The crosstalk between ferroptosis and mitochondrial dynamic regulatory networks

The connection between autophagy and ferroptosis in AKI: recent advances regarding selective autophagy

Acute kidney injury (AKI) is a significant issue in public health, displaying a high occurrence rate and mortality rate. Ferroptosis, a form of programmed cell death (PCD), is characterized by iron accumulation and intensified lipid peroxidation. Recent studies have demonstrated the pivotal significance of ferroptosis in AKI caused by diverse stimuli, including ischemia-reperfusion injury (IRI), sepsis and toxins. Autophagy, a multistep process that targets damaged organelles and macromolecules for degradation and recycling, also plays an essential role in AKI. Previous research has demonstrated that autophagy deletion in proximal tubules could aggravate tubular injury and renal function loss, indicating the protective function of autophagy in AKI. Consequently, finding ways to stimulate autophagy has become a crucial therapeutic strategy. The recent discovery of the role of selective autophagy in influencing ferroptosis has identified new therapeutic targets for AKI and has highlighted the importance of understanding the cross-talk between autophagy and ferroptosis. This study aims to provide an overview of the signaling pathways involved in ferroptosis and autophagy, focusing on the mechanisms and functions of selective autophagy and autophagy-dependent ferroptosis. We hope to establish a foundation for future investigations into the interaction between autophagy and ferroptosis in AKI as well as other diseases.

Ficus hirta Vahl. ameliorates liver fibrosis by triggering hepatic stellate cell ferroptosis through GSH/GPX4 pathway

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

Ficus hirta Vahl., a traditional Chinese medicine commonly used in the Lingnan region, has been extensively used for liver disease treatment in China. Its notable antioxidant and anti-inflammatory properties have been reported in previous studies. However, its potential effect and underlying mechanism on liver fibrosis remains unclear.

AIM OF STUDY

This study was aimed to investigate the effect and its underlying mechanism of Ficus hirta Vahl on liver fibrosis in vitro and in vivo.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

The main components of Ficus hirta Vahl in blood were investigated by using UPLC-Q/TOF-MS/MS. Two animal models of liver fibrosis, the CCl4 and MCD induced mice, were used to assess the efficacy of Ficus hirta Vahl on liver fibrosis. Metabolomics was used to detect the level of metabolites in the serum of liver fibrosis mice after Ficus hirta Vahl treatment. Furthermore, the mechanism was validated in vitro using the human liver stellate cell line LX-2. The binding affinities of the active ingredients of Ficus hirta Vahl to the main targets of liver fibrosis were also determined. Finally, we identified the key active ingredients responsible for the treatment of liver fibrosis in vivo.

RESULTS

Fibrosis and inflammatory markers were significant down-regulation in both CCl4 and MCD induced liver fibrosis mice after Ficus hirta Vahl administration in a dose-dependent manner. We found that Ficus hirta Vahl may primarily exert its effect on liver fibrosis through the glutathione metabolic pathway. Importantly, the glutathione metabolic pathway is closely associated with ferroptosis, and our subsequent in vitro experiments provided evidence supporting this association. Ficus hirta Vahl was found to modulate the GSH/GPX4 pathway, ultimately leading to the amelioration of liver fibrosis. Moreover, using serum pharmacochemistry and molecular docking, we successfully identified apigenin as a probable efficacious monomer for the management of liver fibrosis and subsequently validated its efficacy in mice with CCl4-induced hepatic fibrosis.

CONCLUSION

Ficus hirta Vahl triggered the ferroptosis of hepatic stellate cell by regulating the GSH/GPX4 pathway, thereby alleviating liver fibrosis in mice. Moreover, apigenin is a key compound in Ficus hirta Vahl responsible for the effective treatment of liver fibrosis.

Synergy between nanoplastics and benzo[a]pyrene promotes senescence by aggravating ferroptosis and impairing mitochondria integrity in Caenorhabditis elegans

Micro-nano plastics have been reported as important carriers of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) for long-distance migration in the environment. However, the combined toxicity from long-term chronic exposure beyond the vehicle-release mechanism remains elusive. In this study, we investigated the synergistic action of Benzo[a]pyrene (BaP) and Polystyrene nanoparticles (PS) in Caenorhabditis elegans (C. elegans) as a combined exposure model with environmental concentrations. We found that the combined exposure to BaP and PS, as opposed to single exposures at low concentrations, significantly shortened the lifespan of C. elegans, leading to the occurrence of multiple senescence phenotypes. Multi-omics data indicated that the combined exposure to BaP and PS is associated with the disruption of glutathione homeostasis. Consequently, the accumulated reactive oxygen species (ROS) cannot be effectively cleared, which is highly correlated with mitochondrial dysfunction. Moreover, the increase in ROS promoted lipid peroxidation in C. elegans and downregulated Ferritin-1 (Ftn-1), resulting in ferroptosis and ultimately accelerating the aging process of C. elegans. Collectively, our study provides a new perspective to explain the long-term compound toxicity caused by BaP and PS at real-world exposure concentrations.

