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Hoppen B, Sukys S. Perceived Coach-Created Empowering and Disempowering Climate Effects on Athletes' Intentions to Use Doping: The Mediational Role of Self-Regulatory Efficacy and Attitudes towards Doping. Sports (Basel) 2024; 12:100. [PMID: 38668568 PMCID: PMC11054725 DOI: 10.3390/sports12040100] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/12/2024] [Revised: 03/22/2024] [Accepted: 03/29/2024] [Indexed: 04/29/2024] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND The purpose of this study was to examine the relationship between perceived coach-created empowering and disempowering motivational climate and doping likelihood among athletes and whether the attitudes towards doping and doping self-regulatory efficacy mediates these relationships. METHODS Athletes (N = 948; 50% male; mean age, 20.32, SD = 2.45) recruited from a variety of sports completed questionnaires assessing their perceptions of coach-created motivational climate, attitudes towards doping, doping self-regulatory efficacy, and doping likelihood. RESULTS The study's results showed significant negative direct effects of a perceived empowering climate on doping likelihood (β = -0.50) and attitudes towards doping (β = -0.48), and a positive effect on self-regulatory efficacy (β = 0.48). On the contrary, a disempowering climate had positive direct effects on doping likelihood (β = 0.53) and attitudes towards doping (β = 0.45), and a negative effect on self-regulatory efficacy (β = -0.49). Significant indirect effects on doping likelihood via attitudes and self-regulatory efficacy were found. CONCLUSIONS Our findings suggest that athletes who perceive a more empowering climate created by the coach are less likely to use banned substances due to their more negative attitudes towards doping and stronger belief in their ability to resist the temptation to use doping.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Saulius Sukys
- Department of Physical and Social Education, Lithuanian Sports University, Sporto 6, LT-44221 Kaunas, Lithuania;
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Blank C, Weber K, Boardley ID, Abel T, Schobersberger W, Patterson LB. Doping in Paralympic sport: perceptions, responsibility and anti-doping education experiences from the perspective of Paralympic athletes and parasport coaches. Front Sports Act Living 2023; 5:1166139. [PMID: 37483282 PMCID: PMC10360173 DOI: 10.3389/fspor.2023.1166139] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/14/2023] [Accepted: 06/20/2023] [Indexed: 07/25/2023] Open
Abstract
Introduction Limited effort has been invested in understanding doping in Paralympic sport. The limited evidence that exists suggests that factors influencing doping in parasport are similar to Olympic sport. However, based on the design and nature of the previous studies, where methods have been mostly limited to qualitative data and prevalence numbers, further research is warranted to extend previous findings. Methods Informed by current evidence from Paralympic and Olympic sport, we aimed to investigate (1) para-athletes' perceptions of Anti-Doping Rule Violations (ADRVs) and responsibility for them, (2) descriptive norms for doping in parasport (3) perceptions of anti-doping education and legitimacy of anti-doping authorities, and (4) coach engagement in doping prevention and levels of doping confrontation efficacy using a quantitative survey approach. Results In total, valid survey responses from 126 Paralympic athletes and 35 coaches from four countries (Germany, Austria, Switzerland, UK) were analysed for experience with anti-doping, descriptive norms, anti-doping education, perceived legitimacy, knowledge, and doping confrontation efficacy (coaches only). Across both athletes and coaches, the level of education was generally good and doping willingness was low. Classification cheating was considered a form of doping and seems to be an important issue for athletes and coaches, especially within the UK sample. For 33.3% of the athletes, doping control was their first experience with anti-doping. Coaches' engagement with doping prevention activities and their perceived efficacy to confront doping-related matters appears to be higher compared to Olympic coaches' samples. Discussion Sport organisations/NADOs in Paralympic sport could use synergies with those organisations in Olympic sport, adopting similar approaches to anti-doping education, also focusing on a balanced communication of doping prevalence numbers and testing figures. Efforts to ensure athletes are educated about anti-doping before they are tested should be upheld. It seems that in para sport, different compared to able-bodied coaches, anti-doping organizations do not have to convince the coaches about their roles (i.e., being responsible for anti-doping education) anymore but can directly build on these resources. Overall, it seems that there are few differences between parasport and able-bodied sports and thus responsible organisations could use the existing programmes in Olympic sport and only adapt special content (e.g., boosting) which is unique to Paralympic athletes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Cornelia Blank
