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Gentile A, Albu M, Xu Y, Mortazavi N, Ribeiro da Silva A, Stainier DYR, Gunawan F. Mechanical forces remodel the cardiac extracellular matrix during zebrafish development. Development 2024; 151:dev202310. [PMID: 38984541 PMCID: PMC11266798 DOI: 10.1242/dev.202310] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/31/2023] [Accepted: 05/07/2024] [Indexed: 07/11/2024]
Abstract
The cardiac extracellular matrix (cECM) is fundamental for organ morphogenesis and maturation, during which time it undergoes remodeling, yet little is known about whether mechanical forces generated by the heartbeat regulate this remodeling process. Using zebrafish as a model and focusing on stages when cardiac valves and trabeculae form, we found that altering cardiac contraction impairs cECM remodeling. Longitudinal volumetric quantifications in wild-type animals revealed region-specific dynamics: cECM volume decreases in the atrium but not in the ventricle or atrioventricular canal. Reducing cardiac contraction resulted in opposite effects on the ventricular and atrial ECM, whereas increasing the heart rate affected the ventricular ECM but had no effect on the atrial ECM, together indicating that mechanical forces regulate the cECM in a chamber-specific manner. Among the ECM remodelers highly expressed during cardiac morphogenesis, we found one that was upregulated in non-contractile hearts, namely tissue inhibitor of matrix metalloproteinase 2 (timp2). Loss- and gain-of-function analyses of timp2 revealed its crucial role in cECM remodeling. Altogether, our results indicate that mechanical forces control cECM remodeling in part through timp2 downregulation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alessandra Gentile
- Department of Developmental Genetics, Max Planck Institute for Heart and Lung Research, Bad Nauheim 61231, Germany
| | - Marga Albu
- Department of Developmental Genetics, Max Planck Institute for Heart and Lung Research, Bad Nauheim 61231, Germany
| | - Yanli Xu
- Department of Developmental Genetics, Max Planck Institute for Heart and Lung Research, Bad Nauheim 61231, Germany
| | - Newsha Mortazavi
- Institute of Cell Biology, Faculty of Medicine, University of Münster, Münster 48149, Germany
| | - Agatha Ribeiro da Silva
- Department of Developmental Genetics, Max Planck Institute for Heart and Lung Research, Bad Nauheim 61231, Germany
| | - Didier Y. R. Stainier
- Department of Developmental Genetics, Max Planck Institute for Heart and Lung Research, Bad Nauheim 61231, Germany
| | - Felix Gunawan
- Institute of Cell Biology, Faculty of Medicine, University of Münster, Münster 48149, Germany
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Pollitt EJG, Sánchez-Posada J, Snashall CM, Derrick CJ, Noël ES. Llgl1 mediates timely epicardial emergence and establishment of an apical laminin sheath around the trabeculating cardiac ventricle. Development 2024; 151:dev202482. [PMID: 38940292 PMCID: PMC11234374 DOI: 10.1242/dev.202482] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/26/2023] [Accepted: 05/31/2024] [Indexed: 06/29/2024]
Abstract
During heart development, the embryonic ventricle becomes enveloped by the epicardium, which adheres to the outer apical surface of the heart. This is concomitant with onset of ventricular trabeculation, where a subset of cardiomyocytes lose apicobasal polarity and delaminate basally from the ventricular wall. Llgl1 regulates the formation of apical cell junctions and apicobasal polarity, and we investigated its role in ventricular wall maturation. We found that llgl1 mutant zebrafish embryos exhibit aberrant apical extrusion of ventricular cardiomyocytes. While investigating apical cardiomyocyte extrusion, we identified a basal-to-apical shift in laminin deposition from the internal to the external ventricular wall. We find that epicardial cells express several laminin subunits as they adhere to the ventricle, and that the epicardium is required for laminin deposition on the ventricular surface. In llgl1 mutants, timely establishment of the epicardial layer is disrupted due to delayed emergence of epicardial cells, resulting in delayed apical deposition of laminin on the ventricular surface. Together, our analyses reveal an unexpected role for Llgl1 in correct timing of epicardial development, supporting integrity of the ventricular myocardial wall.