Ironing out the Links: Ferroptosis in epilepsy and SUDEP

Iron is a crucial element for almost all organisms because it plays a vital role in oxygen transport, enzymatic processes, and energy generation due to its electron transfer capabilities. However, its dysregulation can lead to a form of programmed cell death known as ferroptosis, which is characterized by cellular iron accumulation, reactive oxygen species (ROS) production, and unrestricted lipid peroxidation. Both iron and ferroptosis have been identified as key players in the pathogenesis of various neurodegenerative diseases. While in epilepsy this phenomenon remains relatively understudied, seizures can be considered hypoxic-ischemic episodes resulting in increased ROS production, lipid peroxidation, membrane disorganization, and cell death. All of this is accompanied by elevated intracellular free Fe2+ concentration and hemosiderin precipitation, as existing reports suggest a significant accumulation of iron in the brain and heart associated with epilepsy. Generalized tonic-clonic seizures (GTCS), a primary risk factor for Sudden Unexpected Death in Epilepsy (SUDEP), not only have an impact on the brain but also lead to cardiogenic dysfunctions associated with "Iron Overload and Cardiomyopathy" (IOC) and "Epileptic heart" characterized by electrical and mechanical dysfunction and a high risk of malignant bradycardia. In line with this phenomenon, studies conducted by our research group have demonstrated that recurrent seizures induce hypoxia in cardiomyocytes, resulting in P-glycoprotein (P-gp) overexpression, prolonged Q-T interval, severe bradycardia, and hemosiderin precipitation, correlating with an elevated spontaneous death ratio. In this article, we explore the intricate connections among ferroptosis, epilepsy, and SUDEP. By synthesizing current knowledge and drawing insights from recent publications, this study provides a comprehensive understanding of the molecular underpinnings. Furthermore, this review offers insights into potential therapeutic avenues and outlines future research directions.

Intravenous calcitriol administration improves the liver redox status and attenuates ferroptosis in mice with high-fat diet-induced obesity complicated with sepsis

Obesity aggravates ferroptosis, and vitamin D (VD) may inhibit ferroptosis. We hypothesized that weight reduction and/or calcitriol administration have benefits against the sepsis-induced liver redox imbalance and ferroptosis in obese mice. Mice were fed a high-fat diet for 11 weeks, then half of the mice continued to consume the diet, while the other half were transferred to a low-energy diet for 5 weeks. After feeding the respective diets for 16 weeks, sepsis was induced by cecal ligation and puncture (CLP). Septic mice were divided into four experimental groups: OS group, obese mice injected with saline; OD group, obese mice with calcitriol; WS group, weight-reduction mice with saline; and WD group, weight-reduction mice with calcitriol. Mice in the respective groups were euthanized at 12 or 24 h after CLP. Results showed that the OS group had the highest inflammatory mediators and lipid peroxide levels in the liver. Calcitriol treatment reduced iron content, enhanced the reduced glutathione/oxidized glutathione ratio, upregulated nuclear factor erythroid 2-related factor 2, ferroptosis-suppressing protein 1, and solute carrier family 7 member 11 expression levels. Also, mitochondrion-associated nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate oxidase 1, peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor-γ coactivator 1, hypoxia-inducible factor-1α, and heme oxidase-1 expression levels increased in the late phase of sepsis. These results were not noted in the WS group. These findings suggest that calcitriol treatment elicits a more-balanced glutathione redox status, alleviates liver ferroptosis, and enhances mitochondrial biogenesis-associated gene expressions. Weight reduction alone had minimal influences on liver ferroptosis and mitochondrial biogenesis in obese mice with sepsis.

Water extract of earthworms mitigates kidney injury triggered by oxidative stress via activating intrarenal Sirt1/Nrf2 cascade and ameliorating mitochondrial damage

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

Ischemia-reperfusion (IR) injury can result in acute renal failure. Oxidative stress is a major factor in IR-induced cell death in the kidneys. According to traditional Chinese medicine, earthworms (Pheretima aspergillum) can be used to treat various kidney diseases.

AIM OF THE STUDY

The present study was designed to understand the protective effects of the water extract of earthworms (WEE) against oxidative stress on the kidneys and the crucial molecular events associated with its nephroprotective activity.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Cytotoxicity caused by H2O2 in HEK293, HK2, and primary mouse renal tubular epithelial cells (TECs) was used to investigate the effect of WEE on oxidative stress-induced renal injury in vitro. IR-induced kidney injury was established using rats as an in vivo model. The WEE-mediated protection of the kidneys against oxidative stress was compared with that of glutathione, a common antioxidant used as a positive control.

RESULTS

In HEK293 cells, HK2 cells, and primary mouse TECs, WEE relieved H2O2-induced mitochondrial damage, apoptosis, and ferroptosis. In kidney cells, WEE increased the expression of Sirt1, boosted LKB1 and AMPK phosphorylation, and upregulated nuclear Nrf2. Suppression of Sirt1 and LKB1 knock down abrogated WEE-induced protection against H2O2. WEE ameliorated IR-induced kidney injury and intrarenal inflammation in rats. In rat kidneys, WEE mitigated mitochondrial damage and suppressed IR-induced apoptosis and ferroptosis. Mechanistically, WEE increased Sirt1 expression, enhanced the phosphorylation of LKB1 and AMPK, and increased intranuclear Nrf2 levels in IR kidneys. IR treatment resulted in considerable increase in renal MDA levels and a prominent decrease in antioxidative enzyme activity. These lesions were significantly alleviated by WEE.

