Mitochondrial protein import clogging as a mechanism of disease

Reactive oxygen species control protein degradation at the mitochondrial import gate

While reactive oxygen species (ROS) have long been known to drive aging and neurodegeneration, their persistent depletion below basal levels also disrupts organismal function. Cells counteract loss of basal ROS via the reductive stress response, but the identity and biochemical activity of ROS sensed by this pathway remain unknown. Here, we show that the central enzyme of the reductive stress response, the E3 ligase Cullin 2-FEM1 homolog B (CUL2FEM1B), specifically acts at mitochondrial TOM complexes, where it senses ROS produced by complex III of the electron transport chain (ETC). ROS depletion during times of low ETC activity triggers the localized degradation of CUL2FEM1B substrates, which sustains mitochondrial import and ensures the biogenesis of the rate-limiting ETC complex IV. As complex III yields most ROS when the ETC outpaces metabolic demands or oxygen availability, basal ROS are sentinels of mitochondrial activity that help cells adjust their ETC to changing environments, as required for cell differentiation and survival.

An updated outlook on autophagy mechanism and how it supports acute myeloid leukemia maintenance

The gradual acquisition of genetic and epigenetic disturbances bestows malignant traits upon hematopoietic stem cells, subverting them into a founder and reservoir cell for de novo acute myeloid leukemia (AML) known as leukemic stem cells (LSC). Beyond its molecular heterogeneity, AML is also characterized by rewiring biological processes to support its onset and maintenance. LSC were observed to inherently and actively trigger mitochondrial turnover through selective autophagic removal such that impairing the process led to cell differentiation at the expense of its stemness. This review provides a current take on autophagy regulation mechanisms according to the current molecular characterization of the process; describes autophagy as a drug resistance mechanism, and a pivotal mechanism whereby LSC harmonize their strong reliance on mitochondrial respiration to obtain energy, and their necessity for lower internal oxidative stress to avoid exhaustion. Therefore, targeting autophagy presents a promising strategy to promote long-term remissions in AML.

Conserved quality control mechanisms of mitochondrial protein import

Mitochondria carry out essential functions for the cell, including energy production, various biosynthesis pathways, formation of co-factors and cellular signalling in apoptosis and inflammation. The functionality of mitochondria requires the import of about 900-1300 proteins from the cytosol in baker's yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae and human cells, respectively. The vast majority of these proteins pass the outer membrane in a largely unfolded state through the translocase of the outer mitochondrial membrane (TOM) complex. Subsequently, specific protein translocases sort the precursor proteins into the outer and inner membranes, the intermembrane space and matrix. Premature folding of mitochondrial precursor proteins, defects in the mitochondrial protein translocases or a reduction of the membrane potential across the inner mitochondrial membrane can cause stalling of precursors at the protein import apparatus. Consequently, the translocon is clogged and non-imported precursor proteins accumulate in the cell, which in turn leads to proteotoxic stress and eventually cell death. To prevent such stress situations, quality control mechanisms remove non-imported precursor proteins from the TOM channel. The highly conserved ubiquitin-proteasome system of the cytosol plays a critical role in this process. Thus, the surveillance of protein import via the TOM complex involves the coordinated activity of mitochondria-localized and cytosolic proteins to prevent proteotoxic stress in the cell.

ATAD1 prevents clogging of TOM and damage caused by un-imported mitochondrial proteins

Mitochondria require the constant import of nuclear-encoded proteins for proper functioning. Impaired protein import not only depletes mitochondria of essential factors but also leads to toxic accumulation of un-imported proteins outside the organelle. Here, we investigate the consequences of impaired mitochondrial protein import in human cells. We demonstrate that un-imported proteins can clog the mitochondrial translocase of the outer membrane (TOM). ATAD1, a mitochondrial ATPase, removes clogged proteins from TOM to clear the entry gate into the mitochondria. ATAD1 interacts with both TOM and stalled proteins, and its knockout results in extensive accumulation of mitochondrial precursors as well as decreased protein import. Increased ATAD1 expression contributes to improved fitness of cells with inefficient mitochondrial protein import. Overall, we demonstrate the importance of the ATAD1 quality control pathway in surveilling protein import and its contribution to cellular health.

Monitoring retro-translocation of proteins from the mitochondrial intermembrane space

Mitochondria play multiple essential roles in eukaryotic cells. To perform their functions, mitochondria require an adequate supply of externally produced proteins and an intact two-membrane structure. The structure of mitochondrial membranes separates these organelles from their cytosolic environment, with proteins that make up the mitochondrial proteome either being embedded into or enveloped by these membranes. From the experimental point of view, the structural properties of mitochondria contribute to the relative ease of isolating these organelles from other cellular components. The ability to isolate intact mitochondria and analyze them in a well-controlled environment opens up the possibility of tracking any proteins that enter or escape the membrane-formed enclosure. This chapter discusses assays that monitor the movement of proteins out of mitochondria through intact membranes. These protocols provide insight into the mechanisms behind mitochondrial protein quality control. It was discovered that the retro-translocation of IMS proteins regulates the protein content of this specific sub-compartment of the organelle. Additionally, proteins can move out of the mitochondria to resolve failed import events. Assays based on isolated mitochondria precisely tackle such intricate 'dance' of proteins crossing mitochondrial membranes during import and export, maintaining the dynamics of the organellar proteome.