- Institute for Sports Medicine, Alpine Medicine & Health Tourism UMIT TIROL—Private University for Health Sciences and Health Technology, Hall in Tirol, Austria
| | - Kathrin Weber
- Institute for Sports Medicine, Alpine Medicine & Health Tourism UMIT TIROL—Private University for Health Sciences and Health Technology, Hall in Tirol, Austria
| | - Ian D. Boardley
- School of Sport, Exercise and Rehabiliation Science, University of Birmingham, Birmingham, United Kingdom
| | - Thomas Abel
- Institute of Movement and Neurosciences, German Sport University Cologne, Cologne, Germany
| | - Wolfgang Schobersberger
- Institute for Sports Medicine, Alpine Medicine & Health Tourism UMIT TIROL—Private University for Health Sciences and Health Technology, Hall in Tirol, Austria
- Institute for Sports Medicine, Alpine Medicine & Health Tourism, Tirol Kliniken GmbH Innsbruck, Innsbruck, Austria
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Brevers D, Maurage P, Kohut T, Perales JC, Billieux J. On the pitfalls of conceptualizing excessive physical exercise as an addictive disorder: Commentary on Dinardi et al. (2021). J Behav Addict 2022; 11:234-239. [PMID: 35234660 PMCID: PMC9295221 DOI: 10.1556/2006.2022.00001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/29/2021] [Revised: 01/27/2022] [Accepted: 01/30/2022] [Indexed: 11/27/2022] Open
Abstract
This commentary challenges some of the proposals made in the opinion paper entitled "The expanded interactional model of exercise addiction" by Dinardi, Egorov, and Szabo (2021). We first question the usefulness of the (expanded) interactional model of exercise addiction to determine the psychological processes underlying distress and functional impairment in excessive physical exercise. We then consider the authors' use of the Self-Determination Theory to model exercise addiction, which risks the misclassification of strenuous, but adaptive, patterns of physical exercise as exercise addiction. We finally address broader concerns regarding the idea that maladaptive exercising could be conceptualized as an addictive disorder.
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Affiliation(s)
- Damien Brevers
- Psychological Sciences Research Institute, UCLouvain, Louvain-la-Neuve, Belgium
- Institute for Health and Behaviour, Department of Behavioural and Cognitive Sciences, University of Luxembourg, Esch-sur-Alzette, Luxembourg
| | - Pierre Maurage
- Psychological Sciences Research Institute, UCLouvain, Louvain-la-Neuve, Belgium
| | - Taylor Kohut
- Psychological Sciences Research Institute, UCLouvain, Louvain-la-Neuve, Belgium
| | - José C. Perales
- Mind, Brain, and Behavior Research Center (CIMCYC), Department of Experimental Psychology, University of Granada, Granada, Spain
| | - Joël Billieux
- Institute of Psychology, University of Lausanne, Lausanne, Switzerland
- Centre for Excessive Gambling, Addiction Medicine, Lausanne University Hospitals (CHUV), Lausanne, Switzerland
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4
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Balykova LA, Makarov LM, Ivyanskiy SA, Varlashina KA. [Cardiovascular Risks Associated with the use of Performance-Enhancing Stimulants]. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2021; 61:105-112. [PMID: 34311694 DOI: 10.18087/cardio.2021.6.n1018] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/29/2020] [Accepted: 02/17/2020] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
Abstract
The number of people involved in regular exercise and sports is increasing. Not infrequently, this is associated with intake of sports biologically active food supplements (BAS) and stimulators of physical ability. Data has been reported on the frequency of use of physical ability stimulators among professional athletes and on the use of the most popular food supplements among young people. Special attention is paid to the effect of such use on the cardiovascular system of athletes. This review describes negative cardiac effects and clinical cases of death of athletes due to the use of such supplements and stimulators.
