycling distance achieved by the male winners of 960.5 ± 51.9 km was significantly (p < 0.001) greater than the distance covered by the female winners with 769.7 ± 65.7 km but was not different between the sexes (p > 0.05). The sex difference in performance for the annual winners of 19.7 ± 7.8% remained unchanged across years (p > 0.05). The achieved cycling distance decreased in a curvilinear manner with advancing age. There was a significant age effect (F = 28.4, p < 0.0001) for cycling performance where the fastest cyclists were in age group 35–39 years. Conclusion In this 24-h cycling draft-legal event, performance in females remained unchanged while their age of peak cycling performance decreased and performance in males improved while their age of peak cycling performance remained unchanged. The annual fastest females and males were 37.3 ± 8.5 and 38.3 ± 5.4 years old, respectively. The sex difference for the fastest finishers was ~20%. It seems that women were not able to profit from drafting to improve their ultra-cycling performance.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lara Pozzi
- Institute of General Practice and Health Services Research, University of Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Beat Knechtle
- Institute of General Practice and Health Services Research, University of Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland ; Gesundheitszentrum St. Gallen, St. Gallen, Switzerland
| | | | - Thomas Rosemann
- Institute of General Practice and Health Services Research, University of Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Romuald Lepers
- INSERM U1093, University of Burgundy, Faculty of Sport Sciences, Dijon, France
| | - Christoph Alexander Rüst
- Institute of General Practice and Health Services Research, University of Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
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Dähler P, Rüst CA, Rosemann T, Lepers R, Knechtle B. Nation related participation and performance trends in 'Ironman Hawaii' from 1985 to 2012. BMC Sports Sci Med Rehabil 2014; 6:16. [PMID: 24735524 PMCID: PMC4006525 DOI: 10.1186/2052-1847-6-16] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/17/2013] [Accepted: 03/26/2014] [Indexed: 11/10/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND This study examined participation and performance trends in 'Ironman Hawaii' regarding the nationality of the finishers. METHODS Associations between nationalities and race times of 39,706 finishers originating from 124 countries in the 'Ironman Hawaii' from 1985 to 2012 were analyzed using single and multi-level regression analysis. RESULTS Most of the finishers originated from the United States of America (47.5%) followed by athletes from Germany (11.7%), Japan (7.9%), Australia (6.7%), Canada (5.2%), Switzerland (2.9%), France (2.3%), Great Britain (2.0%), New Zealand (1.9%), and Austria (1.5%). German women showed the fastest increase in finishers (r(2) = 0.83, p < 0.0001), followed by Australia (r(2) = 0.78, p < 0.0001), Canada (r(2) = 0.78, p < 0.0001) and the USA (r(2) = 0.69, p < 0.0001). Japanese women showed no change in the number of finishers (r(2) = 0.01, p > 0.05). For men, athletes from France showed the steepest increase (r(2) = 0.85, p < 0.0001), followed by Austria (r(2) = 0.68, p < 0.0001), Australia (r(2) = 0.67, p < 0.0001), Brazil (r(2) = 0.60, p < 0.0001), Great Britain (r(2) = 0.46, p < 0.0001), Germany (r(2) = 0.26, p < 0.0001), the United States of America (r(2) = 0.21, p = 0.013) and Switzerland (r(2) = 0.14, p = 0.0044). The number of Japanese men decreased (r(2) = 0.35, p = 0.0009). The number of men from Canada (r(2) = 0.02, p > 0.05) and New Zealand (r(2) = 0.02, p > 0.05) remained unchanged. Regarding female performance, the largest improvements were achieved by Japanese women (17.3%). The fastest race times in 2012 were achieved by US-American women. Women from Japan, Canada, Germany, Australia, and the United States of America improved race times. For men, the largest improvements were achieved by athletes originating from Brazil (20.9%) whereas the fastest race times in 2012 were achieved by athletes from Germany. Race times for athletes originating from Brazil, Austria, Great Britain, Switzerland, Germany, Australia, Canada, Japan, New Zealand and France decreased. Race times in athletes originating from Australia and the United States of America showed no significant changes. Regarding the fastest race times ever, the fastest women originated from the United States (546 ± 7 min) followed by Great Britain (555 ± 15 min) and Switzerland (558 ± 8 min). In men, the fastest finishers originated from the United States (494 ± 7 min), Germany (496 ± 6 min) and Australia (497 ± 5 min). CONCLUSIONS The 'Ironman Hawaii' has been dominated by women and men from the United States of America in participation and performance.