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Affiliation(s)
- Eric J. G. Pollitt
- School of Biosciences and Bateson Centre, University of Sheffield, Western Bank, Sheffield S10 2TN, UK
| | - Juliana Sánchez-Posada
- School of Biosciences and Bateson Centre, University of Sheffield, Western Bank, Sheffield S10 2TN, UK
| | - Corinna M. Snashall
- School of Biosciences and Bateson Centre, University of Sheffield, Western Bank, Sheffield S10 2TN, UK
| | - Christopher J. Derrick
- School of Biosciences and Bateson Centre, University of Sheffield, Western Bank, Sheffield S10 2TN, UK
| | - Emily S. Noël
- School of Biosciences and Bateson Centre, University of Sheffield, Western Bank, Sheffield S10 2TN, UK
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3
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Zhang H, Sen P, Hamers J, Sittig T, Woestenburg B, Moretti A, Dendorfer A, Merkus D. Retinoic acid modulation guides human-induced pluripotent stem cell differentiation towards left or right ventricle-like cardiomyocytes. Stem Cell Res Ther 2024; 15:184. [PMID: 38902843 PMCID: PMC11191368 DOI: 10.1186/s13287-024-03741-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/22/2023] [Accepted: 04/23/2024] [Indexed: 06/22/2024] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Cardiomyocytes (CMs) derived from human induced pluripotent stem cells (hiPSCs) by traditional methods are a mix of atrial and ventricular CMs and many other non-cardiomyocyte cells. Retinoic acid (RA) plays an important role in regulation of the spatiotemporal development of the embryonic heart. METHODS CMs were derived from hiPSC (hi-PCS-CM) using different concentrations of RA (Control without RA, LRA with 0.05μM and HRA with 0.1 μM) between day 3-6 of the differentiation process. Engineered heart tissues (EHTs) were generated by assembling hiPSC-CM at high cell density in a low collagen hydrogel. RESULTS In the HRA group, hiPSC-CMs exhibited highest expression of contractile proteins MYH6, MYH7 and cTnT. The expression of TBX5, NKX2.5 and CORIN, which are marker genes for left ventricular CMs, was also the highest in the HRA group. In terms of EHT, the HRA group displayed the highest contraction force, the lowest beating frequency, and the highest sensitivity to hypoxia and isoprenaline, which means it was functionally more similar to the left ventricle. RNAsequencing revealed that the heightened contractility of EHT within the HRA group can be attributed to the promotion of augmented extracellular matrix strength by RA. CONCLUSION By interfering with the differentiation process of hiPSC with a specific concentration of RA at a specific time, we were able to successfully induce CMs and EHTs with a phenotype similar to that of the left ventricle or right ventricle.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hengliang Zhang
- Walter Brendel Center for Experimental Medicine (WBex), University Clinic Munich, LMU Munich, 81377, Munich, Germany
- Center for Cardiovascular Research (DZHK), Munich Heart Alliance (MHA), Partner Site Munich, 81377, Munich, Germany
- The First Affiliated Hospital, College of Clinical Medicine of Henan, University of Science and Technology, Luoyang, China
| | - Payel Sen
- Walter Brendel Center for Experimental Medicine (WBex), University Clinic Munich, LMU Munich, 81377, Munich, Germany
- Center for Cardiovascular Research (DZHK), Munich Heart Alliance (MHA), Partner Site Munich, 81377, Munich, Germany
- Interfaculty Center for Endocrine and Cardiovascular Disease Network Modelling and Clinical Transfer (ICONLMU), LMU Munich, Munich, Germany
| | - Jules Hamers
- Walter Brendel Center for Experimental Medicine (WBex), University Clinic Munich, LMU Munich, 81377, Munich, Germany
