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Zhao J, Wu Y, Zhang J. A study of triathletes' race strategies in different competition environments. Heliyon 2024; 10:e29454. [PMID: 38644899 PMCID: PMC11033134 DOI: 10.1016/j.heliyon.2024.e29454] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/27/2023] [Revised: 04/08/2024] [Accepted: 04/08/2024] [Indexed: 04/23/2024] Open
Abstract
What is known, sports performance is impacted by a variety of factors. While most people understand the importance of training, proper nutrition, and adequate rest, not as many recognize the impact of environmental factors on athletic performance. This paper investigates the race strategies of Chinese triathletes in different competition environments, with a focus on the performance of professional triathletes during the Olympic Distance Triathlon held in China between 2015 and 2021. Data from 984 athletes who competed in 26 races were analyzed to evaluate the sensitivity of the three splits of swimming, cycling, and running to overall triathlon performance under different temperature (low, normal, and high), altitude (low, normal, and high), and waters (sea, river, and still waters) conditions. Results show that the effects of the three split times on overall time vary across different environments. Cycling has the greatest impact on overall performance when the temperature is suitable (at low temperature, at normal temperature) and the altitude is suitable (at low altitude, at normal altitude). While running has the greatest impact in high-temperature and high-altitude environments. For female athletes, in river waters, swimming has a greater effect on overall performance than cycling, but less than running. These findings provide practical suggestions for athletes, coaches, and competition organizers to optimize training and race strategies based on specific environmental conditions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Junhui Zhao
- Department of Sports Teaching and Research, Lanzhou University, Gansu, China
| | - Yan Wu
- School of Mathematics and Statistics, Lanzhou University, Gansu, China
| | - Jiangqian Zhang
- School of Mathematics and Statistics, Lanzhou University, Gansu, China
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Guevara SA, Crunkhorn ML, Drew M, Waddington G, Périard JD, Etxebarria N, Toohey LA, Charlton P. Injury and illness in short-course triathletes: A systematic review. J Sport Health Sci 2024; 13:172-185. [PMID: 36898525 PMCID: PMC10980869 DOI: 10.1016/j.jshs.2023.03.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/02/2022] [Revised: 11/04/2022] [Accepted: 01/11/2023] [Indexed: 05/23/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Determining the incidence and prevalence of injury and illness in short-course triathletes would improve understanding of their etiologies and therefore assist in the development and implementation of prevention strategies. This study synthesizes the existing evidence on the incidence and prevalence of injury and illness and summarizes reported injury or illness etiology and risk factors affecting short-course triathletes. METHODS This review followed the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses guidelines. Studies reporting health problems (injury and illness) in triathletes (all sexes, ages, and experience levels) training and/or competing in short-course distances were included. Six electronic databases (Cochrane Central Register of Controlled Trials, MEDLINE, Embase, APA PsychINFO, Web of Science Core Collection, and SPORTDiscus) were searched. Risk of bias was independently assessed by 2 reviewers using the Newcastle-Ottawa Quality Assessment Scale. Two authors independently completed data extraction. RESULTS The search yielded 7998 studies, with 42 studies eligible for inclusion. Twenty-three studies investigated injuries, 24 studies investigated illnesses, and 5 studies investigated both injuries and illnesses. The injury incidence rate ranged 15.7-24.3 per 1000 athlete exposures, and the illness incidence rate ranged 1.8-13.1 per 1000 athlete days. Injury and illness prevalence ranged between 2%-15% and 6%-84%, respectively. Most injuries reported occurred during running (45%-92%), and the most frequently reported illnesses affected the gastrointestinal (7%-70%), cardiovascular (14%-59%), and respiratory systems (5%-60%). CONCLUSION The most frequently reported health problems in short-course triathletes were: overuse and lower limb injuries associated with running; gastrointestinal illnesses and altered cardiac function, primarily attributable to environmental factors; and respiratory illness mostly caused by infection.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sara A Guevara
- University of Canberra Research Institute for Sport and Exercise (UCRISE), Bruce, ACT 2617, Australia; New South Wales Institute of Sport, Sydney, NSW 2127, Australia
| | - Melissa L Crunkhorn
- University of Canberra Research Institute for Sport and Exercise (UCRISE), Bruce, ACT 2617, Australia; Queensland Academy of Sport, Brisbane, QLD 4111, Australia; Triathlon Australia, Gold Coast, QLD 4227, Australia.
| | - Michael Drew
- University of Canberra Research Institute for Sport and Exercise (UCRISE), Bruce, ACT 2617, Australia
| | - Gordon Waddington
- University of Canberra Research Institute for Sport and Exercise (UCRISE), Bruce, ACT 2617, Australia; Australian Institute of Sport, Bruce, ACT 2617, Australia
| | - Julien D Périard
- University of Canberra Research Institute for Sport and Exercise (UCRISE), Bruce, ACT 2617, Australia
| | - Naroa Etxebarria
- University of Canberra Research Institute for Sport and Exercise (UCRISE), Bruce, ACT 2617, Australia
| | - Liam A Toohey
- University of Canberra Research Institute for Sport and Exercise (UCRISE), Bruce, ACT 2617, Australia; Australian Institute of Sport, Bruce, ACT 2617, Australia
| | - Paula Charlton
- University of Canberra Research Institute for Sport and Exercise (UCRISE), Bruce, ACT 2617, Australia; Triathlon Australia, Gold Coast, QLD 4227, Australia
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Puccinelli P, Sacchelli AN, Seffrin A, Knechtle B, Weiss K, Andrade MS. Origin and age group of the fastest amateur triathletes competing in 'Ironman Hawaii' between 2003 and 2019. Sports Med Health Sci 2024; 6:70-75. [PMID: 38463666 PMCID: PMC10918356 DOI: 10.1016/j.smhs.2023.07.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/29/2022] [Revised: 07/17/2023] [Accepted: 07/24/2023] [Indexed: 03/12/2024] Open
Abstract
Little is known about the prevalent nationalities among the best-placed athletes participating in "Ironman Hawaii." Moreover, the age at which athletes achieve their best performances remains unclear. The present study aimed to compare the prevalent nationalities among the athletes, their respective placement among the top five, and the performance difference between the different age groups in 'Ironman Hawaii' from 2003 to 2019. A total of 30 354 amateur triathletes were selected from the Obsessed Triathlete (OBSTRI) website. A "TOP 5" division filter was applied for further analysis, resulting in 1 851 athletes being included in this study. Among the male runners, Americans participated the most in Ironman events (39%), followed by Germans (10%). Among female runners, Americans participated the most (54%), followed by Australian runners (8%). Male Americans also featured most among the top five (30%), followed by Germans (16%). Female Americans were the most prevalent among the top five (47%), followed by Australian Americans (10%). There were no significant performance differences (p > 0.05) between the 25-29 and 40-44 age groups for either sex. The 45-49 age group presented significantly worse performance than the 35-39 age group for both sexes (p < 0.001). North Americans were the most performant and frequent participants in "Ironman Hawaii." The expected performance decline due to aging was observed after 45 years in both sexes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Paulo Puccinelli
- Department of Physiology, Federal University of São Paulo, Brazil
| | | | - Aldo Seffrin
- Department of Physiology, Federal University of São Paulo, Brazil
| | - Beat Knechtle
- Medbase St. Gallen Am Vadianplatz, St. Gallen, Switzerland
- Institute of Primary Care, University of Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Katja Weiss
- Medbase St. Gallen Am Vadianplatz, St. Gallen, Switzerland
- Institute of Primary Care, University of Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
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de Oliveira VN, Andrade MS, Sinisgalli R, Vancini RL, de Conti Teixeira Costa G, Weiss K, Knechtle B, de Lira CAB. Prevalence of dietary supplement use among male Brazilian recreational triathletes: a cross-sectional study. BMC Res Notes 2024; 17:8. [PMID: 38169419 PMCID: PMC10763403 DOI: 10.1186/s13104-023-06665-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/03/2023] [Accepted: 12/11/2023] [Indexed: 01/05/2024] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND AND RATIONALE The literature shows that the prevalence of dietary supplements is high and guidance by a nutritionist or specialized professional is low in professional triathletes. It is reasonable to assume that in recreational triathletes, the prevalence of dietary supplements will also be high and that a significant portion of the sampled population will use supplements without any guidance from a qualified professional. The present study investigated dietary supplement use among Brazilian male recreational triathletes. METHODS A total of 724 Brazilian male recreational triathletes (age: 38.00 [10.00] years and body mass index: 24.16 [3.02] kg/m2) took part in this study. All participants answered an online questionnaire containing questions about their demographic characteristics and the nutritional aspects of their diet. RESULTS The results showed that ~ 90% (n = 653) of the interviewed participants reported using at least one dietary supplement. Surprisingly, ~ 25% did not receive supplement advice from a professional nutritionist. CONCLUSION The prevalence of dietary supplements in male recreational triathletes was high, and a substantial part of the sample did not receive professional recommendations. This situation is worrisome because dietary supplements should be prescribed by a professional nutritionist. PRACTICAL IMPLICATIONS Our results suggest the need for an appropriate attitude and guidance by health professionals who deal with this population, especially nutritionists, to promote safe practices.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | - Rafaella Sinisgalli
- Departamento de Fisiologia, Universidade Federal de São Paulo, São Paulo, Brazil
| | - Rodrigo Luiz Vancini
- Centro de Educação Física e Desportos, Universidade Federal do Espírito Santo, Vitória, Brazil
| | | | - Katja Weiss
- Institute of Primary Care, University of Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Beat Knechtle
- Institute of Primary Care, University of Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland.
- Medbase St. Gallen Am Vadianplatz, St. Gallen, Switzerland.
