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Soon JW, Manca MA, Laskowska A, Starkova J, Rohlenova K, Rohlena J. Aspartate in tumor microenvironment and beyond: Metabolic interactions and therapeutic perspectives. Biochim Biophys Acta Mol Basis Dis 2024; 1870:167451. [PMID: 39111633 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbadis.2024.167451] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/10/2024] [Revised: 07/19/2024] [Accepted: 07/31/2024] [Indexed: 08/11/2024]
Abstract
Aspartate is a proteinogenic non-essential amino acid with several essential functions in proliferating cells. It is mostly produced in a cell autonomous manner from oxalacetate via glutamate oxalacetate transaminases 1 or 2 (GOT1 or GOT2), but in some cases it can also be salvaged from the microenvironment via transporters such as SLC1A3 or by macropinocytosis. In this review we provide an overview of biosynthetic pathways that produce aspartate endogenously during proliferation. We discuss conditions that favor aspartate uptake as well as possible sources of exogenous aspartate in the microenvironment of tumors and bone marrow, where most available data have been generated. We highlight metabolic fates of aspartate, its various functions, and possible approaches to target aspartate metabolism for cancer therapy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Julian Wong Soon
- Institute of Biotechnology of the Czech Academy of Sciences, Prumyslova 595, 252 50 Vestec, Prague-West, Czech Republic
| | - Maria Antonietta Manca
- Institute of Biotechnology of the Czech Academy of Sciences, Prumyslova 595, 252 50 Vestec, Prague-West, Czech Republic
| | - Agnieszka Laskowska
- Institute of Biotechnology of the Czech Academy of Sciences, Prumyslova 595, 252 50 Vestec, Prague-West, Czech Republic
| | - Julia Starkova
- CLIP (Childhood Leukaemia Investigation Prague), Department of Pediatric Hematology and Oncology, Second Faculty of Medicine, Charles University and Motol University Hospital, Prague, Czech Republic
| | - Katerina Rohlenova
- Institute of Biotechnology of the Czech Academy of Sciences, Prumyslova 595, 252 50 Vestec, Prague-West, Czech Republic.
| | - Jakub Rohlena
- Institute of Biotechnology of the Czech Academy of Sciences, Prumyslova 595, 252 50 Vestec, Prague-West, Czech Republic.
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2
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Dong Y, Wang J, Grewer C. Transient kinetics reveal the mechanism of competitive inhibition of the neutral amino acid transporter ASCT2. J Biol Chem 2024; 300:107382. [PMID: 38763337 PMCID: PMC11193019 DOI: 10.1016/j.jbc.2024.107382] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/10/2024] [Revised: 04/23/2024] [Accepted: 05/10/2024] [Indexed: 05/21/2024] Open
Abstract
ASCT2 (alanine serine cysteine transporter 2), a member of the solute carrier 1 family, mediates Na+-dependent exchange of small neutral amino acids across cell membranes. ASCT2 was shown to be highly expressed in tumor cells, making it a promising target for anticancer therapies. In this study, we explored the binding mechanism of the high-affinity competitive inhibitor L-cis hydroxyproline biphenyl ester (Lc-BPE) with ASCT2, using electrophysiological and rapid kinetic methods. Our investigations reveal that Lc-BPE binding requires one or two Na+ ions initially bound to the apo-transporter with high affinity, with Na1 site occupancy being more critical for inhibitor binding. In contrast to the amino acid substrate bound form, the final, third Na+ ion cannot bind, due to distortion of its binding site (Na2), thus preventing the formation of a translocation-competent complex. Based on the rapid kinetic analysis, the application of Lc-BPE generated outward transient currents, indicating that despite its net neutral nature, the binding of Lc-BPE in ASCT2 is weakly electrogenic, most likely because of asymmetric charge distribution within the amino acid moiety of the inhibitor. The preincubation with Lc-BPE also led to a decrease of the turnover rate of substrate exchange and a delay in the activation of substrate-induced anion current, indicating relatively slow Lc-BPE dissociation kinetics. Overall, our results provide new insight into the mechanism of binding of a prototypical competitive inhibitor to the ASCT transporters.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yang Dong
- Department of Chemistry, Binghamton University, Binghamton, New York, USA
| | - Jiali Wang
- Department of Chemistry, Binghamton University, Binghamton, New York, USA
| | - Christof Grewer
- Department of Chemistry, Binghamton University, Binghamton, New York, USA.