CONCLUSIONS

WEE mitigated H2O2-induced cytotoxicity in kidney cells in vitro and improved IR-induced kidney damage in rats. Mechanistically, WEE potentiated the Sirt1/Nrf2 axis and relieved mitochondrial damage in the kidney cells. These events inhibited the apoptosis and ferroptosis induced by oxidative stress. Our findings support the potential application of WEE for the clinical treatment of kidney diseases caused by intrarenal oxidative stress.

Acteoside alleviates lipid peroxidation by enhancing Nrf2-mediated mitophagy to inhibit ferroptosis for neuroprotection in Parkinson's disease

Increasing evidence underscores the pivotal role of ferroptosis in Parkinson's Disease (PD) pathogenesis. Acteoside (ACT) has been reported to possess neuroprotective properties. However, the effects of ACT on ferroptosis and its molecular mechanisms remain unknown. This study aimed to explore whether ACT can regulate ferroptosis in dopaminergic (DA) neurons within both in vitro and in vivo PD models and to elucidate the underlying regulatory mechanisms. PD models were established and treated with various concentrations of ACT. Cell viability assays, Western blot, lipid peroxidation assessments, immunohistochemistry, and transmission electron microscopy were employed to confirm ACT's inhibition of ferroptosis and its protective effect on DA neurons across PD models. Immunofluorescence staining, MitoSOX staining, and confocal laser scanning microscopy further validated ACT's regulation regulatory effects on ferroptosis via the Nrf2-mitophagy pathway. Four animal behavioral tests were used to assess behavioral improvements in PD animals. ACT inhibited ferroptosis in PD models in vitro, as evidenced by increased cell viability, the upregulation of GPX4 and SLC7A11, reduced lipid peroxides, and attenuation of mitochondrial morphological alterations typical of ferroptosis. By activating the Nrf2-mitophagy axis, ACT enhanced mitochondrial integrity and reduced lipid peroxidation, mitigating ferroptosis. These in vitro results were consistent with in vivo findings, where ACT treatment significantly preserved DA neurons, curbed ferroptosis in these cells, and alleviated cognitive and behavioral deficits. This study is the first demonstration of ACT's capability to inhibit neuronal ferroptosis and protect DA neurons, thus alleviating behavioral and cognitive impairments in both in vitro and in vivo PD models. Furthermore, The suppression of ferroptosis by ACT is achieved through the activation of the Nrf2-mitophagy signaling pathway. Our results show that ACT is beneficial for both treating and preventing PD. They also offer novel therapeutic options for treating PD and molecular targets for regulating ferroptosis.

Implications of Liquid-Liquid Phase Separation and Ferroptosis in Alzheimer's Disease

Neuronal cell demise represents a prevalent occurrence throughout the advancement of Alzheimer's disease (AD). However, the mechanism of triggering the death of neuronal cells remains unclear. Its potential mechanisms include aggregation of soluble amyloid-beta (Aβ) to form insoluble amyloid plaques, abnormal phosphorylation of tau protein and formation of intracellular neurofibrillary tangles (NFTs), neuroinflammation, ferroptosis, oxidative stress, liquid-liquid phase separation (LLPS) and metal ion disorders. Among them, ferroptosis is an iron-dependent lipid peroxidation-driven cell death and emerging evidences have demonstrated the involvement of ferroptosis in the pathological process of AD. The sensitivity to ferroptosis is tightly linked to numerous biological processes. Moreover, emerging evidences indicate that LLPS has great impacts on regulating human health and diseases, especially AD. Soluble Aβ can undergo LLPS to form liquid-like droplets, which can lead to the formation of insoluble amyloid plaques. Meanwhile, tau has a high propensity to condensate via the mechanism of LLPS, which can lead to the formation of NFTs. In this review, we summarize the most recent advancements pertaining to LLPS and ferroptosis in AD. Our primary focus is on expounding the influence of Aβ, tau protein, iron ions, and lipid oxidation on the intricate mechanisms underlying ferroptosis and LLPS within the domain of AD pathology. Additionally, we delve into the intricate cross-interactions that occur between LLPS and ferroptosis in the context of AD. Our findings are expected to serve as a theoretical and experimental foundation for clinical research and targeted therapy for AD.

Cardiomyocyte LGR6 alleviates ferroptosis in diabetic cardiomyopathy via regulating mitochondrial biogenesis

AIMS

The majority of people with diabetes are susceptible to cardiac dysfunction and heart failure, and conventional drug therapy cannot correct the progression of diabetic cardiomyopathy. We assessed the potential role and therapeutic value of LGR6 (G protein-coupled receptor containing leucine-rich repeats 6) in diabetic cardiomyopathy.

METHODS AND RESULTS

Type 2 diabetes models were established using high-fat diet/streptozotocin-induced diabetes in mice. LGR6 knockout mice were generated. Recombinant adeno-associated virus serotype 9 carrying LGR6 under the cardiac troponin T promoter was injected into diabetic mice. Cardiomyocytes incubated with high glucose (HG) were used to imitate diabetic cardiomyopathy in vitro. The molecular mechanism was explored through RNA sequencing and a chromatin immunoprecipitation assay. We found that LGR6 expression was upregulated in diabetic hearts and HL1 cardiomyocytes treated with HG. The LGR6 knockout aggravated, but cardiomyocyte-specific LGR6 overexpression ameliorated, cardiac dysfunction and remodeling in diabetic mice. Mechanistically, in vivo and in vitro experiments revealed that LGR6 deletion aggravated, whereas LGR6 overexpression alleviated, ferroptosis and disrupted mitochondrial biogenesis by regulating STAT3/Pgc1a signaling. STAT3 inhibition and Pgc1a activation abrogated LGR6 knockout-induced mitochondrial dysfunction and ferroptosis in diabetic mice. In addition, LGR6 activation by recombinant RSPO3 treatment ameliorated cardiac dysfunction, ferroptosis and mitochondrial dysfunction in diabetic mice.