- Center for Cardiovascular Research (DZHK), Munich Heart Alliance (MHA), Partner Site Munich, 81377, Munich, Germany
- Interfaculty Center for Endocrine and Cardiovascular Disease Network Modelling and Clinical Transfer (ICONLMU), LMU Munich, Munich, Germany
| | - Theresa Sittig
- Walter Brendel Center for Experimental Medicine (WBex), University Clinic Munich, LMU Munich, 81377, Munich, Germany
- Center for Cardiovascular Research (DZHK), Munich Heart Alliance (MHA), Partner Site Munich, 81377, Munich, Germany
- Interfaculty Center for Endocrine and Cardiovascular Disease Network Modelling and Clinical Transfer (ICONLMU), LMU Munich, Munich, Germany
| | - Brent Woestenburg
- Walter Brendel Center for Experimental Medicine (WBex), University Clinic Munich, LMU Munich, 81377, Munich, Germany
| | - Allessandra Moretti
- Center for Cardiovascular Research (DZHK), Munich Heart Alliance (MHA), Partner Site Munich, 81377, Munich, Germany
- First Department of Medicine, Klinikum Rechts der Isar, School of Medicine and Health, Technical University of Munich, Cardiology, Munich, Germany
- Regenerative Medicine in Cardiovascular Diseases, First Department of Medicine, Klinikum Rechts der Isar, School of Medicine and Health, Technical University of Munich, Munich, Germany
| | - Andreas Dendorfer
- Walter Brendel Center for Experimental Medicine (WBex), University Clinic Munich, LMU Munich, 81377, Munich, Germany
- Center for Cardiovascular Research (DZHK), Munich Heart Alliance (MHA), Partner Site Munich, 81377, Munich, Germany
| | - Daphne Merkus
- Walter Brendel Center for Experimental Medicine (WBex), University Clinic Munich, LMU Munich, 81377, Munich, Germany.
- Center for Cardiovascular Research (DZHK), Munich Heart Alliance (MHA), Partner Site Munich, 81377, Munich, Germany.
- Interfaculty Center for Endocrine and Cardiovascular Disease Network Modelling and Clinical Transfer (ICONLMU), LMU Munich, Munich, Germany.
- Division of Experimental Cardiology, Dept of Cardiology, Erasmus University Medical Center, 3000CA, Rotterdam, The Netherlands.
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Boezio GLM, Zhao S, Gollin J, Priya R, Mansingh S, Guenther S, Fukuda N, Gunawan F, Stainier DYR. The developing epicardium regulates cardiac chamber morphogenesis by promoting cardiomyocyte growth. Dis Model Mech 2023; 16:dmm049571. [PMID: 36172839 PMCID: PMC9612869 DOI: 10.1242/dmm.049571] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/22/2022] [Accepted: 09/13/2022] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
The epicardium, the outermost layer of the heart, is an important regulator of cardiac regeneration. However, a detailed understanding of the crosstalk between the epicardium and myocardium during development requires further investigation. Here, we generated three models of epicardial impairment in zebrafish by mutating the transcription factor genes tcf21 and wt1a, and ablating tcf21+ epicardial cells. Notably, all three epicardial impairment models exhibited smaller ventricles. We identified the initial cause of this phenotype as defective cardiomyocyte growth, resulting in reduced cell surface and volume. This failure of cardiomyocyte growth was followed by decreased proliferation and increased abluminal extrusion. By temporally manipulating its ablation, we show that the epicardium is required to support cardiomyocyte growth mainly during early cardiac morphogenesis. By transcriptomic profiling of sorted epicardial cells, we identified reduced expression of FGF and VEGF ligand genes in tcf21-/- hearts, and pharmacological inhibition of these signaling pathways in wild type partially recapitulated the ventricular growth defects. Taken together, these data reveal distinct roles of the epicardium during cardiac morphogenesis and signaling pathways underlying epicardial-myocardial crosstalk.