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Affiliation(s)
- L A Balykova
- National Research Ogarev Mordovia State University, Saransk
| | - L M Makarov
- Center for Syncope and Cardiac Arrhythmia in Children and Adolescents of FMBA of Russia, Moscow
| | - S A Ivyanskiy
- National Research Ogarev Mordovia State University, Saransk
| | - K A Varlashina
- National Research Ogarev Mordovia State University, Saransk
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Nicholls AR, Levy AR, Meir R, Sanctuary C, Jones L, Baghurst T, Thompson MA, Perry JL. The Susceptibles, Chancers, Pragmatists, and Fair Players: An Examination of the Sport Drug Control Model for Adolescent Athletes, Cluster Effects, and Norm Values Among Adolescent Athletes. Front Psychol 2020; 11:1564. [PMID: 32754092 PMCID: PMC7366030 DOI: 10.3389/fpsyg.2020.01564] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/12/2020] [Accepted: 06/10/2020] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Although there are few high-profile cases of adolescent athletes being caught doping, up to a third of young athletes may dope. In order to generate a more accurate understanding of why adolescent athletes dope, it is important to validate models that help to explain this behavior. The aims of this study were 3-fold: firstly, to test the Sport Drug Control Model for Adolescent Athletes (SDCM-AA); secondly, to generate athlete profiles that would help quantify the proportion of athletes who are at risk of doping; and thirdly, to create norm values for the Adolescent Sport Doping Inventory (ASDI), which would allow national doping organizations, sporting organizations, and clubs to benchmark the scores of their athletes for key psycho-social variables linked to doping. A total of 2208 adolescent athletes from the United Kingdom, Australia, Hong Kong, and the United States completed the ASDI. The data presented an appropriate fit to the SDCM-AA model, in which 54% of the variance in susceptibility to doping was explained in the model, and 44.8% of attitudes toward doping was accounted for. Four distinct clusters of athletes emerged: the Susceptibles (i.e., identified with the benefits of doping, were willing to cheat, and viewed little threat), the Chancers (i.e., identified with the benefits of doping, scored high on willingness to cheat, and were highly influenced by their reference group, but had an average score for threat, self-esteem, and legitimacy), the Pragmatists (i.e., did not engage with any aspects of doping, but were more susceptible than the fair players), and Fair Players (i.e., high levels of sportspersonship, unwilling to cheat, and viewed doping as a threat). The revised SDCM-AA appears a valid model that helps explain the factors associated with doping attitudes and doping susceptibility. Adolescent athletes can be classified into one of four clusters, in relation to doping. Their cluster group could influence the content of the anti-doping education they receive.
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Affiliation(s)
- Adam R. Nicholls
- Department of Sport, Health and Exercise Science, University of Hull, Hull, United Kingdom
| | - Andrew R. Levy
- Department of Psychology, Edge Hill University, Ormskirk, United Kingdom
| | - Rudi Meir
- School of Health and Human Sciences, Southern Cross University, Lismore, NSW, Australia
| | - Colin Sanctuary
- School of Environmental and Life Sciences, The University of Newcastle, Callaghan, NSW, Australia
| | - Leigh Jones
- Hong Kong Rugby Foot-Ball Union, Hong Kong, Hong Kong
| | - Timothy Baghurst
- College of Education, Florida State University, Tallahassee, FL, United States
| | - Mark A. Thompson
- Department of Sport, Health and Exercise Science, University of Hull, Hull, United Kingdom
| | - John L. Perry
- Department of Psychology, Mary Immaculate College, Limerick, Ireland
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The effects of the iPlayClean education programme on doping attitudes and susceptibility to use banned substances among high-level adolescent athletes from the UK: A cluster-randomised controlled trial. THE INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF DRUG POLICY 2020; 82:102820. [PMID: 32563179 DOI: 10.1016/j.drugpo.2020.102820] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/14/2020] [Revised: 06/02/2020] [Accepted: 06/04/2020] [Indexed: 12/18/2022]
Abstract
Background This study examined the effects of the iPlayClean anti-doping intervention on attitudes towards doping and susceptibility, and whether delivery mode affected the results. Methods A total of 1081 high-level UK athletes (14-18 years old, 904 males, 177 females) were cluster-randomised to the control (11 teams/organisations/schools, 314 athletes), face-to-face group presentation (8 teams/organisations/schools, 254 athletes), online (11 teams/organisations/schools, 251 athletes), or face-to-face presentation with online access (5 teams/organisations/schools, 262 athletes). Results Compared to the control group, all modes of the iPlayClean anti-doping education programme reduced favourable attitudes towards doping immediately after the intervention, which was sustained across all intervention groups 8 weeks later. All delivery modes impacted doping susceptibility immediately after the intervention, in comparison to the control group, but the effects were only sustained for the face-to-face presentation group. Conclusion Contrary to findings within previous anti-doping interventions, we have shown that doping attitudes can be changed and that the results can be sustained across all modes of delivery, 8 weeks later. Research is required to assess for how long these changes are sustained, and how often anti-doping education should be delivered to high-level athletes to reinforce clean play values.