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Sheridan GA, Garbuz DS, Nazaroff H, Howard LC, Masri BA. Short-term results of the uncemented triathlon total knee arthroplasty: a large cohort single-centre comparative study. Eur J Orthop Surg Traumatol 2022:10.1007/s00590-022-03422-9. [PMID: 36352307 DOI: 10.1007/s00590-022-03422-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/30/2022] [Accepted: 10/25/2022] [Indexed: 06/16/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND The purpose of this study is to assess the short-term survivorship of a new uncemented TKA design in a high-volume centre to evaluate the safety of this design prior to widespread adoption. METHODS We performed a retrospective cohort study of all primary TKAs (cemented and uncemented) between May 2018 and May 2019. Primary outcome variables included aseptic revision, all-cause revision, time to revision, operative time and radiological outcomes. Predictor variables considered included age, gender, BMI, ASA, implant type (cruciate-retaining, posterior-stabilised or totally-stabilised) and the use of cemented or uncemented implants. RESULTS There were 300 cemented TKAs and 249 uncemented TKAs (Triathlon, Stryker Inc., Mahwah, NJ) implanted. The mean follow-up for all cases was 31.6 months (minimum follow-up 2 years). Of the entire 549 implants only 4 were revised. Two of these were for infection, 1 was for patellar maltracking and 1 was for knee stiffness. All 4 revisions occurred in the cemented cohort. The aseptic revision rate in the cemented cohort was 0.7% compared to 0.0% in the uncemented cohort (p = 0.298). Operative times were significantly reduced in the uncemented cohort from 57.9 to 51.7 min (p < 0.001). There were 8/300 (2.6%) patients with RLLs in the cemented cohort and 4/249 (1.6%) patients with RLLs in the uncemented cohort (p = 0.56). CONCLUSION The uncemented Triathlon TKA demonstrates excellent survivorship at short-term follow-up when compared to the cemented Triathlon TKA, thus eliminating any potential clinical concerns with this novel implant in the early post-operative phase.
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Affiliation(s)
- G A Sheridan
- Department of Orthopaedics, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC, Canada.
| | - D S Garbuz
- Department of Orthopaedics, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC, Canada
| | - H Nazaroff
- Department of Orthopaedics, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC, Canada
| | - L C Howard
- Department of Orthopaedics, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC, Canada
| | - B A Masri
- Department of Orthopaedics, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC, Canada
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Rico Bini R, Canal Jacques T, Hunter J, Figueiredo P. Biomechanical and physiological implications to running after cycling and strategies to improve cycling to running transition: A systematic review. J Sci Med Sport 2022; 25:861-866. [PMID: 35871903 DOI: 10.1016/j.jsams.2022.07.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/14/2021] [Revised: 06/30/2022] [Accepted: 07/09/2022] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
OBJECTIVES This systematic review summarises biomechanical, physiological and performance factors affecting running after cycling and explores potential effective strategies to improve performance during running after cycling. DESIGN Systematic review. METHODS The literature search included all documents available until 14th December 2021 from Medline, CINAHL, SportDiscus, and Scopus. Studies were screened against the Appraisal tool for Cross-sectional Studies to assess methodological quality and risk of bias. After screening the initial 7495 articles identified, fulltext screening was performed on 65 studies, with 39 of these included in the systematic review. RESULTS The majority of studies observed detrimental effects, in terms of performance, when running after cycling compared to a control run. Unclear implications were identified from a biomechanical and physiological perspective with studies presenting conflicting evidence due to varied experimental designs. Changes in cycling intensity and cadence have been tested but conflicting evidence was observed in terms of biomechanical, physiological and performance outcomes. CONCLUSIONS Because methods to simulate cycle to run transition varied between studies, findings were conflicting as to whether running after cycling differed compared to a form of control run. Although most studies presented were rated high to very high quality, it is not possible to state that prior cycling does affect subsequent running, from a physiological point of view, with unclear responses in terms of biomechanical outcomes. In terms of strategies to improve running after cycling, it is unclear if manipulating pedalling cadence or intensity affects subsequent running performance.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rodrigo Rico Bini
- Holsworth Research Initiative, La Trobe Rural Health School, La Trobe University, Australia.
| | | | - Jayden Hunter
- Holsworth Research Initiative, La Trobe Rural Health School, La Trobe University, Australia
| | - Pedro Figueiredo
- Portugal Football School, Portuguese Football Federation, Portugal; Research Center in Sports Sciences, Health Sciences and Human Development, CIDESD, Portugal; CIDEFES, Universidade Lusófona, Portugal
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Carlson BJ, Gerry AS, Hassebrock JD, Christopher ZK, Spangehl MJ, Bingham JS. Clinical outcomes and survivorship of cementless triathlon total knee arthroplasties: a systematic review. Arthroplasty 2022; 4:25. [PMID: 35655250 PMCID: PMC9164316 DOI: 10.1186/s42836-022-00124-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/17/2022] [Accepted: 04/18/2022] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Over the last decade, cementless total knee arthroplasty has demonstrated improved outcomes and survivorship due to advances in technologies of implant design, manufacturing capabilities, and biomaterials. Due to increasing interest in cementless implant design for TKA, our aim was to perform a systematic review of the literature to evaluate the clinical outcomes and revision rates of the Triathlon Total Knee system over the past decade. Methods A systematic review of the literature was conducted following PRISMA guidelines for patients who underwent total knee arthroplasty with cementless Triathalon Total Knee System implants. Patients had a minimum of two-year follow-up and data included clinical outcome scores and survivorship data. Results Twenty studies were included in the final analysis. The survivability of the Stryker Triathlon TKA due to all causes was 98.7%, with an aseptic survivability of 99.2%. The overall revision incidence per 1,000 person-years was 3.4. Re-revision incidence per 1,000 person-years was 2.2 for infection, and 1.3 for aseptic loosening. The average KSS for pain was 92.2 and the average KSS for function was 82.7. Conclusions This systematic review demonstrated excellent clinical outcomes and survivorship at a mean time of 3.8 years. Additional research is necessary to examine the long-term success of the Stryker Triathlon TKA and the use of cementless TKAs in obese and younger populations. Level of evidence III.
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Affiliation(s)
- Brian J Carlson
- Department of Orthopedics, Mayo Clinic Arizona, 5777 E Mayo Boulevard, Maricopa, Phoenix, AZ, 85260, USA
| | - Adam S Gerry
- Elson S. Floyd College of Medicine, Washington State University, 412 E Spokane Falls Blvd, Spokane, Whitman, WA, 99202, USA
| | - Jeffrey D Hassebrock
- Midwestern University, Arizona College of Osteopathic Medicine, 19555 N 59th Ave. Glendale, Los Angeles, AZ, 85308, USA
| | - Zachary K Christopher
- Midwestern University, Arizona College of Osteopathic Medicine, 19555 N 59th Ave. Glendale, Los Angeles, AZ, 85308, USA.
| | - Mark J Spangehl
- Midwestern University, Arizona College of Osteopathic Medicine, 19555 N 59th Ave. Glendale, Los Angeles, AZ, 85308, USA
| | - Joshua S Bingham
- Midwestern University, Arizona College of Osteopathic Medicine, 19555 N 59th Ave. Glendale, Los Angeles, AZ, 85308, USA
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McGRATH E, Mahony N, Fleming N, Benavoli A, Donne B. Prediction of Functional Threshold Power from Graded Exercise Test Data in Highly-Trained Individuals. Int J Exerc Sci 2022; 15:747-759. [PMID: 35992499 PMCID: PMC9365101] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/15/2023]
Abstract
The purpose of the current investigation was to derive an equation that could predict Functional Threshold Power (FTP) from Graded Exercise Test (GxT) data. The FTP test has been demonstrated to represent the highest cycling power output that can be maintained in a quasi-steady state for 60-min. Previous investigations to determine a comparable marker derived from a Graded Exercise test have had limited success to date. Consequently, the current study aimed to predict FTP from GxT data to provide an additional index of cycling performance. FTP has been reported to provide an insight not provided by a GxT and, in addition, does not require a formal exercise testing facility. The study design facilitated a deliberate and transparent sequence of statistical decisions, resolved in part from the perspective of exercise physiology. Seventy triathletes (male n=50, female n=20) completed cycling GxT and FTP tests in sequential order. Collected data (power output, blood lactate indices, VO2peak, body mass) were analysed using stepwise regression to identify the key parameters for predicting FTP, and confirmed using a Leave One Out (LOO) cross-validation. As a consequence of wittingly including some likely transiently highly correlated parameters on the basis of a physiological argument, the model's function is limited to predicting FTP. This investigation concluded the model (FTP = -6.62 + 0.32 FBLC-4 + 0.42 BM + 0.46 Pmax) was the prediction model of choice.