CONCLUSIONS

We identified a previously undescribed signaling pathway of the LGR6-STAT3-Pgc1a axis that plays a critical role in ferroptosis and mitochondrial disorders during diabetic cardiomyopathy and provides an option for treatment of diabetic hearts.

Nano-inducer of ferroptosis for targeted chemotherapy of human triple negative breast carcinoma

Triple negative breast carcinoma (TNBC) accounts for 15-20 % of all incident breast cancers (BC) and is known to be highly invasive, has fewer treatment options, and tends to have a worse prognosis. However, due to its biological heterogeneity and diverse clinical and epidemiological behaviors, TNBC lacks a tumor-specific targeted therapy. In the present work we have developed a TNBC-specific targeted nano-delivery agent comprising of a cRGD labeled magneto-liposome (T-LMD) co-encapsulated with oleic acid coated iron oxide nanoparticles (MN-OA) and doxorubicin (Dox) in the liposome bilayer and core, respectively. T-LMD was found to show enhanced uptake and induction of ferroptotic cell death in MDA-MB-231, a TNBC model cell line. Additionally, T-LMD induced ferroptosis was found to be accompanied by release of HMGB1, an immunogenic cell death marker, suggesting its immunogenicity for augmenting the activation of anti-tumor immunity in TNBC. The strategic placement of IONPs in the liposome bilayer of T-LMD facilitates the sensitization of MDA-MB-231 cells to undergo ferroptosis; predominantly via the activation of the iron/lipid metabolism pathway, as validated by use of small molecule ferroptosis inhibitor (ferrostatin-1) and iron chelator (deferoxamine). Activation of ferroptotic cell death was also corroborated by ferroptosis specific-ultrastructural alterations in the shape/size of cellular mitochondria and cell ballooning as observed by transmission electron microscopy and bright field imaging, respectively. Thus, our ferroptosis nano-inducer (T-LMD) can efficiently kill TNBC cells via enhanced LPO and ROS generation leading to membrane damage and consequent release of LDH and HMGB1, induce mitochondrial alterations and enhanced DNA double strand breaks. Altogether, our results suggest significant implications of T-LMD for treatment of TNBC.

The role of ferroptosis in acute kidney injury: mechanisms and potential therapeutic targets

Acute kidney injury (AKI) is one of the most common and severe clinical renal syndromes with high morbidity and mortality. Ferroptosis is a form of programmed cell death (PCD), is characterized by iron overload, reactive oxygen species accumulation, and lipid peroxidation. As ferroptosis has been increasingly studied in recent years, it is closely associated with the pathophysiological process of AKI and provides a target for the treatment of AKI. This review offers a comprehensive overview of the regulatory mechanisms of ferroptosis, summarizes its role in various AKI models, and explores its interaction with other forms of cell death, it also presents research on ferroptosis in AKI progression to other diseases. Additionally, the review highlights methods for detecting and assessing AKI through the lens of ferroptosis and describes potential inhibitors of ferroptosis for AKI treatment. Finally, the review presents a perspective on the future of clinical AKI treatment, aiming to stimulate further research on ferroptosis in AKI.

Investigating the Therapeutic Effects of Ferroptosis on Myocardial Ischemia-Reperfusion Injury Using a Dual-Locking Mitochondrial Targeting Strategy

Research on ferroptosis in myocardial ischemia/reperfusion injury (MIRI) using mitochondrial viscosity as a nexus holds great promise for MIRI therapy. However, high-precision visualisation of mitochondrial viscosity remains a formidable task owing to the debilitating electrostatic interactions caused by damaged mitochondrial membrane potential. Herein, we propose a dual-locking mitochondria-targeting strategy that incorporates electrostatic forces and probe-protein molecular docking. Even in damaged mitochondria, stable and precise visualisation of mitochondrial viscosity in triggered and medicated MIRI was achieved owing to the sustained driving forces (e.g., pi-cation, pi-alkyl interactions, etc.) between the developed probe, CBS, and the mitochondrial membrane protein. Moreover, complemented by a western blot, we confirmed that ferrostatin-1 exerts its therapeutic effect on MIRI by improving the system xc-/GSH/GPX4 antioxidant system, confirming the therapeutic value of ferroptosis in MIRI. This study presents a novel strategy for developing robust mitochondrial probes, thereby advancing MIRI treatment.

Integration of metabolomics and transcriptomics reveals that Da Chuanxiong Formula improves vascular cognitive impairment via ACSL4/GPX4 mediated ferroptosis

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

Da Chuanxiong Formula (DCX) is a traditional herbal compound composed of Gastrodia elata Bl. and Ligusticum chuanxiong Hort, which could significantly enhance blood circulation and neuroprotection, showing promise in treating Vascular Cognitive Impairment (VCI).