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Toward Prevention of Doping in Youth Sport: Cross-Sectional Analysis of Correlates of Doping Tendency in Swimming. INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH AND PUBLIC HEALTH 2019; 16:ijerph16234851. [PMID: 31810337 PMCID: PMC6926806 DOI: 10.3390/ijerph16234851] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/06/2019] [Revised: 11/28/2019] [Accepted: 11/29/2019] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
Abstract
Doping is recognized as one of the most important problems in sports, but a limited number of studies have investigated doping problems in youth athletes. This study aimed to evaluate doping tendency (potential doping behavior (PDB)) and correlates of PDB in youth age swimmers. The participants were 241 competitive swimmers (131 females; 15.3 ± 1.1 years of age, all under 18 years old). Variables included predictors and PDB (criterion). Predictors consisted of sociodemographic factors (gender and age), sport-related variables (i.e., experience in swimming and sport achievement), variables explaining coaching strategy and training methodology, consumption of dietary supplements (DS), knowledge about doping, and knowledge about sports nutrition and DS (KSN). In addition to the descriptive statistics and differences between genders, a multinomial regression using PDB as the criterion (negative-, neutral-, or positive-PDB, with a negative-PDB as the reference value) was calculated to define associations between predictors and criterion. With only 71% of swimmers who declared negative-PDB results indicated an alarming figure. Boys with better KSN were more negatively oriented toward positive-PDB (OR: 0.77, 95%CI: 0.60–0.95). In girls, lower competitive achievement was evidenced as a risk factor for neutral-PDB (OR: 0.39, 95%CI: 0.24–0.63). Also, higher neutral-PDB (OR: 0.88, 95%CI: 0.81–0.96) and positive-PDB (OR: 0.90, 95%CI: 0.83–0.99) were identified in girls who began with intensive training in younger age. Because of the alarming figures of PDB, there is an evident need for the development of systematic antidoping educational programs in youth swimming. In doing so, focus should be placed on girls who began intensive training at an earlier age and those who did not achieve high competitive results.