Mitochondrial complexome and import network

Mitochondria perform crucial functions in cellular metabolism, protein and lipid biogenesis, quality control, and signaling. The systematic analysis of protein complexes and interaction networks provided exciting insights into the structural and functional organization of mitochondria. Most mitochondrial proteins do not act as independent units, but are interconnected by stable or dynamic protein-protein interactions. Protein translocases are responsible for importing precursor proteins into mitochondria and form central elements of several protein interaction networks. These networks include molecular chaperones and quality control factors, metabolite channels and respiratory chain complexes, and membrane and organellar contact sites. Protein translocases link the distinct networks into an overarching network, the mitochondrial import network (MitimNet), to coordinate biogenesis, membrane organization and function of mitochondria.

Dry molten globule conformational state of CYP11A1 (SCC) regulates the first step of steroidogenesis in the mitochondrial matrix

Multiple metabolic events occur in mitochondria. Mitochondrial protein translocation from the cytoplasm across compartments depends on the amino acid sequence within the precursor. At the mitochondria associated-ER membrane, misfolding of a mitochondrial targeted protein prior to import ablates metabolism. CYP11A1, cytochrome P450 cholesterol side chain cleavage enzyme (SCC), is imported from the cytoplasm to mitochondrial matrix catalyzing cholesterol to pregnenolone, an essential step for metabolic processes and mammalian survival. Multiple steps regulate the availability of an actively folded SCC; however, the mechanism is unknown. We identified that a dry molten globule state of SCC exists in the matrix by capturing intermediate protein folding steps dictated by its C-terminus. The intermediate dry molten globule state in the mitochondrial matrix of living cells is stable with a limited network of interaction and is inactive. The dry molten globule is activated with hydrogen ions availability, triggering cleavage of cholesterol sidechain, and initiating steroidogenesis.

OMA1 protease eliminates arrested protein import intermediates upon mitochondrial depolarization

Most mitochondrial proteins originate from the cytosol and require transport into the organelle. Such precursor proteins must be unfolded to pass through translocation channels in mitochondrial membranes. Misfolding of transported proteins can result in their arrest and translocation failure. Arrested proteins block further import, disturbing mitochondrial functions and cellular proteostasis. Cellular responses to translocation failure have been defined in yeast. We developed the cell line-based translocase clogging model to discover molecular mechanisms that resolve failed import events in humans. The mechanism we uncover differs significantly from these described in fungi, where ATPase-driven extraction of blocked protein is directly coupled with proteasomal processing. We found human cells to rely primarily on mitochondrial factors to clear translocation channel blockage. The mitochondrial membrane depolarization triggered proteolytic cleavage of the stalled protein, which involved mitochondrial protease OMA1. The cleavage allowed releasing the protein fragment that blocked the translocase. The released fragment was further cleared in the cytosol by VCP/p97 and the proteasome.

Mitochondrial quality control pathways sense mitochondrial protein import

Mitochondrial quality control (MQC) mechanisms are required to maintain a functional proteome, which enables mitochondria to perform a myriad of important cellular functions from oxidative phosphorylation to numerous other metabolic pathways. Mitochondrial protein homeostasis begins with the import of over 1000 nuclear-encoded mitochondrial proteins and the synthesis of 13 mitochondrial DNA-encoded proteins. A network of chaperones and proteases helps to fold new proteins and degrade unnecessary, damaged, or misfolded proteins, whereas more extensive damage can be removed by mitochondrial-derived vesicles (MDVs) or mitochondrial autophagy (mitophagy). Here, focusing on mechanisms in mammalian cells, we review the importance of mitochondrial protein import as a sentinel of mitochondrial function that activates multiple MQC mechanisms when impaired.

The ER-SURF pathway uses ER-mitochondria contact sites for protein targeting to mitochondria

Most mitochondrial proteins are synthesized on cytosolic ribosomes and imported into mitochondria in a post-translational reaction. Mitochondrial precursor proteins which use the ER-SURF pathway employ the surface of the endoplasmic reticulum (ER) as an important sorting platform. How they reach the mitochondrial import machinery from the ER is not known. Here we show that mitochondrial contact sites play a crucial role in the ER-to-mitochondria transfer of precursor proteins. The ER mitochondria encounter structure (ERMES) and Tom70, together with Djp1 and Lam6, are part of two parallel and partially redundant ER-to-mitochondria delivery routes. When ER-to-mitochondria transfer is prevented by loss of these two contact sites, many precursors of mitochondrial inner membrane proteins are left stranded on the ER membrane, resulting in mitochondrial dysfunction. Our observations support an active role of the ER in mitochondrial protein biogenesis.