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Affiliation(s)
- Eanna McGRATH
- Human Performance Laboratory, Disciplines of Anatomy and Physiology, School of Medicine, Trinity College Dublin, IRL
| | - Nick Mahony
- Human Performance Laboratory, Disciplines of Anatomy and Physiology, School of Medicine, Trinity College Dublin, IRL
| | - Neil Fleming
- Human Performance Laboratory, Disciplines of Anatomy and Physiology, School of Medicine, Trinity College Dublin, IRL
| | - Alessio Benavoli
- School of Computer Science and Statistics, Trinity College Dublin, IRL
| | - Bernard Donne
- Human Performance Laboratory, Disciplines of Anatomy and Physiology, School of Medicine, Trinity College Dublin, IRL
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Barbosa LP, Sousa CV, da Silva Aguiar S, Gadelha AB, Nikolaidis PT, Villiger E, Knechtle B. The beginning of success: Performance trends and cut-off values for junior and the U23 triathlon categories. J Exerc Sci Fit 2021; 20:16-22. [PMID: 34925520 PMCID: PMC8634041 DOI: 10.1016/j.jesf.2021.11.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/15/2021] [Revised: 11/16/2021] [Accepted: 11/19/2021] [Indexed: 11/25/2022] Open
Abstract
Background This study sought to determine cut-off values for each triathlon discipline to achieve podium in Junior (short distance; 750 m swim, 20 km cycle and 5 km run) and U23 (standard/Olympic distance; 1.5 km swim, 40 km cycle and 10 km run) triathlon events. Additionally, we aimed to investigate which discipline has the largest relationship with overall Junior and U23 triathlon performance, and the effect of sex and time in performance trends. Methods We included all data from Junior and U23 official races (International Triathlon Federation; ITU) of Junior (n = 3,314 finishes) and U23 (n = 5,092 finishes) categories held from 1999 to 2018. Results Men were significantly faster than women in both Junior (11.13%) and U23 (12.28%) categories. Swimming and cycling times were faster in 2009-2018 than in the 1999-2008 decade for men (3.36%; 6.49%), women junior (6.50%; 7.09%), men (0.15%; 3.46%) and women U23 (1.61%; 3.31%) respectively. Cycling was the discipline with the greatest influence on overall triathlon performance in Junior and U23 categories, regardless of sex or rank position. The cut-off values for the Junior category were (men/women): swimming, 9.2/9.4 min; cycling, 31.9/38.2 min; running, 16.8/18.9 min. U23's cut-off values were (men/women): swim, 18.0/19.4 min, cycling: 63.4/70.1 min; run, 33.9/38.7 min. Conclusion Cycling was the discipline with the greatest influence on overall performance for both men and women in Junior and U23 categories. Moreover, swimming and cycling performances increased over the years for both sexes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lucas Pinheiro Barbosa
- Graduate Program in Physical Education, Catholic University of Brasília, Brasília, DF, Brazil
| | - Caio Victor Sousa
- College of Arts, Media & Design, Bouvé College of Health Sciences, Northeastern University, Boston, USA
| | - Samuel da Silva Aguiar
- Graduate Program in Physical Education, Catholic University of Brasília, Brasília, DF, Brazil
| | - André Bonadias Gadelha
- Graduate Program in Physical Education, Catholic University of Brasília, Brasília, DF, Brazil.,Federal Institute of Education, Science and Technology Goiano, Urutaí, GO, Brazil
| | | | - Elias Villiger
- Medbase St. Gallen Am Vadianplatz, St. Gallen, Switzerland
| | - Beat Knechtle
- Medbase St. Gallen Am Vadianplatz, St. Gallen, Switzerland.,Institute of Primary Care, University of Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
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Takahashi K, Shirai Y, Oki S, Nabekura Y. The effect of a decrease in stretch-shortening cycle function after cycling on subsequent running. J Sci Med Sport 2021; 25:261-265. [PMID: 34620558 DOI: 10.1016/j.jsams.2021.09.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/16/2021] [Revised: 07/30/2021] [Accepted: 09/07/2021] [Indexed: 11/15/2022]
Abstract
OBJECTIVES Increased cardiorespiratory responses and changes in muscle activity and running kinematics occur in running after cycling compared with isolated running. Nevertheless, little is known about the causes of these changes. Cycling exercise decreases the stretch-shortening cycle (SSC) function, which can influence subsequent running. This study aimed to clarify whether the decrease in SSC function after cycling causes cardiorespiratory and biomechanical changes in subsequent running. DESIGN Cross-sectional laboratory study. Participants were divided into two groups based on SSC function: an SSC dec group (those with decreased SSC function after cycling) and an SSC non-dec group (those without decreased SSC function after cycling). METHODS Eighteen participants (10 triathletes and 8 runners) completed maximal aerobic tests for running and cycling. After these sessions, a submaximal run-cycle-run test was performed to compare between control run (no preceding cycle) and transition run (preceded by cycling). A jump test was administered before and after the submaximal cycling. SSC function was calculated as the ratio of the jump height to the time spent in contact with the ground (reactive strength index). Gas exchange measures, heart rate, and gait parameters were collected throughout the test. RESULTS Oxygen uptake and ventilation were increased by cycling in the SSC dec group but not in the SSC non-dec group. In both groups, there were no significant differences in the gait parameters between control and transition runs. CONCLUSIONS The decrease in SSC function after cycling would increase cardiorespiratory responses in subsequent running.
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Affiliation(s)
- Keigo Takahashi
- Graduate school of Comprehensive Human Science, University of Tsukuba, Japan.
| | - Yusuke Shirai
- Department of Sport and Health Science, Tokai Gakuen University, Japan
| | - Shota Oki
- Graduate school of Comprehensive Human Science, University of Tsukuba, Japan
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Gejl KD, Nybo L. Performance effects of periodized carbohydrate restriction in endurance trained athletes - a systematic review and meta-analysis. J Int Soc Sports Nutr 2021; 18:37. [PMID: 34001184 PMCID: PMC8127206 DOI: 10.1186/s12970-021-00435-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/14/2020] [Accepted: 04/22/2021] [Indexed: 11/10/2022] Open
Abstract
Endurance athletes typically consume carbohydrate-rich diets to allow for optimal performance during competitions and intense training. However, acute exercise studies have revealed that training or recovery with low muscle glycogen stimulates factors of importance for mitochondrial biogenesis in addition to favourable metabolic adaptations in trained athletes. Compromised training quality and particularly lower intensities in peak intervals seem to be a major drawback from dietary interventions with chronic carbohydrate (CHO) restriction. Therefore, the concept of undertaking only selected training sessions with restricted CHO availability (periodized CHO restriction) has been proposed for endurance athletes. However, the overall performance effect of this concept has not been systematically reviewed in highly adapted endurance-trained athletes. We therefore conducted a meta-analysis of training studies that fulfilled the following criteria: a) inclusion of females and males demonstrating a VO2max ≥ 55 and 60 ml · kg− 1 · min− 1, respectively; b) total intervention and training periods ≥ 1 week, c) use of interventions including training and/or recovery with periodized carbohydrate restriction at least three times per week, and d) measurements of endurance performance before and after the training period. The literature search resulted in 407 papers of which nine studies fulfilled the inclusion criteria. The subsequent meta-analysis demonstrated no overall effect of CHO periodization on endurance performance compared to control endurance training with normal (high) CHO availability (standardized mean difference = 0.17 [− 0.15, 0.49]; P = 0.29). Based on the available literature, we therefore conclude that periodized CHO restriction does not per se enhance performance in endurance-trained athletes. The review discusses different approaches to CHO periodization across studies with a focus on identifying potential physiological benefits.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kasper Degn Gejl
- Department of Sports Science and Clinical Biomechanics, University of Southern Denmark, Campusvej 55, 5230, Odense, Denmark.
| | - Lars Nybo
- Department of Nutrition, Exercise and Sports, University of Copenhagen, Copenhagen, Denmark
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Sinisgalli R, de Lira CAB, Vancini RL, Puccinelli PJG, Hill L, Knechtle B, Nikolaidis PT, Andrade MS. Impact of training volume and experience on amateur Ironman triathlon performance. Physiol Behav 2021; 232:113344. [PMID: 33516745 DOI: 10.1016/j.physbeh.2021.113344] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/12/2020] [Revised: 01/27/2021] [Accepted: 01/28/2021] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
Abstract
PURPOSE To investigate the association between training volume, sleep time, signs and symptoms of excessive training (overtraining), and previous triathlon experience with overall and split race times in the Ironman distance triathlon. METHODS Ninety-nine triathletes (19 women and 80 men) answered an online survey containing questions about anthropometric characteristics (body mass and height), weekly training volume (hours per day and days per week), previous experience in Ironman distance triathlon race, and signs and symptoms of excessive training. Data of race times of all participants were collected by a single race (the Ironman Brazil 2019 - Florianópolis). All surveys were collected between 28 and 30 days before the race. The athlete was instructed to answer the questions according to what was happening in the week before completing the survey. RESULTS Total race time did not differ among those who trained up to 14 h per week (11:28:46±01:54:30 h:min:sec), between 15 and 20 h per week (11:37:31±01:20:26 h:min:sec) or more than 20 h per week (11:30:18±01:31:28 h:min:sec) (p = 0.922). Total race time of the triathletes who presented (12:42:22±01:49:36 h:min:sec) or no (11:23:06±01:29:02 h:min:sec) unintentional body mass loss (p = 0.006), feeling (12:46:17±02:03:13 h:min:sec) or no (11:24:09±01:28:07 h:min:sec) of decreased performance (p = 0.009) or feeling (12:08:58±01:47:12 h:min:sec) or no (11:16:34±01:24:53 h:min:sec) loss of energy (p = 0.011) in the week prior to the race were significantly different. Triathletes who had a previous experience in Ironman races achieved a better performance (11:15:21±01:32:04 h:min:sec) than those without previous experience (12:06:38±01:32:10 h:min:sec) (p = 0.010). CONCLUSION In summary, high volumes of training (more than 20 h per week), when performed forty days before a race, may not have a positive impact on performance compared to lower volumes of training (up to 14 h per week). However, athletes who had a previous experience in Ironman race presented better results in swimming splits and overall race time. Moreover, the presence of overtraining symptoms, such as unintentional loss of weight, sensation of fatigue and/or performance decrease impact negatively triathlon performance.
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Carlsson M, Wahrenberg V, Carlsson MS, Andersson R, Carlsson T. Gross and delta efficiencies during uphill running and cycling among elite triathletes. Eur J Appl Physiol 2020; 120:961-968. [PMID: 32236753 PMCID: PMC7181553 DOI: 10.1007/s00421-020-04312-w] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/18/2019] [Accepted: 01/31/2020] [Indexed: 11/01/2022]
Abstract
PURPOSE To investigate the gross efficiency (GE) and delta efficiency (DE) during cycling and running in elite triathletes. METHODS Five male and five female elite triathletes completed two incremental treadmill tests with an inclination of 2.5° to determine their GE and DE during cycling and running. The speed increments between the 5-min stages were 2.4 and 0.6 km h-1 during the cycling and running tests, respectively. For each test, GE was calculated as the ratio between the mechanical work rate (MWR) and the metabolic rate (MR) at an intensity corresponding to a net increase in blood-lactate concentration of 1 mmol l-1. DE was calculated by dividing the delta increase in MWR by the delta increase in MR for each test. Pearson correlations and paired-sample t tests were used to investigate the relationships and differences, respectively. RESULTS There was a correlation between GEcycle and GErun (r = 0.66; P = 0.038; R2 = 0.44), but the correlation between DEcycle and DErun was not statistically significant (r = - 0.045; P = 0.90; R2 = 0.0020). There were differences between GEcycle and GErun (t = 80.8; P < 0.001) as well as between DEcycle and DErun (t = 27.8; P < 0.001). CONCLUSIONS Elite triathletes with high GE during running also have high GE during cycling, when exercising at a treadmill inclination of 2.5°. For a moderate uphill incline, elite triathletes are more energy efficient during cycling than during running, independent of work rate.
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Affiliation(s)
- Magnus Carlsson
- School of Education, Health and Social Studies, Dalarna University, Högskolegatan 2, 791 88, Falun, Sweden.,Swedish Unit for Metrology in Sports, Dalarna University, Högskolegatan 2, 791 88, Falun, Sweden
| | - Viktor Wahrenberg
- School of Education, Health and Social Studies, Dalarna University, Högskolegatan 2, 791 88, Falun, Sweden
| | - Marie S Carlsson
- School of Education, Health and Social Studies, Dalarna University, Högskolegatan 2, 791 88, Falun, Sweden
| | - Rasmus Andersson
- School of Education, Health and Social Studies, Dalarna University, Högskolegatan 2, 791 88, Falun, Sweden
| | - Tomas Carlsson
- School of Education, Health and Social Studies, Dalarna University, Högskolegatan 2, 791 88, Falun, Sweden. .,Swedish Unit for Metrology in Sports, Dalarna University, Högskolegatan 2, 791 88, Falun, Sweden.