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Affiliation(s)
- Giulia L. M. Boezio
- Department of Developmental Genetics, Max Planck Institute for Heart and Lung Research, 61231 Bad Nauheim, Germany
- DZHK German Centre for Cardiovascular Research, Partner Site Rhine-Main, 61231 Bad Nauheim, Germany
- Cardio-Pulmonary Institute, Aulweg 130, 35392 Giessen, Germany
| | - Shengnan Zhao
- Department of Developmental Genetics, Max Planck Institute for Heart and Lung Research, 61231 Bad Nauheim, Germany
| | - Josephine Gollin
- Department of Developmental Genetics, Max Planck Institute for Heart and Lung Research, 61231 Bad Nauheim, Germany
| | - Rashmi Priya
- Department of Developmental Genetics, Max Planck Institute for Heart and Lung Research, 61231 Bad Nauheim, Germany
- Cardio-Pulmonary Institute, Aulweg 130, 35392 Giessen, Germany
| | - Shivani Mansingh
- Department of Developmental Genetics, Max Planck Institute for Heart and Lung Research, 61231 Bad Nauheim, Germany
| | - Stefan Guenther
- Cardio-Pulmonary Institute, Aulweg 130, 35392 Giessen, Germany
- Bioinformatics and Deep Sequencing Platform, Max Planck Institute for Heart and Lung Research, 61231 Bad Nauheim, Germany
| | - Nana Fukuda
- Department of Developmental Genetics, Max Planck Institute for Heart and Lung Research, 61231 Bad Nauheim, Germany
| | - Felix Gunawan
- Department of Developmental Genetics, Max Planck Institute for Heart and Lung Research, 61231 Bad Nauheim, Germany
- DZHK German Centre for Cardiovascular Research, Partner Site Rhine-Main, 61231 Bad Nauheim, Germany
- Cardio-Pulmonary Institute, Aulweg 130, 35392 Giessen, Germany
| | - Didier Y. R. Stainier
- Department of Developmental Genetics, Max Planck Institute for Heart and Lung Research, 61231 Bad Nauheim, Germany
- DZHK German Centre for Cardiovascular Research, Partner Site Rhine-Main, 61231 Bad Nauheim, Germany
- Cardio-Pulmonary Institute, Aulweg 130, 35392 Giessen, Germany
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Wei YL, Lei YQ, Ye ZJ, Zhuang XD, Zhu LP, Wang XR, Cao H. Effects of bepridil on early cardiac development of zebrafish. Cell Tissue Res 2023; 391:375-391. [PMID: 36422735 PMCID: PMC9686465 DOI: 10.1007/s00441-022-03706-w] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/02/2022] [Accepted: 11/06/2022] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
Abstract
Bepridil is a commonly used medication for arrhythmia and heart failure. It primarily exerts hemodynamic effects by inhibiting Na+/K+ movement and regulating the Na+/Ca2+ exchange. In comparison to other Ca2+ inhibitors, bepridil has a long half-life and a complex pharmacology. Additionally, it is widely used in antiviral research and the treatment of various diseases. However, the toxicity of this compound and its other possible effects on embryonic development are unknown. In this study, we investigated the toxicity of bepridil on rat myocardial H9c2 cells. After treatment with bepridil, the cells became overloaded with Ca2+ and entered a state of cytoplasmic vacuolization and nuclear abnormality. Bepridil treatment resulted in several morphological abnormalities in zebrafish embryo models, including pericardium enlargement, yolk sac swelling, and growth stunting. The hemodynamic effects on fetal development resulted in abnormal cardiovascular circulation and myocardial weakness. After inhibiting the Ca2+ transmembrane, the liver of zebrafish larvae also displayed an ectopic and deficient spatial location. Additionally, the results of the RNA-seq analysis revealed the detailed gene expression profiles and metabolic responses to bepridil treatment in zebrafish embryonic development. Taken together, our study provides an important evaluation of antiarrhythmic agents for clinical use in prenatal heart patients.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ya-Lan Wei
- NHC Key Laboratory of Technical Evaluation of Fertility Regulation for Non-Human Primate, Fujian Maternity and Child Health Hospital, Fuzhou, Fujian, 350013, China
- College of Clinical Medicine for Obstetrics & Gynecology and Pediatrics, Fujian Medical University, Fuzhou, Fujian, 350122, China
- Medical Research Center, Fujian Maternity and Child Health Hospital, Fuzhou, Fujian, 350001, China
| | - Yu-Qing Lei