AIM OF STUDY

This study aims to elucidate the potential of DCX in treating VCI and its underlying mechanism.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Firstly, the cognitive behavior level, blood flow changes, and brain pathology changes were evaluated through techniques such as the Morris water maze, step-down, laser speckle, coagulation analysis, and pathological staining to appraise the DCX efficacy. Then, the DCX targeting pathways were decoded by merging metabolomics with transcriptomics. Finally, the levels of reactive oxygen species (ROS), Fe2+, and lipid peroxidation related to the targeting signaling pathways of DCX were detected by kit, and the expression levels of mRNAs or proteins related to ferroptosis were determined by qPCR or Western blot assays respectively.

RESULTS

DCX improved cognitive abilities and cerebral perfusion significantly, and mitigated pathological damage in the hippocampal region of VCI model rats. Metabolomics revealed that DCX was able to call back 33 metabolites in plasma and 32 metabolites in brain samples, and the majority of the differential metabolites are phospholipid metabolites. Transcriptomic analysis revealed that DCX regulated a total of 3081 genes, with the ferroptosis pathway exhibiting the greatest impact. DCX inhibited ferroptosis of VCI rates by decreasing the levels of ferrous iron, ROS, and malondialdehyde (MDA) while increasing the level of superoxide dismutase (SOD) and glutathione (GSH) in VCI rats. Moreover, the mRNA and protein levels of ACSL4, LPCAT3, ALOX15, and GPX4, which are related to lipid metabolism in ferroptosis, were also regulated by DCX.

CONCLUSION

Our research findings indicated that DCX could inhibit ferroptosis through the ACSL4/GPX4 signaling pathway, thereby exerting its therapeutic benefits on VCI.

Olive Flounder By-Product Prozyme2000P Hydrolysate Ameliorates Age-Related Kidney Decline by Inhibiting Ferroptosis

This study explores olive flounder by-product Prozyme2000P (OFBP) hydrolysate as a potential treatment for age-related kidney decline. Ferroptosis, a form of cell death linked to iron overload and oxidative stress, is increasingly implicated in aging kidneys. We investigated whether OFBP could inhibit ferroptosis and improve kidney health. Using TCMK-1 cells, we found that OFBP treatment protected cells from ferroptosis induced by sodium iodate (SI). OFBP also preserved the mitochondria health and influenced molecules involved in ferroptosis regulation. In aging mice, oral administration of OFBP significantly improved kidney health markers. Microscopic examination revealed reduced thickening and scarring in the kidney's filtering units, a hallmark of aging. These findings suggest that OFBP hydrolysate may be a promising therapeutic candidate for age-related kidney decline. By inhibiting ferroptosis, OFBP treatment appears to improve both cellular and structural markers of kidney health. Further research is needed to understand how OFBP works fully and test its effectiveness in more complex models.

Progress of medicinal plants and their active metabolites in ischemia-reperfusion injury of stroke: a novel therapeutic strategy based on regulation of crosstalk between mitophagy and ferroptosis

The death of cells can occur through various pathways, including apoptosis, necroptosis, mitophagy, pyroptosis, endoplasmic reticulum stress, oxidative stress, ferroptosis, cuproptosis, and disulfide-driven necrosis. Increasing evidence suggests that mitophagy and ferroptosis play crucial regulatory roles in the development of stroke. In recent years, the incidence of stroke has been gradually increasing, posing a significant threat to human health. Hemorrhagic stroke accounts for only 15% of all strokes, while ischemic stroke is the predominant type, representing 85% of all stroke cases. Ischemic stroke refers to a clinical syndrome characterized by local ischemic-hypoxic necrosis of brain tissue due to various cerebrovascular disorders, leading to rapid onset of corresponding neurological deficits. Currently, specific therapeutic approaches targeting the pathophysiological mechanisms of ischemic brain tissue injury mainly include intravenous thrombolysis and endovascular intervention. Despite some clinical efficacy, these approaches inevitably lead to ischemia-reperfusion injury. Therefore, exploration of treatment options for ischemic stroke remains a challenging task. In light of this background, advancements in targeted therapy for cerebrovascular diseases through mitophagy and ferroptosis offer a new direction for the treatment of such diseases. In this review, we summarize the progress of mitophagy and ferroptosis in regulating ischemia-reperfusion injury in stroke and emphasize their potential molecular mechanisms in the pathogenesis. Importantly, we systematically elucidate the role of medicinal plants and their active metabolites in targeting mitophagy and ferroptosis in ischemia-reperfusion injury in stroke, providing new insights and perspectives for the clinical development of therapeutic drugs for these diseases.

Ferroptosis as a potential therapeutic target for age-related macular degeneration

Cell death plays a crucial part in the process of age-related macular degeneration (AMD), but its mechanisms remain elusive. Accumulating evidence suggests that ferroptosis, a novel form of regulatory cell death characterized by iron-dependent accumulation of lipid hydroperoxides, has a crucial role in the pathogenesis of AMD. Numerous studies have suggested that ferroptosis participates in the degradation of retinal cells and accelerates the progression of AMD. Furthermore, inhibitors of ferroptosis exhibit notable protective effects in AMD, underscoring the significance of ferroptosis as a pivotal mechanism in the death of retinal cells during the process of AMD. This review aims to summarize the molecular mechanisms of ferroptosis in AMD, enumerate potential inhibitors and discuss the challenges and future opportunities associated with targeting ferroptosis as a therapeutic strategy, providing important information references and insights for the prevention and treatment of AMD.