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14
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Abstract
Prior exercise can negatively affect movement economy of a subsequent task. However, the impact of cycling exercise on the energy cost of subsequent running is difficult to ascertain, possibly because of the use of different methods of calculating economy. We examined the influence of a simulated cycling bout on running physiological cost (running economy, heart rate and ventilation rates) and perceptual responses (ratings of perceived exertion and effort) by comparing two running bouts, performed before and after cycling using different running economy calculation methods. Seventeen competitive male triathletes ran at race pace before and after a simulated Olympic-distance cycling bout. Running economy was calculated as V̇O2 (mL∙kg-1∙min-1), oxygen cost (EO2, mL∙kg-1∙m-1) and aerobic energy cost (Eaer, J∙kg-1∙m-1). All measures of running economy and perceptual responses indicated significant alterations imposed by prior cycling. Despite a good level of agreement with minimal bias between calculation methods, differences (p < 0.05) were observed between Eaer and both V̇O2 and EO2. The results confirmed that prior cycling increased physiological cost and perceptual responses in a subsequent running bout. It is recommended that Eaer be calculated as a more valid measure of running economy alongside perceptual responses to assist in the identification of individual responses in running economy following cycling.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chantelle du Plessis
- Centre for Exercise and Sport Science Research, School of Medical and Health Sciences, Edith Cowan University , Joondalup, Australia
| | - Anthony J Blazevich
- Centre for Exercise and Sport Science Research, School of Medical and Health Sciences, Edith Cowan University , Joondalup, Australia
| | - Chris Abbiss
- Centre for Exercise and Sport Science Research, School of Medical and Health Sciences, Edith Cowan University , Joondalup, Australia
| | - Jodie Cochrane Wilkie
- Centre for Exercise and Sport Science Research, School of Medical and Health Sciences, Edith Cowan University , Joondalup, Australia
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15
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Smith KA, Kisiolek JN, Willingham BD, Morrissey MC, Leyh SM, Saracino PG, Baur DA, Cook MD, Ormsbee MJ. Ultra-endurance triathlon performance and markers of whole-body and gut-specific inflammation. Eur J Appl Physiol 2020; 120:349-57. [PMID: 31828478 DOI: 10.1007/s00421-019-04279-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/26/2019] [Accepted: 11/30/2019] [Indexed: 01/06/2023]
Abstract
PURPOSE To examine the influence of the Ultraman Florida triathlon (3 days of non-continuous racing; stage 1: 10 km swim and 144.8 km cycle; stage 2: 275.4 km cycle; stage 3: 84.4 km run) on circulating plasma concentrations of whole-body (C-reactive protein (CRP), interleukin (IL)-6 (IL-6), and IL-10 and surrogate gut-specific inflammatory markers (IL-17 and IL-23), and determine whether these variables are associated with performance. METHODS Eighteen triathletes (N = 18; 15 men, 3 women; age: 37 ± 8 yrs) were evaluated at baseline and post-race for circulating concentrations of CRP, IL-6, IL-10, IL-17, and IL-23. Blood samples were drawn two days prior to stage 1 (1600 h) and one day after stage 3 (1200 h). RESULTS Plasma CRP significantly increased from baseline (1985.8 ± 5962.3 ng/mL) to post-race (27,013.9 ± 12,888.8 ng/mL, p < 0.001, 13-fold increase). Both plasma IL-6 and IL-10 did not significantly change from baseline to post-race. Baseline and post-race concentrations of IL-17 and IL-23 were below detectable limits. Pearson's correlation between mean finish time and post-race IL-10 revealed a significant positive correlation (r = 0.54, p < 0.05). CONCLUSIONS Our results suggest that cytokines such as IL-6 and IL-10 involved in the inflammatory response return to near-baseline concentrations rapidly even after ultra-endurance events of extreme duration. The absence of IL-17 and IL-23 may suggest positive gut adaptations from ultra-endurance training. A significant positive correlation between post-race IL-10 concentrations and mean finish time may indicate that a relationship between anti-inflammatory responses and performance exists.
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16
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Bertone E, Purandare J, Durand B. Spatiotemporal prediction of Escherichia coli and Enterococci for the Commonwealth Games triathlon event using Bayesian Networks. Mar Pollut Bull 2019; 146:11-21. [PMID: 31426138 DOI: 10.1016/j.marpolbul.2019.05.066] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/16/2019] [Revised: 05/28/2019] [Accepted: 05/29/2019] [Indexed: 06/10/2023]
Abstract
A number of Bayesian Networks were developed in order to nowcast and forecast, up to 4 days ahead and in different locations, the likelihood of water quality within the 2018 Commonwealth Games Triathlon swim course exceeding the critical limits for Enterococci and Escherichia coli. The models are data-driven, but the identification of potential inputs and optimal model structure was performed through the parallel contribution of several stakeholders and experts, consulted through workshops. The models, whose main nodes were discretised with a customised discretisation algorithm, were validated over a test set of data and deployed in real-time during the Commonwealth Games in support to a traditional water quality monitoring program. The proposed modelling framework proved to be cost-effective and less time-consuming than process-based models while still achieving high accuracy; in addition, the added value of a continuous stakeholder engagement guarantees a shared understanding of the model outputs and its future deployment.
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Affiliation(s)
- E Bertone
- School of Engineering and Built Environment, Griffith University, Gold Coast Campus, QLD 4222, Australia; Cities Research Institute, Griffith University, Gold Coast Campus, QLD 4222, Australia.
| | - J Purandare
- Cities Research Institute, Griffith University, Gold Coast Campus, QLD 4222, Australia; Gold Coast Water and Waste, City of Gold Coast, QLD 4211, Australia
| | - B Durand
- Gold Coast Water and Waste, City of Gold Coast, QLD 4211, Australia
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17
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Clemente-Suárez VJ, Delgado-Moreno R, González B, Ortega J, Ramos-Campo DJ. Amateur endurance triathletes' performance is improved independently of volume or intensity based training. Physiol Behav 2019; 205:2-8. [PMID: 29655762 DOI: 10.1016/j.physbeh.2018.04.014] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/14/2017] [Revised: 01/31/2018] [Accepted: 04/10/2018] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
The aim of the present research was to compare the effects in swimming and running performance, horizontal jump test, autonomic modulation, and body composition of four training weeks with emphasis on volume versus intensity in moderate trained triathletes. Thirty-two amateur triathletes (20 males and 12 females) were randomly divided in three different groups that performed 6 training session per week: Intensity (INT): training focused on performs intensity training Volume (VOL): training focused on performs volume training; and Control (CON): physical active group with no periodized training. Body composition, heart rate variability, horizontal jump test, swimming and 2000 m running test were tested before and after the training period. There were no significant differences between INT and VOL in running test. Furthermore, both INT and VOL training groups improved 50 m (p: 0.046 and 0.042 respectively) and 400 m (p: 0.044 and 0.041 respectively) swimming performance. Moreover, there were no significant differences among groups in any moment in HRV variables. No significant difference was observed for horizontal jump test and body composition between the INT and VOL group at any time. According to the results of the present study, four weeks of training with either high intensity or volume results to similar adaptations in endurance, horizontal jump test and body composition parameters in amateur triathletes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Vicente Javier Clemente-Suárez
- Psychophysiological Research Group, European University of Madrid, Spain; Tritoledo Triathlon Club, Toledo, Spain; Grupo de Investigación en Cultura, Educación y Sociedad, Universidad de la Costa, Barranquilla, Colombia.
| | | | | | | | - Domingo Jesús Ramos-Campo
- Tritoledo Triathlon Club, Toledo, Spain; Department of Physical Activity and Sport Science, Sport Science Faculty, Catholic University of Murcia, Murcia, Spain
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18
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Melau J, Mathiassen M, Stensrud T, Tipton M, Hisdal J. Core Temperature in Triathletes during Swimming with Wetsuit in 10 °C Cold Water. Sports (Basel) 2019; 7:sports7060130. [PMID: 31142055 PMCID: PMC6628109 DOI: 10.3390/sports7060130] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/18/2019] [Revised: 05/23/2019] [Accepted: 05/24/2019] [Indexed: 12/03/2022] Open
Abstract
Low water temperature (<15 °C) has been faced by many organizers of triathlons and swim-runs in the northern part of Europe during recent years. More knowledge about how cold water affects athletes swimming in wetsuits in cold water is warranted. The aim of the present study was therefore to investigate the physiological response when swimming a full Ironman distance (3800 m) in a wetsuit in 10 °C water. Twenty triathletes, 37.6 ± 9 years (12 males and 8 females) were recruited to perform open water swimming in 10 °C seawater; while rectal temperature (Tre) and skin temperature (Tskin) were recorded. The results showed that for all participants, Tre was maintained for the first 10–15 min of the swim; and no participants dropped more than 2 °C in Tre during the first 30 min of swimming in 10 °C water. However; according to extrapolations of the results, during a swim time above 135 min; 47% (8/17) of the participants in the present study would fall more than 2 °C in Tre during the swim. The results show that the temperature response to swimming in a wetsuit in 10 °C water is highly individual. However, no participant in the present study dropped more than 2 °C in Tre during the first 30 min of the swim in 10 °C water.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jørgen Melau
- Institute of Clinical Medicine, University of Oslo, 0316 Oslo, Norway.
- Department of Vascular surgery, Oslo University Hospital, 0424 Oslo, Norway.
- Prehospital Division, Vestfold Hospital Trust, 3103 Toensberg, Norway.
| | - Maria Mathiassen
- Department of Cardiology, Telemark Hospital Trust, Skien 3710, Norway.
| | - Trine Stensrud
- Department of Sports Medicine, Norwegian School of Sport Sciences, 0806 Oslo, Norway.
| | - Mike Tipton
- Extreme Environments Laboratory, Department of Sport and Exercise Science, University of Portsmouth, Portsmouth PO1 2ER, UK.
| | - Jonny Hisdal
- Institute of Clinical Medicine, University of Oslo, 0316 Oslo, Norway.
- Department of Vascular surgery, Oslo University Hospital, 0424 Oslo, Norway.