Navigating the landscape of mitochondrial-ER communication in health and disease

Intracellular organelle communication enables the maintenance of tissue homeostasis and health through synchronized adaptive processes triggered by environmental cues. Mitochondrial-Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER) communication sustains cellular fitness by adjusting protein synthesis and degradation, and metabolite and protein trafficking through organelle membranes. Mitochondrial-ER communication is bidirectional and requires that the ER-components of the Integrated Stress Response signal to mitochondria upon activation and, likewise, mitochondria signal to the ER under conditions of metabolite and protein overload to maintain proper functionality and ensure cellular survival. Declines in the mitochondrial-ER communication occur upon ageing and correlate with the onset of a myriad of heterogeneous age-related diseases such as obesity, type 2 diabetes, cancer, or neurodegenerative pathologies. Thus, the exploration of the molecular mechanisms of mitochondrial-ER signaling and regulation will provide insights into the most fundamental cellular adaptive processes with important therapeutical opportunities. In this review, we will discuss the pathways and mechanisms of mitochondrial-ER communication at the mitochondrial-ER interface and their implications in health and disease.

Mechanisms of stress management in mitochondrial protein import

Mitochondria are vital to the functions of eukaryotic cells. Most mitochondrial proteins are transported into the organelle following their synthesis by cytoplasmic ribosomes. However, precise protein targeting is complex because the two diverse lipid membranes encase mitochondria. Efficient protein translocation across membranes and accurate sorting to specific sub-compartments require the cooperation of multiple factors. Any failure in mitochondrial protein import can disrupt organelle fitness. Proteins intended for mitochondria make up a significant portion of all proteins produced in the cytosol. Therefore, import defects causing their mislocalization can significantly stress cellular protein homeostasis. Recognition of this phenomenon has increased interest in molecular mechanisms that respond to import-related stress and restore proteostasis, which is the focus of this review. Significantly, disruptions in protein homeostasis link strongly to the pathology of several degenerative disorders highly relevant in ageing societies. A comprehensive understanding of protein import quality control will allow harnessing this machinery in therapeutic approaches.

Adenine nucleotide carrier protein dysfunction in human disease

Adenine nucleotide translocase (ANT) is the prototypical member of the mitochondrial carrier protein family, primarily involved in ADP/ATP exchange across the inner mitochondrial membrane. Several carrier proteins evolutionarily related to ANT, including SLC25A24 and SLC25A25, are believed to promote the exchange of cytosolic ATP-Mg2+ with phosphate in the mitochondrial matrix. They allow a net accumulation of adenine nucleotides inside mitochondria, which is essential for mitochondrial biogenesis and cell growth. In the last two decades, mutations in the heart/muscle isoform 1 of ANT (ANT1) and the ATP-Mg2+ transporters have been found to cause a wide spectrum of human diseases by a recessive or dominant mechanism. Although loss-of-function recessive mutations cause a defect in oxidative phosphorylation and an increase in oxidative stress which drives the pathology, it is unclear how the dominant missense mutations in these proteins cause human diseases. In this review, we focus on how yeast was productively used as a model system for the understanding of these dominant diseases. We also describe the relationship between the structure and function of ANT and how this may relate to various pathologies. Particularly, mutations in Aac2, the yeast homolog of ANT, were recently found to clog the mitochondrial protein import pathway. This leads to mitochondrial precursor overaccumulation stress (mPOS), characterized by the toxic accumulation of unimported mitochondrial proteins in the cytosol. We anticipate that in coming years, yeast will continue to serve as a useful model system for the mechanistic understanding of mitochondrial protein import clogging and related pathologies in humans.

Mitochondrial protein import clogging as a mechanism of disease

Mitochondrial biogenesis requires the import of >1,000 mitochondrial preproteins from the cytosol. Most studies on mitochondrial protein import are focused on the core import machinery. Whether and how the biophysical properties of substrate preproteins affect overall import efficiency is underexplored. Here, we show that protein traffic into mitochondria can be disrupted by amino acid substitutions in a single substrate preprotein. Pathogenic missense mutations in ADP/ATP translocase 1 (ANT1), and its yeast homolog ADP/ATP carrier 2 (Aac2), cause the protein to accumulate along the protein import pathway, thereby obstructing general protein translocation into mitochondria. This impairs mitochondrial respiration, cytosolic proteostasis, and cell viability independent of ANT1's nucleotide transport activity. The mutations act synergistically, as double mutant Aac2/ANT1 causes severe clogging primarily at the translocase of the outer membrane (TOM) complex. This confers extreme toxicity in yeast. In mice, expression of a super-clogger ANT1 variant led to neurodegeneration and an age-dependent dominant myopathy that phenocopy ANT1-induced human disease, suggesting clogging as a mechanism of disease. More broadly, this work implies the existence of uncharacterized amino acid requirements for mitochondrial carrier proteins to avoid clogging and subsequent disease.