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Hutchinson K, Schlessinger A. Comprehensive Characterization of LAT1 Cholesterol-Binding Sites. J Chem Theory Comput 2024; 20:3349-3358. [PMID: 38597304 DOI: 10.1021/acs.jctc.3c01391] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 04/11/2024]
Abstract
The human L-type amino acid transporter 1 (LAT1; SLC7A5), is an amino acid exchanger protein, primarily found in the blood-brain barrier, placenta, and testis, where it plays a key role in amino acid homeostasis. Cholesterol is an essential lipid that has been highlighted to play a role in regulating the activity of membrane transporters, such as LAT1, yet little is known about the molecular mechanisms driving this phenomenon. Here we perform a comprehensive computational analysis to investigate cholesterol's role in LAT1 structure and function, focusing on four cholesterol-binding sites (CHOL1-4) identified in a recent LAT1-apo inward-open conformation cryo-EM structure. Through a series of independent molecular dynamics (MD) simulations, molecular docking, MM/GBSA free energy calculations, and other analysis tools, we explored the interactions between LAT1 and cholesterol. Our findings suggest that CHOL3 forms the most stable and favorable interactions with LAT1. Principal component analysis (PCA) and center of mass (COM) distance assessments show that CHOL3 binding stabilizes the inward-open state of LAT1 by preserving the spatial arrangement of the hash and bundle domains. Additionally, we propose an alternative cholesterol-binding site for originally assigned CHOL1. Overall, this study improves the understanding of cholesterol's modulatory effect on LAT1 and proposes candidate sites for the discovery of future allosteric ligands with rational design.
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Affiliation(s)
- Keino Hutchinson
- Department of Pharmacological Sciences, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York, New York 10029, United States
| | - Avner Schlessinger
- Department of Pharmacological Sciences, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York, New York 10029, United States
- Department of Artificial Intelligence and Human Health, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York, New York 10029, United States
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Tu G, Fu T, Zheng G, Xu B, Gou R, Luo D, Wang P, Xue W. Computational Chemistry in Structure-Based Solute Carrier Transporter Drug Design: Recent Advances and Future Perspectives. J Chem Inf Model 2024; 64:1433-1455. [PMID: 38294194 DOI: 10.1021/acs.jcim.3c01736] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/01/2024]
Abstract
Solute carrier transporters (SLCs) are a class of important transmembrane proteins that are involved in the transportation of diverse solute ions and small molecules into cells. There are approximately 450 SLCs within the human body, and more than a quarter of them are emerging as attractive therapeutic targets for multiple complex diseases, e.g., depression, cancer, and diabetes. However, only 44 unique transporters (∼9.8% of the SLC superfamily) with 3D structures and specific binding sites have been reported. To design innovative and effective drugs targeting diverse SLCs, there are a number of obstacles that need to be overcome. However, computational chemistry, including physics-based molecular modeling and machine learning- and deep learning-based artificial intelligence (AI), provides an alternative and complementary way to the classical drug discovery approach. Here, we present a comprehensive overview on recent advances and existing challenges of the computational techniques in structure-based drug design of SLCs from three main aspects: (i) characterizing multiple conformations of the proteins during the functional process of transportation, (ii) identifying druggability sites especially the cryptic allosteric ones on the transporters for substrates and drugs binding, and (iii) discovering diverse small molecules or synthetic protein binders targeting the binding sites. This work is expected to provide guidelines for a deep understanding of the structure and function of the SLC superfamily to facilitate rational design of novel modulators of the transporters with the aid of state-of-the-art computational chemistry technologies including artificial intelligence.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gao Tu
- Chongqing Key Laboratory of Natural Product Synthesis and Drug Research, School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Chongqing University, Chongqing 401331, China
| | - Tingting Fu
- College of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou 310058, China