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Park CH, Kwak YS. Changes of cardiac biomarkers after ultradistance and standard-distance triathlon. J Exerc Rehabil 2019; 15:254-257. [PMID: 31111009 PMCID: PMC6509458 DOI: 10.12965/jer.1938092.046] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/23/2019] [Accepted: 03/27/2019] [Indexed: 11/29/2022] Open
Abstract
Triathlon is becoming more popular sport due to recognition of the positive effects of triathlon. Generally, participants in these strenuous activities are well considered as healthy individuals pursuing a healthy lifestyle. However, there is still controversy on the beneficial effects of prolonged exercise training and endurance sport events. The duration of exercise required to elicit cardiac dysfunction and the mechanisms underlying this phenomenon have not been fully elucidated. There are only limited data in literature for exercise-induced changes of cardiac and muscle damage biomarkers in athletes participating in different triathlon distances. Monitoring cardiac and muscle damage biomarkers in triathletes participating in different triathlon distances will help researchers, coaches, and athletes better understand how to design training cycles minimizing overtraining and injury risk. Therefore, the purpose of the present study was to examine for evidence of blood biomarkers during triathlon events of two different distances such as standard- and ultradistance triathlon in male triathletes. The results of the present study showed that ultradistance showed greater muscle damage markers such as creatine kinase, myoglobin and lactate dehydrogenase than standard-distance. We also found that the distance of triathlon did not lead to an increase of troponin T in male triathletes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chan Ho Park
- Sports Science Center, Pukyong National University, Busan, Korea
| | - Yi-Sub Kwak
- DEU Exe-Physio Lab, Department of Physical Education, Dong-Eui University, Busan, Korea
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20
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Hohmann E, Glatt V, Tetsworth K. Swimming induced pulmonary oedema in athletes - a systematic review and best evidence synthesis. BMC Sports Sci Med Rehabil 2018; 10:18. [PMID: 30410770 PMCID: PMC6211602 DOI: 10.1186/s13102-018-0107-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/21/2018] [Accepted: 10/23/2018] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
Abstract
Background Swimming induced pulmonary oedema is an uncommon occurrence and usually presents during strenuous distance swimming in cold water. The prevalence is most likely underreported and the underlying mechanisms are controversial. The purpose of this study was to summarize the evidence with regards to prevalence, pathophysiology and treatment of swimming induced pulmonary oedema in endurance athletes. Methods Medline, Embase, Scopus and Google Scholar were searched and level I-IV from 1970 to 2017 were included. For clinical studies, only publications reporting on swimming-induced pulmonary oedema were considered. Risk of bias was assessed with the ROBINS-I tool, and the quality of evidence was assessed with the Cochrane GRADE system. For data synthesis and analysis, a best evidence synthesis was used. Results A total of 29 studies were included (174 athletes). The most common symptom was cough, dyspnoea, froth and haemoptysis. The risk of bias for the clinical studies included 13 with moderate risk, 3 with serious, and 4 with critical. Four of the pathophysiology studies had a moderate risk, 3 a serious risk, and 1 a critical risk of bias. A best evidence analysis demonstrated a strong association between cold water immersion and in increases of CVP (central venous pressure), MPAP (mean pulmonary arterial pressure), PVR (peripheral vascular resistance) and PAWP (pulmonary arterial wedge pressure) resulting in interstitial asymptomatic oedema. Conclusion The results of this study suggest a moderate association between water temperature and the prevalence of SIPE. The presence of the clinical symptoms cough, dyspnoea, froth and haemoptysis are strongly suggestive of SIPE during or immediately following swimming. There is only limited evidence to suggest that there are pre-existing risk factors leading to SIPE with exposure to strenuous physical activity during swimming. There is strong evidence that sudden deaths of triathletes are often associated with cardiac abnormalities.
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Affiliation(s)
- Erik Hohmann
- 1Faculty of Health Sciences, University of Pretoria, Pretoria, South Africa.,Department of Orthopaedic Surgery and Sports Medicine, Dubai, United Arab Emirates.,Valiant Clinic/Houston Methodist Group, PO Box 414296, City Walk, 13th street, Dubai, United Arab Emirates
| | - Vaida Glatt
- 4University of Texas Health Science Center, San Antonio, TX USA
| | - Kevin Tetsworth
- 5Department of Orthopaedic Surgery, Royal Brisbane Hospital, Herston, Australia.,6Department of Surgery, School of Medicine, University of Queensland, Brisbane, Australia.,7Orthopaedic Research Institute of Australia, Queensland University of Technology, Brisbane, Australia
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21
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Swinnen W, Kipp S, Kram R. Comparison of running and cycling economy in runners, cyclists, and triathletes. Eur J Appl Physiol 2018; 118:1331-8. [PMID: 29663075 DOI: 10.1007/s00421-018-3865-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/12/2017] [Accepted: 04/10/2018] [Indexed: 01/05/2023]
Abstract
PURPOSE Exercise economy is one of the main physiological factors determining performance in endurance sports. Running economy (RE) can be improved with running-specific training, while the improvement of cycling economy (CE) with cycling-specific training is controversial. We investigated whether exercise economy reflects sport-specific skills/adaptations or is determined by overall physiological factors. METHODS We compared RE and CE in 10 runners, 9 cyclists and 9 triathletes for running at 12 km/h and cycling at 200 W. Gross rates of oxygen consumption and carbon dioxide production were collected and used to calculate gross metabolic rate in watts for both running and cycling. RESULTS Runners had better RE than cyclists (917 ± 107 W vs. 1111 ± 159 W) (p < 0.01). Triathletes had intermediate RE values (1004 ± 98 W) not different from runners or cyclists. CE was not different (p = 0.20) between the three groups (runners: 945 ± 60 W; cyclists: 982 ± 44 W; triathletes: 979 ± 54 W). CONCLUSION RE can be enhanced with running-specific training, but CE is independent of cycling-specific training.
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22
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Girard J, Lons A, Pommepuy T, Isida R, Benad K, Putman S. High-impact sport after hip resurfacing: The Ironman triathlon. Orthop Traumatol Surg Res 2017; 103:675-678. [PMID: 28552834 DOI: 10.1016/j.otsr.2017.04.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/05/2017] [Revised: 04/03/2017] [Accepted: 04/06/2017] [Indexed: 02/02/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Returning to high-impact sport is an increasingly frequent functional demand following hip replacement. The literature, however, is sparse on the subject and nonexistent regarding triathlon. We therefore conducted a retrospective study of hip resurfacing in triathlon players, to determine: (1) whether it is possible to return to this kind of sport; (2) if so, whether it is possible to return to the same level; and (3) how a resurfaced hip behaves under these conditions. HYPOTHESIS Hip resurfacing allows return to competition level in long-distance triathlon. MATERIAL AND METHODS A single-center single-operator retrospective study included patients undergoing hip resurfacing with the Conserve Plus implant inserted through a posterolateral approach, who had ceased long-distance triathlon practice due to osteoarthritis of the hip. Fifty-one of the 1688 patients undergoing resurfacing during the inclusion period were long-distance triathlon players. RESULTS The series comprised 48 patients: 51 implants; 43 male, 5 female; mean age, 44.8 years (range, 28.2-58.9 years). At a mean 4.7 years' follow-up (range, 2.2-7.6 years), all clinical scores showed significant improvement; Merle d'Aubigné and Harris scores rose respectively from 12.3 (5-16) and 42 (37-56) preoperatively to 17.5 (13-18) and 93.2 (73-100) (P<0.001). There were no cases of dislocation or implant revision. Forty-five patients returned to sport (94%). Rates of return to swimming, cycling and running were respectively 38/48 (79%), 41/48 (85%) and 33/48 (69%). Preoperatively, all patients had taken part in at least 1 competition: 29 with distance=70.3km and 19 with distance=140.6km. At follow-up, 28 patients had taken part in an Ironman competition: 21 with distance=70.3km and 7 with distance=140.6km. Mean competition performance did not differ between pre and postoperative periods. DISCUSSION Return-to-sport rates were good following hip resurfacing. Non-impact sports (swimming, cycling) predominated postoperatively, whereas the rate of impact sport (running) diminished. Return to competition-level sport (extreme triathlon) was possible for 28/48 patients (58%). Implant survival seemed unaffected by this high-impact sports activity at a mean 4.7 years' follow-up. LEVEL OF EVIDENCE IV, retrospective, non-controlled.
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Affiliation(s)
- J Girard
- Université de Lille Nord de France, 59000 Lille, France; Département de médecine du sport, faculté de médecine de Lille, université de Lille 2, 59000 Lille, France; Service d'orthopédie C, hôpital Salengro, CHU de Lille, place de Verdun, 59000 Lille, France.
| | - A Lons
- Université de Lille Nord de France, 59000 Lille, France; Service d'orthopédie C, hôpital Salengro, CHU de Lille, place de Verdun, 59000 Lille, France
| | - T Pommepuy
- Université de Lille Nord de France, 59000 Lille, France; Service d'orthopédie C, hôpital Salengro, CHU de Lille, place de Verdun, 59000 Lille, France
| | - R Isida
- Université de Lille Nord de France, 59000 Lille, France; Service d'orthopédie C, hôpital Salengro, CHU de Lille, place de Verdun, 59000 Lille, France
| | - K Benad
- Université de Lille Nord de France, 59000 Lille, France; Service d'orthopédie D, hôpital Salengro, CHU de Lille, place de Verdun, 59000 Lille, France
| | - S Putman
- Université de Lille Nord de France, 59000 Lille, France; Service d'orthopédie D, hôpital Salengro, CHU de Lille, place de Verdun, 59000 Lille, France
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Badawy MM, Muaidi QI. Cardio respiratory response: Validation of new modifications of Bruce protocol for exercise testing and training in elite Saudi triathlon and soccer players. Saudi J Biol Sci 2017; 26:105-111. [PMID: 30622413 PMCID: PMC6319022 DOI: 10.1016/j.sjbs.2017.05.009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/21/2017] [Revised: 04/10/2017] [Accepted: 05/15/2017] [Indexed: 01/21/2023] Open
Abstract
The Bruce protocol is the traditional method used to assess maximal fitness level, although it may have limitations, such as its short duration and large work rate increases, with very high levels of exertion that consist of speed/incline combinations. Modifications have been added to elicit similar maximal fitness achievements. The authors of this experimental trial have proposed a new treadmill protocol that allows optimal test duration in conjunction with peak oxygen consumption 'VO2max', and with appropriate patient comfort and safety during both exercise testing and training. Subjects Twenty-two elite Saudi players, comprising eleven Saudi triathlon athletes, and eleven Saudi elite soccer players, BMI, body fat mass percentage, body fat free mass percentage. cardiovascular parameter; including, absolute and relative "VO2max" as well as maximal heart rate "HR max", were assessed during a graded treadmill running modified protocol, using a Quark Cardio Pulmonary Exercise Testing Unit (CPET). Results Descriptive statistics were used to obtain the anthropometric characteristics, including comparisons between the means, independent sample T-test and a regression analysis, to test the association of the protocol duration and the corresponding, dependent variables. Conclusions clinical relevance It is often difficult to achieve a high cardiorespiratory response, VO2max, without an association to high values of HR max, and peak perceived exertion. This may lead to cardiovascular risk. Our new modifications can provide a practical, valid alternative protocol to be used comfortably both during exercise testing and training, rather than performance testing only, to achieve high VO2max with minimal cardiovascular stress.