TRPA1-PI3K/Akt-OPA1-ferroptosis axis in ozone-induced bronchial epithelial cell and lung injury

BACKGROUND

Transient receptor potential (TRP) ankyrin 1 (TRPA1) could mediate ozone-induced lung injury. Optic Atrophy 1 (OPA1) is one of the significant mitochondrial fusion proteins. Impaired mitochondrial fusion, resulting in mitochondrial dysfunction and ferroptosis, may drive the onset and progression of lung injury. In this study, we examined whether TRPA1 mediated ozone-induced bronchial epithelial cell and lung injury by activating PI3K/Akt with the involvement of OPA1, leading to ferroptosis.

METHODS

Wild-type, TRPA1-knockout (KO) mice (C57BL/6 J background) and ferrostatin-1 (Fer-1)-pretreated mice were exposed to 2.5 ppm ozone for 3 h. Human bronchial epithelial (BEAS-2B) cells were treated with 1 ppm ozone for 3 h in the presence of TRPA1 inhibitor A967079 or TRPA1-knockdown (KD) as well as pharmacological modulators of PI3K/Akt-OPA1-ferroptosis. Transcriptome was used to screen and decipher the differential gene expressions and pathways. Oxidative stress, inflammation and ferroptosis were measured together with mitochondrial morphology, function and dynamics.

RESULTS

Acute ozone exposure induced airway inflammation and airway hyperresponsiveness (AHR), reduced mitochondrial fusion, and enhanced ferroptosis in mice. Similarly, acute ozone exposure induced inflammatory responses, altered redox responses, abnormal mitochondrial structure and function, reduced mitochondrial fusion and enhanced ferroptosis in BEAS-2B cells. There were increased mitochondrial fusion, reduced inflammatory responses, decreased redox responses and ferroptosis in ozone-exposed TRPA1-KO mice and Fer-1-pretreated ozone-exposed mice. A967079 and TRPA1-KD enhanced OPA1 and prevented ferroptosis through the PI3K/Akt pathway in BEAS-2B cells. These in vitro results were further confirmed in pharmacological modulator experiments.

CONCLUSION

Exposure to ozone induces mitochondrial dysfunction in human bronchial epithelial cells and mouse lungs by activating TRPA1, which results in ferroptosis mediated via a PI3K/Akt/OPA1 axis. This supports a potential role of TRPA1 blockade in preventing the deleterious effects of ozone.

Chlorantraniliprole induces mitophagy, ferroptosis, and cytokine homeostasis imbalance in grass carp (Ctenopharyngodon idella) hepatocytes via the mtROS-mitochondrial fission/fusion axis

Chlorantraniliprole (CAP) is a bis-amide pesticide used for pest control mainly in agricultural production activities and rice-fish co-culture systems. CAP residues cause liver damage in non-target organism freshwater fish. However, it is unclear whether CAP-exposure-induced liver injury in fish is associated with mitochondrial dysfunction-mediated mitophagy, ferroptosis, and cytokines. Therefore, we established grass carp hepatocyte models exposed to different concentrations of CAP (20, 40, and 80 μM) in vitro. MitoSOX probe, JC-1 staining, immunofluorescence double staining, Fe2+ staining, lipid peroxidation staining, qRT-PCR, and Western blot were used to verify the physiological regulatory mechanism of CAP induced liver injury. In the present study, the CAP-treated groups exhibited down-regulation of antioxidant-related enzyme activities and accumulation of peroxides. CAP treatment induced an increase in mitochondrial reactive oxygen species (mtROS) levels and altered expression of mitochondrial fission/fusion (Drp1, Fis1, Mfn1, Mfn2, and Opa1) genes in grass carp hepatocytes. In addition, mitophagy (Parkin, Pink1, p62, LC3II/I, and Beclin-1), ferroptosis (GPX4, COX2, ACSL4, FTH, and NCOA4), and cytokine (IFN-γ, IL-18, IL-17, IL-6, IL-10, IL-1β, IL-2, and TNF-α)-related gene expression was significantly altered. Collectively, these findings suggest that CAP exposure drives mitophagy activation, ferroptosis occurrence, and cytokine homeostasis imbalance in grass carp hepatocytes by triggering mitochondrial dysfunction mediated by the mtROS-mitochondrial fission/fusion axis. This study partly explained the physiological regulation mechanism of grass carp hepatocyte injury induced by insecticide CAP from the physiological and biochemical point of view and provided a basis for evaluating the safety of CAP environmental residues to non-target organisms.