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Affiliation(s)
- Philippe Dähler
- Institute of General Practice and for Health Services Research, University of Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Christoph Alexander Rüst
- Institute of General Practice and for Health Services Research, University of Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Thomas Rosemann
- Institute of General Practice and for Health Services Research, University of Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Romuald Lepers
- INSERM U1093, Faculty of Sport Sciences, University of Burgundy, Dijon, France
| | - Beat Knechtle
- Institute of General Practice and for Health Services Research, University of Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland ; Gesundheitszentrum St. Gallen, Vadianstrasse 26, 9001 St. Gallen, Switzerland
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BERNHEIM ALAINMARCEL, ATTENHOFER JOST CHRISTINEHELENA, ZUBER MICHEL, PFYFFER MONICA, SEIFERT BURKHARDT, DE PASQUALE GABRIELLA, LINKA ANDRE, FAEH-GUNZ ANJA, MEDEIROS-DOMINGO ARGELIA, KNECHTLE BEAT. Right Ventricle Best Predicts the Race Performance in Amateur Ironman Athletes. Med Sci Sports Exerc 2013; 45:1593-9. [DOI: 10.1249/mss.0b013e31828ba558] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
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Kandel M, Baeyens JP, Clarys P. Somatotype, training and performance in Ironman athletes. Eur J Sport Sci 2013; 14:301-8. [DOI: 10.1080/17461391.2013.813971] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/26/2022]
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Zingg M, Knechtle B, Rüst CA, Rosemann T, Lepers R. Age and gender difference in non-drafting ultra-endurance cycling performance - the 'Swiss Cycling Marathon'. EXTREME PHYSIOLOGY & MEDICINE 2013; 2:18. [PMID: 23849106 PMCID: PMC3710092 DOI: 10.1186/2046-7648-2-18] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/29/2012] [Accepted: 02/14/2013] [Indexed: 11/10/2022]
Abstract
Background In recent years, there was an increased interest in investigating the gender difference in performance and the age of peak performance in ultra-endurance performances such as ultra-triathlon, ultra-running, and ultra-swimming, but not in ultra-cycling. The aim of the present study was to analyze the gender difference in ultra-cycling performance and the age of peak ultra-cycling performance in the 720-km ‘Swiss Cycling Marathon’, the largest European qualifier for the ‘Race Across America’. Methods Changes in the cycling speed and age of 985 finishers including 38 women and 947 men competing in the Swiss Cycling Marathon from 2001 to 2012 covering a distance of 720 km with a change of altitude of 4,993 m were analyzed using linear regression. Results The gender difference in performance was 13.6% for the fastest cyclists ever, 13.9% ± 0.5% for the three fastest cyclists ever and 19.1% ± 3.7% for the ten fastest cyclists ever. The gender difference in performance for the annual top three women and men decreased from 35.0% ± 9.5% in 2001 to 20.4% ± 7.7% in 2012 (r2 = 0.72, p = 0.01). The annual top three women improved cycling speed from 20.3 ± 3.1 km h−1 in 2003 to 24.8 ± 2.4 km h−1 in 2012 (r2 = 0.79, p < 0.01). The cycling speed of the annual top three men remained unchanged at 30.2 ± 0.6 km h−1 (p > 0.05). The age of peak performance for the ten fastest finishers ever was 35.9 ± 9.6 years for men and 38.7 ± 7.8 years for women, respectively (p = 0.47). Conclusions The gender difference in ultra-cycling performance decreased over the 2001 to 2012 period in the 720-km Swiss Cycling Marathon for the annual top three cyclists and reached approximately 14%. Both women and men achieved peak performance at the age of approximately 36 to 39 years. Women might close the gender gap in ultra-endurance cycling in longer cycling distances. Future studies need to investigate the gender difference in performance in the Race Across America, the longest nonstop and non-drafting ultra-cycling race in the world.
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Affiliation(s)
- Matthias Zingg
- Institute of General Practice and for Health Services Research, University of Zurich, Zurich, 8091, Switzerland.
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Rüst CA, Knechtle B, Knechtle P, Rosemann T, Lepers R. Age of peak performance in elite male and female Ironman triathletes competing in Ironman Switzerland, a qualifier for the Ironman world championship, Ironman Hawaii, from 1995 to 2011. Open Access J Sports Med 2012; 3:175-82. [PMID: 24198600 PMCID: PMC3781912 DOI: 10.2147/oajsm.s37115] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/24/2022] Open
Abstract
Background The age of peak performance in elite endurance athletes has been investigated for elite marathoners, but not for elite Ironman triathletes. The aim of this study was to analyze the age of peak performance in swimming (3.8 km), cycling (180 km), running (42 km), and overall race time for elite female and male Ironman triathletes competing in Ironman Switzerland, a qualifier for the Ironman world championship, known as the Ironman Hawaii. Methods The age of the annual top ten overall swimmers, cyclists, runners, and annual overall finishers for both male and female elite triathletes and their corresponding split and overall race times at the Ironman Switzerland were analyzed between 1995 and 2011. Results The mean age of the elite Ironman triathletes was 33 ± 3 years for men and 34 ± 4 years for women. For women, the age of peak performance was not significantly different between the three disciplines (P > 0.05), while for men, the best swimmers (29 ± 3 years) were significantly (P < 0.05) younger than the best runners (35 ± 5 years). During the study period, the age of peak performance remained unchanged for men at 31 ± 3 years (P > 0.05), but increased for women from 30 ± 4 years in 1995 to 36 ± 5 years in 2011 (P < 0.01). Conclusion Although both women and men improved their overall race times during the 1995–2011 period, the age of peak performance was similar between women and men in the three disciplines and in overall race time. Future studies need to examine the change in age of peak performance across years in the Ironman Hawaii world championship event.
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