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Affiliation(s)
- Manar M Badawy
- Department of Physical Therapy, College of Applied Medical Sciences, Imam Abdulrahman Bin Faisal University, Dammam City, Saudi Arabia
| | - Qassim I Muaidi
- Department of Physical Therapy, College of Applied Medical Sciences, Imam Abdulrahman Bin Faisal University, Dammam City, Saudi Arabia
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Sancho-González I, Bonilla-Hernández MV, Ibañez-Muñoz D, Vicente-Campos D, Chicharro JL. Upper extremity deep vein thrombosis in a triathlete: Again intense endurance exercise as a thrombogenic risk. Am J Emerg Med 2016; 35:808.e1-808.e3. [PMID: 27988251 DOI: 10.1016/j.ajem.2016.12.023] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/26/2016] [Accepted: 12/11/2016] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Triathlon followers increase each year and long-distance events have seen major growth worldwide. In the cycling phase, athletes must maintain an aerodynamic posture on the bike for long periods of time. We report a case of a 38-year-old triathlete with symptoms of an axillary vein thrombosis 48h after a long triathlon competition. After 3days of hospitalization with a treatment consisted on enoxaparin anticoagulant and acenocumarol, the patient was discharged with instructions to continue treatment under home hospitalization with acetaminophen. Four weeks after the process, the patient was asymptomatic and the diameter of his arm was near normality. Due to the growing popularity of events based on endurance exercise, it is necessary more research to determine the etiopathogeny of deep venous thrombosis in athletes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ignacio Sancho-González
- Servicio de Cirugía ortopédica y traumatología, Hospital Reina Sofía, Tudela, Navarra, Spain.
| | | | | | - Davinia Vicente-Campos
- Universidad Francisco de Vitoria, Carretera Pozuelo-Majadahonda, km 1,800, 28223, Pozuelo de Alarcón, Madrid, Spain.
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Dupont AC, Poussel M, Hossu G, Marie PY, Chenuel B, Felblinger J, Mandry D. Aortic compliance variation in long male distance triathletes: A new insight into the athlete's artery? J Sci Med Sport 2016; 20:539-542. [PMID: 27838232 DOI: 10.1016/j.jsams.2016.10.009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/21/2016] [Revised: 09/21/2016] [Accepted: 10/21/2016] [Indexed: 01/03/2023]
Abstract
OBJECTIVES To assess cardiac and vascular adaptations in long-distance male triathletes and the influence of an increased training volume on these parameters. DESIGN Case-control study using long-distance male triathletes (Tri) (n=12) and an age-matched cohort of sedentary volunteers (Ctrl). METHODS All participants gave an informed consent and underwent a Cardiovascular Magnetic Resonance imaging (CMR) exam to measure left and right ventricle functional parameters, and aortic parameters (surface, strain, compliance, pulse wave velocity). This exam was repeated in the triathletes' group after an increased training volume of at least 2h/week for six weeks. RESULTS Compared to control volunteers, triathletes presented at baseline a typical pattern of athlete's heart (higher end-diastolic, end-systolic and stroke volumes index, p≤0.009, and lower cardiac rate, p=0.015) but similar vascular characteristics except a trend towards an enlarged ascending aorta (surface 942±106 vs 812±127mm2, p=0.058). Between the two visits, the triathletes increased their weekly training time from 9.67±2.43 (Tri1) to 12.15±3.01h (Tri2): no modifications were found regarding cardiac parameters, but compliance and distensibility of the ascending aorta increased, from 2.60 to 3.34mm2/mmHg (p=0.028) and from 3.36 to 4.40×10-3mmHg-1 (p=0.048) respectively. CONCLUSIONS Using CMR, we showed that vascular characteristics of the ascending aorta may vary along the sport season in endurance athletes. This remodelling could be considered as a physiological adaptation, but could eventually lead to an adverse vascular remodelling.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Mathias Poussel
- CHRU Nancy, Department of Pulmonary Function Testing and Exercise Physiology, France; Universite de Lorraine, EA 3450 DevAH-Development, Adaptation and Disadvantage, Cardiorespiratory Regulations and Motor Control, France
| | | | - Pierre-Yves Marie
- CHRU Nancy, Department of Medical Imaging, France; INSERM UMR-1116, France; Universite de Lorraine, France
| | - Bruno Chenuel
- CHRU Nancy, Department of Pulmonary Function Testing and Exercise Physiology, France; Universite de Lorraine, EA 3450 DevAH-Development, Adaptation and Disadvantage, Cardiorespiratory Regulations and Motor Control, France
| | - Jacques Felblinger
- INSERM, IADI U 947, France; INSERM, CIC-IT 1433, France; CHRU Nancy, Department of Medical Imaging, France
| | - Damien Mandry
- INSERM, IADI U 947, France; CHRU Nancy, Department of Medical Imaging, France; Universite de Lorraine, France.
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Abstract
Background To date, little is known for pacing in ultra-endurance athletes competing in a non-stop event and in a multi-stage event, and especially, about pacing in a multi-stage event with different disciplines during the stages. Therefore, the aim of the present study was to examine the effect of age, sex and calendar year on triathlon performance and variation of performance by events (i.e., swimming, cycling 1, cycling 2 and running) in ‘Ultraman Hawaii’ held between 1983 and 2015. Methods Within each sex, participants were grouped in quartiles (i.e., Q1, Q2, Q3 and Q4) with Q1 being the fastest (i.e., lowest overall time) and Q4 the slowest (i.e., highest overall time). To compare performance among events (i.e., swimming, cycling 1, cycling 2 and running), race time in each event was converted in z score and this value was used for further analysis. Results A between-within subjects ANOVA showed a large sex × event (p = 0.015, η2 = 0.014) and a medium performance group × event interaction (p = 0.001, η2 = 0.012). No main effect of event on performance was observed (p = 0.174, η2 = 0.007). With regard to the sex × event interaction, three female performance groups (i.e., Q2, Q3 and Q4) increased race time from swimming to cycling 1, whereas only one male performance group (Q4) revealed a similar trend. From cycling 1 to cycling 2, the two slower female groups (Q3 and Q4) and the slowest male group (Q4) increased raced time. In women, the fastest group decreased (i.e., improved) race time from swimming to cycling 1 and thereafter, maintained performance, whereas in men, the fastest group decreased race time till cycling 2 and increased it in the running. Conclusion In summary, women pace differently than men during ‘Ultraman Hawaii’ where the fastest women decreased performance on day 1 and could then maintain on day 2 and 3, whereas the fastest men worsened performance on day 1 and 2 but improved on day 3.
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Affiliation(s)
- Beat Knechtle
- Gesundheitszentrum St. Gallen, St. Gallen, Switzerland; Institute of Primary Care, University of Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
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Abstract
Background/aim To address the question as to whether immersion pulmonary oedema (IPO) may be a common cause of death in triathlons, markers of swimming-induced pulmonary oedema (SIPO) susceptibility were sought in triathletes' postmortem examinations. Methods Deaths while training for or during triathlon events in the USA and Canada from October 2008 to November 2015 were identified, and postmortem reports requested. We assessed obvious causes of death; the prevalence of left ventricular hypertrophy (LVH); comparison with healthy triathletes. Results We identified 58 deaths during the time period of the review, 42 (72.4%) of which occurred during a swim. Of these, 23 postmortem reports were obtained. Five individuals had significant (≥70%) coronary artery narrowing; one each had coronary stents; retroperitoneal haemorrhage; or aortic dissection. 9 of 20 (45%) with reported heart mass exceeded 95th centile values. LV free wall and septal thickness were reported in 14 and 9 cases, respectively; of these, 6 (42.9%) and 4 (44.4%) cases exceeded normal values. 6 of 15 individuals (40%) without an obvious cause of death had excessive heart mass. The proportion of individuals with LVH exceeded the prevalence in the general triathlete population. Conclusions LVH—a marker of SIPO susceptibility—was present in a greater than the expected proportion of triathletes who died during the swim portion. We propose that IPO may be a significant aetiology of death during the swimming phase in triathletes. The importance of testing for LVH in triathletes as a predictor of adverse outcomes should be explored further.
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Affiliation(s)
- Richard E Moon
- Departments of Anesthesiology and Medicine , Duke University Medical Center , Durham, North Carolina , USA
| | - Stefanie D Martina
- Department of Surgery , Duke University Medical Center , Durham, North Carolina , USA
| | - Dionne F Peacher
- Department of Anesthesia , University of Iowa , Iowa City, Iowa , USA
| | - William E Kraus
- Department of Medicine, Division of Cardiology , Duke Molecular Physiology Institute, Duke University Medical Center , Durham, North Carolina , USA
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Baur DA, Bach CW, Hyder WJ, Ormsbee MJ. Fluid retention, muscle damage, and altered body composition at the Ultraman triathlon. Eur J Appl Physiol 2015; 116:447-58. [PMID: 26560107 DOI: 10.1007/s00421-015-3291-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/20/2015] [Accepted: 10/29/2015] [Indexed: 12/19/2022]
Abstract
PURPOSE The primary purpose of this investigation was to determine the effects of participation in a 3-day multistage ultraendurance triathlon (stage 1 = 10 km swim, 144.8 km bike; stage 2 = 275.4 km bike; stage 3 = 84.4 km run) on body mass and composition, hydration status, hormones, muscle damage, and blood glucose. METHODS Eighteen triathletes (mean ± SD; age 41 ± 7.5 years; height 175 ± 9 cm; weight 73.5 ± 9.8 kg; male n = 14, female n = 4) were assessed before and after each stage of the race. Body mass and composition were measured via bioelectrical impedance, hydration status via urine specific gravity, hormones and muscle damage via venous blood draw, and blood glucose via fingerstick. RESULTS Following the race, significant changes included reductions in body mass (qualified effect size: trivial), fat mass (moderate), and percent body fat (small); increases in percent total body water (moderate) and urine specific gravity (large); and unchanged absolute total body water and fat-free mass. There were also extremely large increases in creatine kinase, C-reactive protein, aldosterone and cortisol combined with reductions in testosterone (small) and the testosterone:cortisol ratio (moderate). There were associations between post-race aldosterone and total body water (r = -0.504) and changes in cortisol and fat-free mass (r = -0.536). Finally, blood glucose increased in a stepwise manner prior to each stage. CONCLUSIONS Participation in Ultraman Florida leads to fluid retention and dramatic alterations in body composition, muscle health, hormones, and metabolism.