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Identification of Factors Associated with Potential Doping Behavior in Sports: A Cross-Sectional Analysis in High-Level Competitive Swimmers. INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH AND PUBLIC HEALTH 2018; 15:ijerph15081720. [PMID: 30103461 PMCID: PMC6121562 DOI: 10.3390/ijerph15081720] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/03/2018] [Revised: 07/11/2018] [Accepted: 08/07/2018] [Indexed: 01/30/2023]
Abstract
Background: Doping behavior, including the misuse of performance-enhancing drugs, is currently a serious problem in sports, and the efficacy of preventive efforts directly depends on information regarding the associations among different precipitating factors (PF) and doping behavior. This study aimed to establish the PF of potential doping behavior (PDB) in competitive swimmers. Methods: The study included 301 swimmers from Slovenia (153 females, 16.4 ± 2.4 years), tested during the 2017 National Championship. Variables were collected by previously validated questionnaires, which included questions on sociodemographics, sports-related factors, consumption of dietary supplements, knowledge of doping, factors of hesitation, and doping-related factors (i.e., number of doping tests, opinion about the presence of doping in sport). The PDB (positive, neutral, or negative intention toward doping) was observed as a criterion, while other variables were included as predictors in multinomial regression analyses (with "negative" as reference value), which additionally controlled for gender and age category (cadet-, junior-, and senior-level) as confounders. Results: The results confirmed higher susceptibility to doping in males (positive: odds ratio (OR): 2.77, 95% confidence interval (CI): 1.27⁻6.04), those swimmers who reported higher alcohol consumption (neutral: OR: 2.18, 95%CI: 1.06⁻4.16, positive: OR: 2.14, 95%CI: 1.05⁻4.37), and those regularly used dietary supplements (positive: OR: 3.62, 95%CI: 1.25⁻10.52). Competitive achievement in Olympic- (neutral: OR: 0.57, 95%CI: 0.41⁻0.81, positive: OR: 0.59, 95%CI: 0.39⁻0.88), and non-Olympic disciplines (positive: OR: 0.54, 95%CI: 0.35⁻0.83) was protective against PDB. Swimmers who were more concerned about the negative social consequences of doping behavior (i.e., condemnation by family and friends) were less likely to declare a positive intention toward the PDB (family condemnation: OR: 0.69, 95%CI: 0.56⁻0.86, friends' condemnation: OR: 0.65, 95%CI: 0.52⁻0.80). Conclusions: The results of the study provide more precise insight into the specific factors associated with PDB in swimming. The established precipitating factors should be incorporated into targeted anti-doping campaigns in this sport.
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Bates G, Tod D, Leavey C, McVeigh J. An evidence-based socioecological framework to understand men’s use of anabolic androgenic steroids and inform interventions in this area. DRUGS: EDUCATION, PREVENTION AND POLICY 2018. [DOI: 10.1080/09687637.2018.1488947] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Geoff Bates
- Public Health Institute, Liverpool John Moores University, Liverpool, United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland
| | - David Tod
- School of Sport and Exercise Sciences, Liverpool John Moores University, Liverpool, United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland
| | - Conan Leavey
- Public Health Institute, Liverpool John Moores University, Liverpool, United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland
| | - Jim McVeigh
- Public Health Institute, Liverpool John Moores University, Liverpool, United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland
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Chang KH, Lu FJH, Chyi T, Hsu YW, Chan SW, Wang ETW. Examining the stress-burnout relationship: the mediating role of negative thoughts. PeerJ 2017; 5:e4181. [PMID: 29302397 PMCID: PMC5740956 DOI: 10.7717/peerj.4181] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/14/2017] [Accepted: 12/01/2017] [Indexed: 11/30/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Using Smith’s (1986) cognitive-affective model of athletic burnout as a guiding framework, the purpose of this study was to examine the relationships among athletes’ stress in life, negative thoughts, and the mediating role of negative thoughts on the stress-burnout relationship. Methods A total of 300 college student-athletes (males = 174; females = 126, Mage = 20.43 y, SD = 1.68) completed the College Student Athlete’s Life Stress Scale (CSALSS; Lu et al., 2012), the Automatic Thoughts Questionnaire (ATQ; Hollon & Kendall, 1980), and the Athlete Burnout Questionnaire (ABQ; Raedeke & Smith, 2001). Results Correlational analyses found that two types of life stress and four types of negative thoughts correlated with burnout. Additionally, hierarchical regression analyses found that four types of negative thoughts partially mediated the stress-burnout relationship. Discussion We concluded that an athlete’s negative thoughts play a pivotal role in predicting athletes’ stress-burnout relationship. Future study may examine how irrational cognition influences athletes’ motivation and psychological well-being.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ko-Hsin Chang