| | | | - Binbin Xu
- Chengdu Sintanovo Biotechnology Co., Ltd., Chengdu 610200, China
| | - Rongpei Gou
- Chongqing Key Laboratory of Natural Product Synthesis and Drug Research, School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Chongqing University, Chongqing 401331, China
| | - Ding Luo
- Chongqing Key Laboratory of Natural Product Synthesis and Drug Research, School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Chongqing University, Chongqing 401331, China
| | - Panpan Wang
- College of Chemistry and Pharmaceutical Engineering, Huanghuai University, Zhumadian 463000, China
| | - Weiwei Xue
- Chongqing Key Laboratory of Natural Product Synthesis and Drug Research, School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Chongqing University, Chongqing 401331, China
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Xia R, Peng HF, Zhang X, Zhang HS. Comprehensive review of amino acid transporters as therapeutic targets. Int J Biol Macromol 2024; 260:129646. [PMID: 38272411 DOI: 10.1016/j.ijbiomac.2024.129646] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/24/2023] [Revised: 01/17/2024] [Accepted: 01/18/2024] [Indexed: 01/27/2024]
Abstract
The solute carrier (SLC) family, with more than 400 membrane-bound proteins, facilitates the transport of a wide array of substrates such as nutrients, ions, metabolites, and drugs across biological membranes. Amino acid transporters (AATs) are membrane transport proteins that mediate transfer of amino acids into and out of cells or cellular organelles. AATs participate in many important physiological functions including nutrient supply, metabolic transformation, energy homeostasis, redox regulation, and neurological regulation. Several AATs have been found to significantly impact the progression of human malignancies, and dysregulation of AATs results in metabolic reprogramming affecting tumor growth and progression. However, current clinical therapies that directly target AATs have not been developed. The purpose of this review is to highlight the structural and functional diversity of AATs, the molecular mechanisms in human diseases such as tumors, kidney diseases, and emerging therapeutic strategies for targeting AATs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ran Xia
- College of Chemistry and Life Science, Beijing University of Technology, Pingleyuan 100(#), District of Chaoyang, Beijing 100124, China
| | - Hai-Feng Peng
- College of Chemistry and Life Science, Beijing University of Technology, Pingleyuan 100(#), District of Chaoyang, Beijing 100124, China
| | - Xing Zhang
- College of Chemistry and Life Science, Beijing University of Technology, Pingleyuan 100(#), District of Chaoyang, Beijing 100124, China
| | - Hong-Sheng Zhang
- College of Chemistry and Life Science, Beijing University of Technology, Pingleyuan 100(#), District of Chaoyang, Beijing 100124, China.
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Cheng X, Wang Y, Gong G, Shen P, Li Z, Bian J. Design strategies and recent development of bioactive modulators for glutamine transporters. Drug Discov Today 2024; 29:103880. [PMID: 38216118 DOI: 10.1016/j.drudis.2024.103880] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/12/2023] [Revised: 12/25/2023] [Accepted: 01/08/2024] [Indexed: 01/14/2024]
Abstract
Glutamine transporters are integral to the metabolism of glutamine in both healthy tissues and cancerous cells, playing a pivotal role in maintaining amino acid balance, synthesizing biomolecules, and regulating redox equilibrium. Their critical functions in cellular metabolism make them promising targets for oncological therapies. Recent years have witnessed substantial progress in the field of glutamine transporters, marked by breakthroughs in understanding of their protein structures and the discovery of novel inhibitors, prodrugs, and radiotracers. This review provides a comprehensive update on the latest advancements in modulators targeting the glutamine transporter, with special attention given to LAT1 and ASCT2. It also discusses innovative approaches in drug design aimed at these transporters.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xinying Cheng
- School of Pharmacy, China Pharmaceutical University, Nanjing 210009, China
| | - Yezhi Wang
- School of Pharmacy, China Pharmaceutical University, Nanjing 210009, China
| | - Guangyue Gong
- School of Pharmacy, China Pharmaceutical University, Nanjing 210009, China
| | - Pei Shen
- School of Pharmacy, China Pharmaceutical University, Nanjing 210009, China
| | - Zhiyu Li
- School of Pharmacy, China Pharmaceutical University, Nanjing 210009, China.
| | - Jinlei Bian
- School of Pharmacy, China Pharmaceutical University, Nanjing 210009, China.