- NHC Key Laboratory of Technical Evaluation of Fertility Regulation for Non-Human Primate, Fujian Maternity and Child Health Hospital, Fuzhou, Fujian, 350013, China
- College of Clinical Medicine for Obstetrics & Gynecology and Pediatrics, Fujian Medical University, Fuzhou, Fujian, 350122, China
| | - Zhou-Jie Ye
- NHC Key Laboratory of Technical Evaluation of Fertility Regulation for Non-Human Primate, Fujian Maternity and Child Health Hospital, Fuzhou, Fujian, 350013, China
- College of Clinical Medicine for Obstetrics & Gynecology and Pediatrics, Fujian Medical University, Fuzhou, Fujian, 350122, China
- Medical Research Center, Fujian Maternity and Child Health Hospital, Fuzhou, Fujian, 350001, China
| | - Xu-Dong Zhuang
- NHC Key Laboratory of Technical Evaluation of Fertility Regulation for Non-Human Primate, Fujian Maternity and Child Health Hospital, Fuzhou, Fujian, 350013, China
- College of Clinical Medicine for Obstetrics & Gynecology and Pediatrics, Fujian Medical University, Fuzhou, Fujian, 350122, China
- Medical Research Center, Fujian Maternity and Child Health Hospital, Fuzhou, Fujian, 350001, China
| | - Li-Ping Zhu
- NHC Key Laboratory of Technical Evaluation of Fertility Regulation for Non-Human Primate, Fujian Maternity and Child Health Hospital, Fuzhou, Fujian, 350013, China
- College of Clinical Medicine for Obstetrics & Gynecology and Pediatrics, Fujian Medical University, Fuzhou, Fujian, 350122, China
- Medical Research Center, Fujian Maternity and Child Health Hospital, Fuzhou, Fujian, 350001, China
| | - Xin-Rui Wang
- NHC Key Laboratory of Technical Evaluation of Fertility Regulation for Non-Human Primate, Fujian Maternity and Child Health Hospital, Fuzhou, Fujian, 350013, China.
- College of Clinical Medicine for Obstetrics & Gynecology and Pediatrics, Fujian Medical University, Fuzhou, Fujian, 350122, China.
- Medical Research Center, Fujian Maternity and Child Health Hospital, Fuzhou, Fujian, 350001, China.
| | - Hua Cao
- NHC Key Laboratory of Technical Evaluation of Fertility Regulation for Non-Human Primate, Fujian Maternity and Child Health Hospital, Fuzhou, Fujian, 350013, China.
- College of Clinical Medicine for Obstetrics & Gynecology and Pediatrics, Fujian Medical University, Fuzhou, Fujian, 350122, China.
- Medical Research Center, Fujian Maternity and Child Health Hospital, Fuzhou, Fujian, 350001, China.
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6
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Rowton M, Perez-Cervantes C, Hur S, Jacobs-Li J, Lu E, Deng N, Guzzetta A, Hoffmann AD, Stocker M, Steimle JD, Lazarevic S, Oubaha S, Yang XH, Kim C, Yu S, Eckart H, Koska M, Hanson E, Chan SSK, Garry DJ, Kyba M, Basu A, Ikegami K, Pott S, Moskowitz IP. Hedgehog signaling activates a mammalian heterochronic gene regulatory network controlling differentiation timing across lineages. Dev Cell 2022; 57:2181-2203.e9. [PMID: 36108627 PMCID: PMC10506397 DOI: 10.1016/j.devcel.2022.08.009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/14/2022] [Revised: 06/24/2022] [Accepted: 08/22/2022] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
Abstract
Many developmental signaling pathways have been implicated in lineage-specific differentiation; however, mechanisms that explicitly control differentiation timing remain poorly defined in mammals. We report that murine Hedgehog signaling is a heterochronic pathway that determines the timing of progenitor differentiation. Hedgehog activity was necessary to prevent premature differentiation of second heart field (SHF) cardiac progenitors in mouse embryos, and the Hedgehog transcription factor GLI1 was sufficient to delay differentiation of cardiac progenitors in vitro. GLI1 directly activated a de novo progenitor-specific network in vitro, akin to that of SHF progenitors in vivo, which prevented the onset of the cardiac differentiation program. A Hedgehog signaling-dependent active-to-repressive GLI transition functioned as a differentiation timer, restricting the progenitor network to the SHF. GLI1 expression was associated with progenitor status across germ layers, and it delayed the differentiation of neural progenitors in vitro, suggesting a broad role for Hedgehog signaling as a heterochronic pathway.