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Affiliation(s)
- Daniel A Baur
- Department of Nutrition, Food, and Exercise Sciences, Institute of Sports Sciences and Medicine, Florida State University, 1104 Spirit Way, Tallahassee, FL, 32306, USA
| | - Christopher W Bach
- Department of Nutrition, Food, and Exercise Sciences, Institute of Sports Sciences and Medicine, Florida State University, 1104 Spirit Way, Tallahassee, FL, 32306, USA
| | - William J Hyder
- Department of Nutrition, Food, and Exercise Sciences, Institute of Sports Sciences and Medicine, Florida State University, 1104 Spirit Way, Tallahassee, FL, 32306, USA
| | - Michael J Ormsbee
- Department of Nutrition, Food, and Exercise Sciences, Institute of Sports Sciences and Medicine, Florida State University, 1104 Spirit Way, Tallahassee, FL, 32306, USA. .,Discipline of Biokinetics, Exercise and Leisure Sciences, University of KwaZulu-Natal, Durban, South Africa.
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Walsh JA, Stamenkovic A, Lepers R, Peoples G, Stapley PJ. Neuromuscular and physiological variables evolve independently when running immediately after cycling. J Electromyogr Kinesiol 2015; 25:887-93. [PMID: 26542485 DOI: 10.1016/j.jelekin.2015.10.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/24/2015] [Revised: 08/05/2015] [Accepted: 10/13/2015] [Indexed: 10/22/2022] Open
Abstract
During the early period of running after cycling, EMG patterns of the leg are modified in only some highly trained triathletes. The majority of studies have analysed muscle EMG patterns at arbitrary, predetermined time points. The purpose of this study was to examine changes to EMG patterns of the lower limb at physiologically determined times during the cycle-run transition period to better investigate neuromuscular adaptations. Six highly trained triathletes completed a 10 m in isolated run (IR), 30 min of rest, then a 20 min cycling procedure, before a 10 min transition run (C-R). Surface EMG activity of eight lower limb muscles was recorded, normalised and quantified at four time points. Oxygen uptake and heart rate values were also collected. Across all muscles, mean (± SD) EMG patterns, demonstrated significant levels of reproducibility for each participant at all four time points (α < 0.05; r = 0.52-0.97). Mean EMG patterns during C-R correlated highly with the IR patterns (α < 0.05). These results show that EMG patterns during subsequent running are not significantly affected by prior cycling. However, variability of muscle recruitment activity does appear to increase during C-R transition when compared to IR.
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Affiliation(s)
- Joel A Walsh
- Neural Control of Movement Laboratory, School of Medicine, Faculty of Science, Medicine and Health, University of Wollongong, Northfields Ave, Wollongong, NSW 2522, Australia.
| | - Alexander Stamenkovic
- Neural Control of Movement Laboratory, School of Medicine, Faculty of Science, Medicine and Health, University of Wollongong, Northfields Ave, Wollongong, NSW 2522, Australia
| | - Romuald Lepers
- INSERM U1093 Cognition, Action, et Plasticité Sensorimotrice, Université de Bourgogne, UFR STAPS, BP 27877, 21078 Dijon Cedex, France
| | - Gregory Peoples
- Neural Control of Movement Laboratory, School of Medicine, Faculty of Science, Medicine and Health, University of Wollongong, Northfields Ave, Wollongong, NSW 2522, Australia
| | - Paul J Stapley
- Neural Control of Movement Laboratory, School of Medicine, Faculty of Science, Medicine and Health, University of Wollongong, Northfields Ave, Wollongong, NSW 2522, Australia
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Peiffer J, Abbiss CR, Sultana F, Bernard T, Brisswalter J. Comparison of the influence of age on cycling efficiency and the energy cost of running in well-trained triathletes. Eur J Appl Physiol 2015; 116:195-201. [PMID: 26392273 DOI: 10.1007/s00421-015-3264-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/10/2015] [Accepted: 09/10/2015] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
Abstract
INTRODUCTION Locomotive efficiency is cited as an important component to endurance performance; however, inconsistent observations of age-related changes in efficiency question its influence in the performance of masters athletes. PURPOSE This study examined locomotive efficiency in young and masters triathletes during both a run and cycle test. METHODS Twenty young (28.5 ± 2.6 years) and 20 masters (59.8 ± 1.3 years) triathletes completed an incremental cycling and running test to determine maximal aerobic consumption (VO2max) and the first ventilatory threshold (VT1). Participants then completed 10-min submaximal running and cycling tests at VT1 during which locomotive efficiency was calculated from expired ventilation. Additionally, body fat percentage was determined using skin-fold assessment. RESULTS During the cycle and run, VO2max was lower in the masters (48.3 ± 5.4 and 49.6 ± 4.8 ml kg(-1) min(-1), respectively) compared with young (61.6 ± 5.7 and 62.4 ± 5.2 ml kg(-1) min(-1), respectively) cohort. Maximal running speed and the cycling power output corresponding to VO2max were also lower in the masters (15.1 ± 0.8 km h(-1) and 318.6 ± 26.0 W) compared with the young (19.5 ± 1.3 km h(-1) and 383.6 ± 35.0 W) cohort. Cycling efficiency was lower (-11.2%) in the masters compared with young cohort. Similar results were observed for the energy cost of running (+10.8%); however, when scaled to lean body mass, changes were more pronounced during the run (+22.1%). CONCLUSIONS Within trained triathletes, ageing can influence efficiency in both the run and cycle discipline. While disregarded in the past, efficiency should be considered in research examining performance in ageing athletes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jeremiah Peiffer
- School of Psychology and Exercise Science, Murdoch University, Murdoch, WA, 6150, Australia.
| | - Chris R Abbiss
- Centre for Exercise and Sports Science Research, School of Exercise and Health Sciences, Edith Cowan University, Joondalup, WA, Australia
| | - Frederic Sultana
- Laboratory of Human Motricity, Education Sport and Health, University of Nice Sophia Antipolis, Nice, France
| | - Thierry Bernard
- Laboratory of Human Motricity, Education Sport and Health, University of Nice Sophia Antipolis, Nice, France
| | - Jeanick Brisswalter
- Laboratory of Human Motricity, Education Sport and Health, University of Nice Sophia Antipolis, Nice, France.,School of Psychology and Exercise Science, Murdoch University, Murdoch, WA, 6150, Australia
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Park CH, Kim KB, Han J, Ji JG, Kwak YS. Cardiac Damage Biomarkers Following a Triathlon in Elite and Non-elite Triathletes. Korean J Physiol Pharmacol 2014; 18:419-23. [PMID: 25352762 PMCID: PMC4211126 DOI: 10.4196/kjpp.2014.18.5.419] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/12/2014] [Revised: 06/18/2014] [Accepted: 08/18/2014] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
The purpose of the present study was to investigate cardiac damage biomarkers after a triathlon race in elite and non-elite athlete groups. Fifteen healthy men participated in the study. Based on performance, they were divided into elite athlete group (EG: n=7) and non-elite athlete group (NEG: n=8). Participants' blood samples were obtained during four periods: before, immediately, 2 hours and 7 days after finishing the race. creatine kinase (CK), creatine kinase-myoglobin (CK-MB), myoglobin, and lactate dehydrogenase (LDH) were significantly increased in both groups immediately after, and 2 hours after finishing the race (p<.05). CK, CK-MB, and myoglobin were completely recovered after 7 days (p<.05). Hematocrit (Hct) was significantly decreased in both groups (p<.05) 7 days after the race. LDH was significantly decreased in the EG (p<.05) only 7 days after the race. Homoglobin (Hb) was significantly decreased in the NEG (p<.05) only 2 hours after the race. Although cardiac troponin T (cTnT) was significantly increased in the EG but not in the NEG 2hours after the race (p<.05), there was no group-by-time interaction. cTnT was completely recovered in both groups 7 days after the race. In conclusion, cardiac damage occurs during a triathlon race and, is greater in elite than in non-elite. However, all cardiac damage markers return to normal range within 1 week.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chan-Ho Park
- Department of Physical Education, Pusan National University, Busan 609-735, Korea
| | - Kwi-Baek Kim
- Department of Sports & Health Management, Youngsan University, Yangsan 626-790, Korea
| | - Jin Han
- National Research Laboratory for Mitochondrial Signaling, Department of Physiology, College of Medicine, Cardiovascular and Metabolic Disease Center, Inje University, Busan 614-735, Korea
| | - Jin-Goo Ji
- Department of Physical Education, Dong-Eui University, Busan 614-714, Korea
| | - Yi-Sub Kwak
- Department of Physical Education, Dong-Eui University, Busan 614-714, Korea
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Knechtle B, Rosemann T, Lepers R, Rüst CA. A comparison of performance of Deca Iron and Triple Deca Iron ultra-triathletes. Springerplus 2014; 3:461. [PMID: 25221734 PMCID: PMC4161722 DOI: 10.1186/2193-1801-3-461] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/30/2014] [Accepted: 08/18/2014] [Indexed: 12/04/2022]
Abstract
This study intended to compare the performance of ultra-triathletes competing in a Deca Iron ultra-triathlon (i.e. 10 times 3.8 km swimming, 180 km cycling, and 42.2 km running) with the performance of athletes competing in a Triple Deca Iron ultra-triathlon (i.e. 30 times 3.8 km swimming, 180 km cycling, and 42.2 km running). Split and overall race times of six male finishers in a Deca Iron ultra-triathlon and eight male finishers in a Triple Deca Iron ultra-triathlon were analysed using multiple t-tests, linear and non-linear regression analyses, and analysis of variance. Among the 19 starters (i.e. 17 men and two women) in the Deca Iron ultra-triathlon, six men (i.e. 35.3% of all starters) finished the race. The mean swimming, cycling, running and overall race times of the six finishers across the ten days were 1:19 ± 0:09 h:min, 6:36 ± 0:19 h:min, 6:03 ± 0:47 h:min and 14:44 ± 1:17 h:min, respectively. The times of the split disciplines and overall race time increased linearly across the ten days. Total transition times did not change significantly across the days and were equals to 48 ± 8 min. Among the 22 starters (i.e. 20 men and two women) in the Triple Deca Iron ultra-triathlon, eight men (i.e. 36.4% of all starters) finished. The mean swimming, cycling, running and overall race times of the eight finishers across the 30 days were 1:11 ± 0:07 h:min, 6:19 ± 0:32 h:min, 5:34 ± 1:15 h:min and 13:44 ± 1:50 h:min, respectively. Split and overall race times showed no change across the 30 days. Total transition times showed no change across the days and were equal to 41 ± 11 min. To summarize, the daily performance decreased across the ten days for the Deca Iron ultra-triathletes (i.e. positive pacing) while it remained unchanged across the 30 days for the Triple Deca Iron ultra-triathletes (i.e. even pacing).