- Department of Physical Education, Chinese Culture University, Taipei City, Taiwan
| | - Frank J H Lu
- Graduate Institute of Sport Coaching Science, Chinese Culture University, Taipei City, Taiwan
| | - Theresa Chyi
- Department of Exercise and Health Promotion, Chinese Culture University, Taipei City, Taiwan
| | - Ya-Wen Hsu
- Department of Physical Education, Health, and Recreation, National Chiayi University, Chia-Yi, Taiwan
| | - Shi-Wei Chan
- Graduate Institute of Physical Education, National Taiwan Sport University, Kweishan, Taoyuan, Taiwan
| | - Erica T W Wang
- Office of Physical Education and Sports Affairs, Feng Chia University, Taichung, Taiwan
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Thevis M, Kuuranne T, Geyer H. Annual banned-substance review: Analytical approaches in human sports drug testing. Drug Test Anal 2017; 10:9-27. [DOI: 10.1002/dta.2336] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/25/2017] [Accepted: 10/30/2017] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Mario Thevis
- Center for Preventive Doping Research - Institute of Biochemistry; German Sport University Cologne; Germany
- European Monitoring Center for Emerging Doping Agents; Cologne Germany
| | - Tiia Kuuranne
- Swiss Laboratory for Doping Analyses; University Center of Legal Medicine, Genève and Lausanne, Centre Hospitalier Universitaire Vaudois and University of Lausanne; Epalinges Switzerland
| | - Hans Geyer
- Center for Preventive Doping Research - Institute of Biochemistry; German Sport University Cologne; Germany
- European Monitoring Center for Emerging Doping Agents; Cologne Germany
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Nicholls AR, Cope E, Bailey R, Koenen K, Dumon D, Theodorou NC, Chanal B, Saint Laurent D, Müller D, Andrés MP, Kristensen AH, Thompson MA, Baumann W, Laurent JF. Children's First Experience of Taking Anabolic-Androgenic Steroids can Occur before Their 10th Birthday: A Systematic Review Identifying 9 Factors That Predicted Doping among Young People. Front Psychol 2017; 8:1015. [PMID: 28676778 PMCID: PMC5476735 DOI: 10.3389/fpsyg.2017.01015] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/21/2017] [Accepted: 06/01/2017] [Indexed: 01/27/2023] Open
Abstract
Taking performance-enhancing drugs (PEDs) can cause serious and irreversible health consequences, which can ultimately lead to premature death. Some young people may take PEDs without fully understanding the ramifications of their actions or based on the advice from others. The purpose of this systematic review was to identify the main factors that predicted doping among young people. The literature was systematically reviewed using search engines, manually searching specialist journals, and pearl growing. Fifty-two studies, which included 187,288 young people aged between 10 and 21 years of age, 883 parents of adolescent athletes, and 11 adult coaches, who were interviewed regarding young athletes, were included in this review. Nine factors predicted doping among young people: gender; age; sports participation; sport type; psychological variables; entourage; ethnicity; nutritional supplements; and health harming behaviors. In regards to psychological variables, 22 different constructs were associated with doping among young people. Some psychological constructs were negatively associated with doping (e.g., self-esteem, resisting social pressure, and perfectionist strivings), whereas other were positively associated with doping (e.g., suicide risk, anticipated regret, and aggression). Policy makers and National Anti-Doping Organizations could use these findings to help identify athletes who are more at risk of doping and then expose these individuals to anti-doping education. Based on the current findings, it also appears that education programs should commence at the onset of adolescence or even late childhood, due to the young age in which some individuals start doping.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Ed Cope
- School of Life Sciences, University of HullHull, United Kingdom
| | - Richard Bailey
- International Council of Sport Science and Physical EducationBerlin, Germany
| | - Katrin Koenen
- International Council of Sport Science and Physical EducationBerlin, Germany
| | - Detlef Dumon
- International Council of Sport Science and Physical EducationBerlin, Germany
| | | | - Benoit Chanal
- Agence Française de Lutte Contre le DopageParis, France
| | | | - David Müller
- Nationale Anti-Doping Agentur Austria GmbHWien, Austria
| | - Mar P. Andrés
- Agencia Española de Protección de la Salud en el DeporteMadrid, Spain
| | | | | | - Wolfgang Baumann
- The Association for International Sport for AllFrankfurt, Germany
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