Biotensegrity: a unifying theory of biological architecture with applications to osteopathic practice, education, and research--a review and analysis

Spikebot: A Multigait Tensegrity Robot with Linearly Extending Struts

Numerous recent research efforts have leveraged networks of rigid struts and flexible cables, called tensegrity structures, to create highly resilient and packable mobile robots. However, the locomotion of existing tensegrity robots is limited in terms of both speed and number of distinct locomotion modes, restricting the environments that a robot is capable of exploring. In this study, we present a tensegrity robot inspired by the volumetric expansion of Tetraodontidae. The robot, referred to herein as Spikebot, employs pneumatically actuated rigid struts to expand its global structure and produce diverse gaits. Spikebot is composed of linear actuators that dually serve as rigid struts linked by elastic cables for stability. The linearly actuating struts can selectively protrude to initiate thrust- and instability-driven locomotion primitives. Such motion primitives allow Spikebot to reliably locomote, achieving rolling, lifting, and jumping. To highlight Spikebot's potential for robotic exploration, we demonstrate how it achieves multi-dimensional locomotion over varied terrestrial conditions.

The Sentient Cell: Implications for Osteopathic Medicine

The Foundation of Osteopathic Research and Clinical Endorsement (FORCE) is an organization that includes various figures involved in clinical and non-profit research and does not depend on any private or government body. To better understand how the human body behaves, we need to observe cellular behavior. Considering the human body as layers, districts, and regions, or just as a machine, is severely limiting to understanding the systemic mechanisms that are implemented to maintain bodily health. For some years, FORCE has contributed several articles to the literature to support the view of a human body as a unit, a fascial continuum (solid and fluid fascia) capable of interacting consciously, and not as a passive mirror, with respect to external stresses. The article reviews the tensegrity theory applied to the cell, trying to bring to light that the mechanistic vision on which this theory is based does not meet biological reality. We review some concepts related to biology, the science that studies life, and quantum physics, the science that studies the invisible physical phenomena that underlie life. Understanding that the cells and tissues are aware of the therapeutic approaches they receive could better guide the decisions of the osteopathic clinician.

An upright life, the postural stability of birds: a tensegrity system

Birds are so stable that they can rest and even sleep standing up. We propose that stable static balance is achieved by tensegrity. The rigid bones can be held together by tension in the tendons, allowing the system to stabilize under the action of gravity. We used the proportions of the bird's osteomuscular system to create a mathematical model. First, the extensor muscles and tendons of the leg are replaced by a single cable that follows the leg and is guided by joint pulleys. Analysis of the model shows that it can achieve balance. However, it does not match the biomechanical characteristics of the bird's body and is not stable. We then replaced the single cable with four cables, roughly corresponding to the extensor groups, and added a ligament loop at the knee. The model is then able to reach a stable equilibrium and the biomechanical characteristics are satisfied. Some of the anatomical features used in our model correspond to innovations unique to the avian lineage. We propose that tensegrity, which allows light and stable mechanical systems, is fundamental to the evolution of the avian body plan. It can also be used as an alternative model for bipedal robots.

The effects of mechanical force on fibroblast behavior in cutaneous injury

Wound healing results in the formation of scar tissue which can be associated with functional impairment, psychological stress, and significant socioeconomic cost which exceeds 20 billion dollars annually in the United States alone. Pathologic scarring is often associated with exaggerated action of fibroblasts and subsequent excessive accumulation of extracellular matrix proteins which results in fibrotic thickening of the dermis. In skin wounds, fibroblasts transition to myofibroblasts which contract the wound and contribute to remodeling of the extracellular matrix. Mechanical stress on wounds has long been clinically observed to result in increased pathologic scar formation, and studies over the past decade have begun to uncover the cellular mechanisms that underly this phenomenon. In this article, we will review the investigations which have identified proteins involved in mechano-sensing, such as focal adhesion kinase, as well as other important pathway components that relay the transcriptional effects of mechanical forces, such as RhoA/ROCK, the hippo pathway, YAP/TAZ, and Piezo1. Additionally, we will discuss findings in animal models which show the inhibition of these pathways to promote wound healing, reduce contracture, mitigate scar formation, and restore normal extracellular matrix architecture. Recent advances in single cell RNA sequencing and spatial transcriptomics and the resulting ability to further characterize mechanoresponsive fibroblast subpopulations and the genes that define them will be summarized. Given the importance of mechanical signaling in scar formation, several clinical treatments focused on reducing tension on the wound have been developed and are described here. Finally, we will look toward future research which may reveal novel cellular pathways and deepen our understanding of the pathogenesis of pathologic scarring. The past decade of scientific inquiry has drawn many lines connecting these cellular mechanisms that may lead to a map for the development of transitional treatments for patients on the path to scarless healing.