Mitochondria-mediated ferroptosis contributes to the inflammatory responses of bovine viral diarrhea virus (BVDV) in vitro

Bovine viral diarrhea virus (BVDV) belongs to the family Flaviviridae and includes two biotypes in cell culture: cytopathic (CP) or non-cytopathic (NCP) effects. Ferroptosis is a non-apoptotic form of programmed cell death that contributes to inflammatory diseases. However, whether BVDV induces ferroptosis and the role of ferroptosis in viral infection remain unclear. Here, we provide evidence that both CP and NCP BVDV can induce ferroptosis in Madin-Darby bovine kidney cells at similar rate. Mechanistically, biotypes of BVDV infection downregulate cytoplasmic and mitochondrial GPX4 via Nrf2-GPX4 pathway, thereby resulting in lethal lipid peroxidation and promoting ferroptosis. In parallel, BVDV can degrade ferritin heavy chain and mitochondrial ferritin via NCOA4-mediated ferritinophagy to promote the accumulation of Fe2+ and initiate ferroptosis. Importantly, CP BVDV-induced ferroptosis is tightly associated with serious damage of mitochondria and hyperactivation of inflammatory responses. In contrast, mild or unapparent damage of mitochondria and slight inflammatory responses were detected in NCP BVDV-infected cells. More importantly, different mitophagy pathways in response to mitochondria damage by both biotypes of BVDV are involved in inflammatory responses. Overall, this study is the first to show that mitochondria may play key roles in mediating ferroptosis and inflammatory responses induced by biotypes of BVDV in vitro.IMPORTANCEBovine viral diarrhea virus (BVDV) threatens a wide range of domestic and wild cattle population worldwide. BVDV causes great economic loss in cattle industry through its immunosuppression and persistent infection. Despite extensive research, the mechanism underlying the pathogenesis of BVDV remains elusive. Our data provide the first direct evidence that mitochondria-mediated ferroptosis and mitophagy are involved in inflammatory responses in both biotypes of BVDV-infected cells. Importantly, we demonstrate that the different degrees of injury of mitochondria and inflammatory responses may attribute to different mitophagy pathways induced by biotypes of BVDV. Overall, our findings uncover the interaction between BVDV infection and mitochondria-mediated ferroptosis, which shed novel light on the physiological impacts of ferroptosis on the pathogenesis of BVDV infection, and provide a promising therapeutic strategy to treat this important infectious disease with a worldwide distribution.

Exploring beyond Common Cell Death Pathways in Oral Cancer: A Systematic Review

Oral squamous cell carcinoma (OSCC) is the most common and lethal type of head and neck cancer in the world. Variable response and acquisition of resistance to traditional therapies show that it is essential to develop novel strategies that can provide better outcomes for the patient. Understanding of cellular and molecular mechanisms of cell death control has increased rapidly in recent years. Activation of cell death pathways, such as the emerging forms of non-apoptotic programmed cell death, including ferroptosis, pyroptosis, necroptosis, NETosis, parthanatos, mitoptosis and paraptosis, may represent clinically relevant novel therapeutic opportunities. This systematic review summarizes the recently described forms of cell death in OSCC, highlighting their potential for informing diagnosis, prognosis and treatment. Original studies that explored any of the selected cell deaths in OSCC were included. Electronic search, study selection, data collection and risk of bias assessment tools were realized. The literature search was carried out in four databases, and the extracted data from 79 articles were categorized and grouped by type of cell death. Ferroptosis, pyroptosis, and necroptosis represented the main forms of cell death in the selected studies, with links to cancer immunity and inflammatory responses, progression and prognosis of OSCC. Harnessing the potential of these pathways may be useful in patient-specific prognosis and individualized therapy. We provide perspectives on how these different cell death types can be integrated to develop decision tools for diagnosis, prognosis, and treatment of OSCC.

Ferroptosis at the crossroads of manganese-induced neurotoxicity: A retrospective study

Manganese is an essential trace element, but overexposure can cause neurotoxicity and subsequent neurodegenerative diseases. Ferroptosis is a form of cell death characterized by lipid peroxidation and iron overload inside cells, which is closely related to manganese neurotoxicity. Manganese can induce ferroptosis through multiple pathways: causing oxidative stress and increased cellular reactive oxygen species (ROS), resulting in lipid peroxidation; depleting glutathione (GSH) and weakening the antioxidant capacity of cells; disrupting iron metabolism and increasing iron-dependent lipid peroxidation; damaging mitochondrial function and disrupting the electron transport chain, leading to increased ROS production. Oxidative stress, iron metabolism disorders, lipid peroxidation, GSH depletion, and mitochondrial dysfunction, typical features of ferroptosis, have been observed in animal and cell models after manganese exposure. In summary, manganese can participate in the pathogenesis of neurodegenerative diseases by inducing events related to ferroptosis. This provides new insights into studying the mechanism of manganese neurotoxicity and developing therapeutic drugs.

Interplay of Ferroptosis and Cuproptosis in Cancer: Dissecting Metal-Driven Mechanisms for Therapeutic Potentials

Iron (Fe) and copper (Cu), essential transition metals, play pivotal roles in various cellular processes critical to cancer biology, including cell proliferation, mitochondrial respiration, distant metastases, and oxidative stress. The emergence of ferroptosis and cuproptosis as distinct forms of non-apoptotic cell death has heightened their significance, particularly in connection with these metal ions. While initially studied separately, recent evidence underscores the interdependence of ferroptosis and cuproptosis. Studies reveal a link between mitochondrial copper accumulation and ferroptosis induction. This interconnected relationship presents a promising strategy, especially for addressing refractory cancers marked by drug tolerance. Harnessing the toxicity of iron and copper in clinical settings becomes crucial. Simultaneous targeting of ferroptosis and cuproptosis, exemplified by the combination of sorafenib and elesclomol-Cu, represents an intriguing approach. Strategies targeting mitochondria further enhance the precision of these approaches, providing hope for improving treatment outcomes of drug-resistant cancers. Moreover, the combination of iron chelators and copper-lowering agents with established therapeutic modalities exhibits a synergy that holds promise for the augmentation of anti-tumor efficacy in various malignancies. This review elaborates on the complex interplay between ferroptosis and cuproptosis, including their underlying mechanisms, and explores their potential as druggable targets in both cancer research and clinical settings.