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Affiliation(s)
- Beat Knechtle
- Institute of Primary Care, University of Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland ; Gesundheitszentrum St. Gallen, Vadianstrasse 26, 9001 St. Gallen, Switzerland
| | - Thomas Rosemann
- Institute of Primary Care, University of Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Romuald Lepers
- INSERM U1093, Faculty of Sport Sciences, University of Burgundy, Dijon, France
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Dähler P, Rüst CA, Rosemann T, Lepers R, Knechtle B. Nation related participation and performance trends in 'Ironman Hawaii' from 1985 to 2012. BMC Sports Sci Med Rehabil 2014; 6:16. [PMID: 24735524 PMCID: PMC4006525 DOI: 10.1186/2052-1847-6-16] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/17/2013] [Accepted: 03/26/2014] [Indexed: 11/10/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND This study examined participation and performance trends in 'Ironman Hawaii' regarding the nationality of the finishers. METHODS Associations between nationalities and race times of 39,706 finishers originating from 124 countries in the 'Ironman Hawaii' from 1985 to 2012 were analyzed using single and multi-level regression analysis. RESULTS Most of the finishers originated from the United States of America (47.5%) followed by athletes from Germany (11.7%), Japan (7.9%), Australia (6.7%), Canada (5.2%), Switzerland (2.9%), France (2.3%), Great Britain (2.0%), New Zealand (1.9%), and Austria (1.5%). German women showed the fastest increase in finishers (r(2) = 0.83, p < 0.0001), followed by Australia (r(2) = 0.78, p < 0.0001), Canada (r(2) = 0.78, p < 0.0001) and the USA (r(2) = 0.69, p < 0.0001). Japanese women showed no change in the number of finishers (r(2) = 0.01, p > 0.05). For men, athletes from France showed the steepest increase (r(2) = 0.85, p < 0.0001), followed by Austria (r(2) = 0.68, p < 0.0001), Australia (r(2) = 0.67, p < 0.0001), Brazil (r(2) = 0.60, p < 0.0001), Great Britain (r(2) = 0.46, p < 0.0001), Germany (r(2) = 0.26, p < 0.0001), the United States of America (r(2) = 0.21, p = 0.013) and Switzerland (r(2) = 0.14, p = 0.0044). The number of Japanese men decreased (r(2) = 0.35, p = 0.0009). The number of men from Canada (r(2) = 0.02, p > 0.05) and New Zealand (r(2) = 0.02, p > 0.05) remained unchanged. Regarding female performance, the largest improvements were achieved by Japanese women (17.3%). The fastest race times in 2012 were achieved by US-American women. Women from Japan, Canada, Germany, Australia, and the United States of America improved race times. For men, the largest improvements were achieved by athletes originating from Brazil (20.9%) whereas the fastest race times in 2012 were achieved by athletes from Germany. Race times for athletes originating from Brazil, Austria, Great Britain, Switzerland, Germany, Australia, Canada, Japan, New Zealand and France decreased. Race times in athletes originating from Australia and the United States of America showed no significant changes. Regarding the fastest race times ever, the fastest women originated from the United States (546 ± 7 min) followed by Great Britain (555 ± 15 min) and Switzerland (558 ± 8 min). In men, the fastest finishers originated from the United States (494 ± 7 min), Germany (496 ± 6 min) and Australia (497 ± 5 min). CONCLUSIONS The 'Ironman Hawaii' has been dominated by women and men from the United States of America in participation and performance.
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Affiliation(s)
- Philippe Dähler
- Institute of General Practice and for Health Services Research, University of Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Christoph Alexander Rüst
- Institute of General Practice and for Health Services Research, University of Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Thomas Rosemann
- Institute of General Practice and for Health Services Research, University of Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Romuald Lepers
- INSERM U1093, Faculty of Sport Sciences, University of Burgundy, Dijon, France
| | - Beat Knechtle
- Institute of General Practice and for Health Services Research, University of Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland ; Gesundheitszentrum St. Gallen, Vadianstrasse 26, 9001 St. Gallen, Switzerland
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Taylor D, Smith MF. Scalar-linear increases in perceived exertion are dissociated from residual physiological responses during sprint-distance triathlon. Physiol Behav 2013; 118:178-84. [PMID: 23719666 DOI: 10.1016/j.physbeh.2013.05.031] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/18/2012] [Revised: 03/19/2013] [Accepted: 05/17/2013] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE This study examined how residual fatigue affects the relationship between ratings of perceived exertion (RPE), physiological responses, and pacing during triathlon performance. METHODS Eight male triathletes completed a sprint-distance triathlon (750m swim, 20kmcycle and 5km run) and isolated 5km run on separate days. RPE, core temperature (Tcore), heart rate and blood lactate concentration [BLa(-)] were recorded during both, in addition to performance time and speed. RESULTS Triathlon run time (1248±121s) was significantly slower than the isolated run (1167±90s) (p<0.01). Significant differences were observed at the start of the two conditions for all physiological measures (Heart rate 162±4 vs 154±5 beatsmin(-1); Tcore 38.3±0.8 vs 36.7±0.6C; [BLa(-)] 9.1±2.8 vs 2.1±0.4mmolL(-1), for triathlon and isolated run, respectively, p<0.05). No significant differences were observed for initial RPE (p=0.083), rate of RPE increase (p=0.412), or final RPE (p=0.329) between run trials. CONCLUSIONS The maintenance of a scalar-linear increase in RPE by the brain remains the primary mechanism for pace regulation during both single and multi-modal endurance performance, with physiological responses being only indirectly related to this process. The apparent absence of any RPE 'resetting' between disciplines suggests that during shorter distance multi-sport performances (60-90 min) a cognitive pacing strategy for the entire event is employed. However, as subtle alterations in RPE development between disciplines were observed the existence of discipline-specific RPE 'templates' should not be discounted.
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Gosling CM, Forbes AB, Gabbe BJ. Health professionals' perceptions of musculoskeletal injury and injury risk factors in Australian triathletes: a factor analysis. Phys Ther Sport 2013; 14:207-12. [PMID: 23177357 DOI: 10.1016/j.ptsp.2012.09.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/23/2022]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE This study investigated health professional perceptions of triathlon-related injury risk factors and injury prevention strategies, to inform prospective cohort studies investigating injury in triathletes. DESIGN Exploratory factor analysis. METHODS A questionnaire was developed and distributed to Australian sports medicine health professionals (n = 504). Information was collected about their perceptions of factors contributing to injury and injury prevention strategies relating to Sprint/Olympic (S/O) and Ironman/Long Course (I/LC) athletes. Factor analysis was performed to identify the number and nature of the constructs (factors) underlying the responses to the questions, and to ascertain whether these factors were similar for S/O and I/LC athletes. RESULTS The response rate was 22.4% (n = 113). Five factors were extracted for injury risk accounting for 53% (S/O) and 56% (I/LC) of the variance. The factors were common across S/O and I/LC groups; biomechanics and technique, training factors, demographics, injury prevention and personal factors. Three common factors accounted for 54% (S/O) and 55% (I/LC) of the variance for injury prevention strategies; designated training regimes, health and medical monitoring and preparation of the triathlete. CONCLUSIONS These results indicate that future studies into triathlon injuries should include, at a minimum, detailed training load and demographic factors to test their impact as injury risk factors in triathlete populations.
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Landers GJ, Ong KB, Ackland TR, Blanksby BA, Main LC, Smith D. Kinanthropometric differences between 1997 World championship junior elite and 2011 national junior elite triathletes. J Sci Med Sport 2013; 16:444-9. [PMID: 23088898 DOI: 10.1016/j.jsams.2012.09.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/09/2012] [Revised: 08/27/2012] [Accepted: 09/25/2012] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
OBJECTIVES In 1997, anthropometry measures were made to determine the body size and shapes of both senior and junior elite triathletes. Since then, the junior event distance has changed and the optimal morphology of participants may have evolved. Thus the objective of this study was to compare the morphology of 1997 World championship junior elite triathlon competitors with junior elite competitors in 2011. DESIGN Comparative study of junior elite triathlete kinanthropometry. METHODS Twenty-nine males and 20 females junior elite competitors in the 1997 Triathlon World Championships underwent 26 anthropometric measurements. Results were compared with 28 male and 14 female junior elite triathletes who competed in the 2011 Australian National Junior Series, as qualifying for 2011 Triathlon World Championships. Comparisons were made on the raw scores, as well as somatotype, and body proportional scores. RESULTS Both male and female junior elite triathletes in the 2011 group were significantly more ectomorphic than their 1997 counterparts. The 2011 triathletes were also proportionally lighter, with significantly smaller flexed arm and thigh girths, and femur breadths. The 2011 males recorded significantly longer segmental lengths and lower endomorphy values than the 1997 junior males. CONCLUSIONS Junior elite triathlete morphology has evolved during the past 14 years possibly as a result of changing race distance and race tactics, highlighting the importance of continually monitoring and updating such anthropometric data.
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