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Affiliation(s)
- Megan Rowton
- Departments of Pediatrics, Pathology, Human Genetics, and Genetic Medicine, The University of Chicago, Chicago, IL, USA
| | - Carlos Perez-Cervantes
- Departments of Pediatrics, Pathology, Human Genetics, and Genetic Medicine, The University of Chicago, Chicago, IL, USA
| | - Suzy Hur
- Departments of Pediatrics, Pathology, Human Genetics, and Genetic Medicine, The University of Chicago, Chicago, IL, USA
| | - Jessica Jacobs-Li
- Departments of Pediatrics, Pathology, Human Genetics, and Genetic Medicine, The University of Chicago, Chicago, IL, USA
| | - Emery Lu
- Departments of Pediatrics, Pathology, Human Genetics, and Genetic Medicine, The University of Chicago, Chicago, IL, USA
| | - Nikita Deng
- Departments of Pediatrics, Pathology, Human Genetics, and Genetic Medicine, The University of Chicago, Chicago, IL, USA
| | - Alexander Guzzetta
- Departments of Pediatrics, Pathology, Human Genetics, and Genetic Medicine, The University of Chicago, Chicago, IL, USA
| | - Andrew D Hoffmann
- Departments of Pediatrics, Pathology, Human Genetics, and Genetic Medicine, The University of Chicago, Chicago, IL, USA
| | - Matthew Stocker
- Departments of Pediatrics, Pathology, Human Genetics, and Genetic Medicine, The University of Chicago, Chicago, IL, USA
| | - Jeffrey D Steimle
- Departments of Pediatrics, Pathology, Human Genetics, and Genetic Medicine, The University of Chicago, Chicago, IL, USA
| | - Sonja Lazarevic
- Departments of Pediatrics, Pathology, Human Genetics, and Genetic Medicine, The University of Chicago, Chicago, IL, USA
| | - Sophie Oubaha
- Departments of Pediatrics, Pathology, Human Genetics, and Genetic Medicine, The University of Chicago, Chicago, IL, USA
| | - Xinan H Yang
- Departments of Pediatrics, Pathology, Human Genetics, and Genetic Medicine, The University of Chicago, Chicago, IL, USA
| | - Chul Kim
- Departments of Pediatrics, Pathology, Human Genetics, and Genetic Medicine, The University of Chicago, Chicago, IL, USA
| | - Shuhan Yu
- Departments of Pediatrics, Pathology, Human Genetics, and Genetic Medicine, The University of Chicago, Chicago, IL, USA
| | - Heather Eckart
- Departments of Pediatrics, Pathology, Human Genetics, and Genetic Medicine, The University of Chicago, Chicago, IL, USA
| | - Mervenaz Koska
- Departments of Pediatrics, Pathology, Human Genetics, and Genetic Medicine, The University of Chicago, Chicago, IL, USA
| | - Erika Hanson
- Departments of Pediatrics, Pathology, Human Genetics, and Genetic Medicine, The University of Chicago, Chicago, IL, USA
| | - Sunny S K Chan
- Lillehei Heart Institute, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, MN 55455, USA; Department of Pediatrics, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, MN 55455, USA
| | - Daniel J Garry
- Lillehei Heart Institute, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, MN 55455, USA; Department of Pediatrics, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, MN 55455, USA
| | - Michael Kyba
- Lillehei Heart Institute, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, MN 55455, USA; Department of Pediatrics, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, MN 55455, USA
| | - Anindita Basu
- Departments of Pediatrics, Pathology, Human Genetics, and Genetic Medicine, The University of Chicago, Chicago, IL, USA
| | - Kohta Ikegami
- Departments of Pediatrics, Pathology, Human Genetics, and Genetic Medicine, The University of Chicago, Chicago, IL, USA
| | - Sebastian Pott
- Departments of Pediatrics, Pathology, Human Genetics, and Genetic Medicine, The University of Chicago, Chicago, IL, USA
| | - Ivan P Moskowitz
- Departments of Pediatrics, Pathology, Human Genetics, and Genetic Medicine, The University of Chicago, Chicago, IL, USA.
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