An in-Depth Exploration of the Genetic Interaction Network Between Ferroptosis and Acute Pancreatitis

Background

Ferroptosis plays an important role in a variety of disease processes and is equally important in pancreatic diseases. However, the role of ferroptosis-related genes (FRGs) in acute pancreatitis (AP) remains unknown, and their specific potential mechanisms still need to be explored extensively.

Methods

AP-related gene microarray data were obtained from the GEO database, while FRGs were obtained from the ferroptosis database (FerrDb). Differentially expressed genes (DEGs) were screened by the "limma" package, and GSEA was performed. The corresponding ferroptosis-related differentially expressed genes (FRDEGs) were screened, and GO and KEGG pathway analyses were performed. A PPI network was constructed to identify hub FRDEGs by CytoHubba, MCODE and CTD scores. Transcription factors and miRNAs predicted using the NetworkAnalyst database were used to establish the regulatory network. Immune cell infiltration analysis was performed by the R package "ssGSEA" algorithm. The hub genes were validated by transcriptome sequencing of AP model mice and immunohistochemistry in rats and mice.

Results

A total of 82 FRDEGs were screened, and these genes were mainly associated with ferroptosis, hypoxic response, autophagy, mitophagy and immune inflammation. However, we also found that these genes are also jointly involved in other cell death modalities, such as apoptosis and necroptosis. Further analysis obtained 7 hub genes from 82 genes, and single-sample gene set enrichment analysis (ssGSEA) showed that the hub genes are closely associated with the infiltration of specific immune cells and the activation of immune pathways.

Conclusion

This study reveals the complex functions and important roles of ferroptosis-related genes in AP and provides gene targets for further studies of AP.

Ferroptosis: a new regulatory mechanism in neuropathic pain

Neuropathic pain (NP) is pain caused by damage to the somatosensory system. It is a common progressive neurodegenerative disease that usually presents with clinical features such as spontaneous pain, touch-evoked pain, nociceptive hyperalgesia, and sensory abnormalities. Due to the complexity of the mechanism, NP often persists. In addition to the traditionally recognized mechanisms of peripheral nerve damage and central sensitization, excessive iron accumulation, oxidative stress, neuronal inflammation, and lipid peroxidation damage are distinctive features of NP in pathophysiology. However, the mechanisms linking these pathological features to NP are not fully understood. The complexity of the pathogenesis of NP greatly limits the development of therapeutic approaches for NP. Ferroptosis is a novel form of cell death discovered in recent years, in which cell death is usually accompanied by massive iron accumulation and lipid peroxidation. Ferroptosis-inducing factors can affect glutathione peroxidase directly or indirectly through different pathways, leading to decreased antioxidant capacity and accumulation of lipid reactive oxygen species (ROS) in cells, ultimately leading to oxidative cell death. It has been shown that ferroptosis is closely related to the pathophysiological process of many neurological disorders such as NP. Possible mechanisms involved are changes in intracellular iron ion levels, alteration of glutamate excitability, and the onset of oxidative stress. However, the functional changes and specific molecular mechanisms of ferroptosis during this process still need to be further explored. How to intervene in the development of NP by regulating cellular ferroptosis has become a hot issue in etiological research and treatment. In this review, we systematically summarize the recent progress of ferroptosis research in NP, to provide a reference for further understanding of its pathogenesis and propose new targets for treatment.

Iron Load Toxicity in Medicine: From Molecular and Cellular Aspects to Clinical Implications

Iron is essential for all organisms and cells. Diseases of iron imbalance affect billions of patients, including those with iron overload and other forms of iron toxicity. Excess iron load is an adverse prognostic factor for all diseases and can cause serious organ damage and fatalities following chronic red blood cell transfusions in patients of many conditions, including hemoglobinopathies, myelodyspasia, and hematopoietic stem cell transplantation. Similar toxicity of excess body iron load but at a slower rate of disease progression is found in idiopathic haemochromatosis patients. Excess iron deposition in different regions of the brain with suspected toxicity has been identified by MRI T2* and similar methods in many neurodegenerative diseases, including Alzheimer's disease and Parkinson's disease. Based on its role as the major biological catalyst of free radical reactions and the Fenton reaction, iron has also been implicated in all diseases associated with free radical pathology and tissue damage. Furthermore, the recent discovery of ferroptosis, which is a cell death program based on free radical generation by iron and cell membrane lipid oxidation, sparked thousands of investigations and the association of iron with cardiac, kidney, liver, and many other diseases, including cancer and infections. The toxicity implications of iron in a labile, non-protein bound form and its complexes with dietary molecules such as vitamin C and drugs such as doxorubicin and other xenobiotic molecules in relation to carcinogenesis and other forms of toxicity are also discussed. In each case and form of iron toxicity, the mechanistic insights, diagnostic criteria, and molecular interactions are essential for the design of new and effective therapeutic interventions and of future targeted therapeutic strategies. In particular, this approach has been successful for the treatment of most iron loading conditions and especially for the transition of thalassemia from a fatal to a chronic disease due to new therapeutic protocols resulting in the complete elimination of iron overload and of iron toxicity.