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Jakobsen S, Nielsen CU. Exploring Amino Acid Transporters as Therapeutic Targets for Cancer: An Examination of Inhibitor Structures, Selectivity Issues, and Discovery Approaches. Pharmaceutics 2024; 16:197. [PMID: 38399253 PMCID: PMC10893028 DOI: 10.3390/pharmaceutics16020197] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/19/2023] [Revised: 01/18/2024] [Accepted: 01/28/2024] [Indexed: 02/25/2024] Open
Abstract
Amino acid transporters are abundant amongst the solute carrier family and have an important role in facilitating the transfer of amino acids across cell membranes. Because of their impact on cell nutrient distribution, they also appear to have an important role in the growth and development of cancer. Naturally, this has made amino acid transporters a novel target of interest for the development of new anticancer drugs. Many attempts have been made to develop inhibitors of amino acid transporters to slow down cancer cell growth, and some have even reached clinical trials. The purpose of this review is to help organize the available information on the efforts to discover amino acid transporter inhibitors by focusing on the amino acid transporters ASCT2 (SLC1A5), LAT1 (SLC7A5), xCT (SLC7A11), SNAT1 (SLC38A1), SNAT2 (SLC38A2), and PAT1 (SLC36A1). We discuss the function of the transporters, their implication in cancer, their known inhibitors, issues regarding selective inhibitors, and the efforts and strategies of discovering inhibitors. The goal is to encourage researchers to continue the search and development within the field of cancer treatment research targeting amino acid transporters.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sebastian Jakobsen
- Department of Physics, Chemistry and Pharmacy, University of Southern Denmark, Campusvej 55, DK-5230 Odense, Denmark
| | - Carsten Uhd Nielsen
- Department of Physics, Chemistry and Pharmacy, University of Southern Denmark, Campusvej 55, DK-5230 Odense, Denmark
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Huang T, Zhou J, Wang B, Wang X, Xiao W, Yang M, Liu Y, Wang Q, Xiang Y, Lan X. Integrated Amino Acids and Transcriptome Analysis Reveals Arginine Transporter SLC7A2 Is a Novel Regulator of Myogenic Differentiation. Int J Mol Sci 2023; 25:95. [PMID: 38203268 PMCID: PMC10778648 DOI: 10.3390/ijms25010095] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/20/2023] [Revised: 12/12/2023] [Accepted: 12/16/2023] [Indexed: 01/12/2024] Open
Abstract
Skeletal muscle differentiation is a precisely coordinated process. While many of the molecular details of myogenesis have been investigated extensively, the dynamic changes and functions of amino acids and related transporters remain unknown. In this study, we conducted a comprehensive analysis of amino acid levels during different time points of C2C12 myoblast differentiation using high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC). Our findings revealed that the levels of most amino acids exhibited an initial increase at the onset of differentiation, reaching their peak typically on the fourth or sixth day, followed by a decline on the eighth day. Particularly, arginine and branched-chain amino acids showed a prominent increase during this period. Furthermore, we used RNA-seq analysis to show that the gene encoding the arginine transporter, Slc7a2, is significantly upregulated during differentiation. Knockdown of Slc7a2 gene expression resulted in a significant decrease in myoblast proliferation and led to a reduction in the expression levels of crucial myogenic regulatory factors, hindering the process of myoblast differentiation, fusion, and subsequent myotube formation. Lastly, we assessed the expression level of Slc7a2 during aging in humans and mice and found an upregulation of Slc7a2 expression during the aging process. These findings collectively suggest that the arginine transporter SLC7A2 plays a critical role in facilitating skeletal muscle differentiation and may hold potential as a therapeutic target for sarcopenia.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | - Yang Xiang
- Metabolic Control and Aging—Jiangxi Key Laboratory of Human Aging, Human Aging Research Institute (HARI), School of Life Science, Nanchang University, Nanchang 330031, China (Q.W.)
| | - Xinqiang Lan
- Metabolic Control and Aging—Jiangxi Key Laboratory of Human Aging, Human Aging Research Institute (HARI), School of Life Science, Nanchang University, Nanchang 330031, China (Q.W.)
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