Multi-Directional Shape Change Analysis of Biotensegrity Model Mimicking Human Spine Curvature

This paper presents a numerical strategy for the shape change analysis of spine biotensegrity models in multi-directional modes. The formulation of incremental equilibrium equations and optimization problem for shape change analysis via the forced elongation of cables to achieve the target coordinates of the monitored nodes of spine biotensegrity models are presented. The distance between the monitored nodes and the target coordinates is chosen as the objective function which is minimized subject to inequality constraints on member axial forces and cable forced elongation. Three spine biotensegrity models were analyzed to validate the effectiveness of the proposed method. The deformation characteristics of the Class-1 four-stage biotensegrity models mimicking the natural curvature of the human spine were investigated. A highly successful rate in achieving the target coordinates was observed in a total of 258 analysis cases, with percentages of 99.9%, 99.9% and 98.9% for shape change analysis involving uni-, bi- and tri-directional modes, respectively. The results show that the spine biotensegrity models have more flexibility in undergoing bending in comparison with axial deformation. With the established shape change strategy, the flexibility and versatility of the movement of spine biotensegrity models can be further studied for potential application in the shape change control of deployable structures together with the use of IoT.

Effects of Isometric Plantar-Flexion on the Lower Limb Muscle and Lumbar Tissue Stiffness

Purpose: This study investigated the effects of isometric plantar-flexion against different resistances on the thoracolumbar fascia (TLF), erector spinae (ES), and gastrocnemius stiffness by shear wave elastography (SWE). The purpose was to explore the interaction between the lower limb muscle and lumbar tissue in the myofascial tensegrity network.

Methods: Twenty healthy young female were recruited in this study. The stiffness of the TLF, ES, medial gastrocnemius (MG), and lateral gastrocnemius (LG) was measured by SWE under four isometric plantar-flexion resistance conditions. The resistance conditions involved 0% maximum voluntary isometric contraction (MVIC), 20% MVIC, 40% MVIC, and 60% MVIC.

Results: There was a strong correlation between the stiffness change of MG and that of TLF (r = 0.768–0.943, p < 0.001) and ES (r = 0.743–0.930, p < 0.001), while it was moderate to strong correlation between MG and that of LG (r = 0.588–0.800, p < 0.001). There was no significant difference in the stiffness between the nondominant and dominant sides of TLF and ES under the resting position (p > 0.05). The increase in stiffness of the TLF, ES, MG, and LG, with MVIC percentage (p < 0.05), and the stiffness of TLF and ES on the nondominant side is much higher than that on the dominant side.

Conclusions: Our data shows that isometric plantar-flexion has a significant effect on the stiffness of the lumbar soft tissue and gastrocnemius. The gastrocnemius has a strong correlation with the stiffness changes of TLF and ES, which provides preliminary evidence for exploring the myofascial tensegrity network between the dorsal side of the lower limb muscle and lumbar tissue.

Leptomeningeal anastomoses: Mechanisms of pial collateral remodeling in ischemic stroke

Arterial collateralization, as determined by leptomeningeal anastomoses or pial collateral vessels, is a well‐established vital player in cerebral blood flow restoration and neurological recovery from ischemic stroke. A secondary network of cerebral collateral circulation apart from the Circle of Willis, exist as remnants of arteriole development that connect the distal arteries in the pia mater. Recent interest lies in understanding the cellular and molecular adaptations that control the growth and remodeling, or arteriogenesis, of these pre‐existing collateral vessels. New findings from both animal models and human studies of ischemic stroke suggest a multi‐factorial and complex, temporospatial interplay of endothelium, immune and vessel‐associated cell interactions may work in concert to facilitate or thwart arteriogenesis. These valuable reports may provide critical insight into potential predictors of the pial collateral response in patients with large vessel occlusion and may aid in therapeutics to enhance collateral function and improve recovery from stroke.

This article is categorized under:

Neurological Diseases > Molecular and Cellular Physiology

Cytoskeletal Tensegrity in Microgravity

In order for Man to venture further into Space he will have to adapt to its conditions, including microgravity. Life as we know it has evolved on Earth with a substantial gravitational field. If they spend considerable time away from Earth, astronauts experience physiological, mental, and anatomical changes. It is not clear if these are pathological or adaptations. However, it is true that they experience difficulties on their return to stronger gravity. The cytoskeleton is a key site for the detection of gravitational force within the body, due to its tensegrity architecture. In order to understand what happens to living beings in space, we will need to unravel the role cytoskeletal tensegrity architecture plays in the building and function of cells, organs, the body, and mind.

The Hypothesis of Biotensegrity and D. D. Palmer's Hypothesis on Tone: A Discussion of Their Alignment

OBJECTIVE

The purpose of this article is to compare D. D. Palmer's hypothesis of tone with the modern hypothesis of biotensegrity.

DISCUSSION

Although researchers have been using the hypothesis of biotensegrity for over 40 years to explain the mechanics of movement within biological systems, it has experienced revived support in the last 25 years. Biotensegrity as a concept is applied at the molecular, cellular, tissue, and organ levels, revealing a different understanding of the architecture of biological organisms. Biotensegrity offers a way of exploring the human body in the field of functional anatomy. The model has become popular among bodywork and movement practitioners, as it recognizes the wholeness of the human body. D. D. Palmer used tone to explain the origin of disease; biotensegrity, instead, explains why certain diseases may develop.

CONCLUSION

The concept of tone hypothesized by D. D. Palmer is different from the modern concept of biotensegrity. Although biotensegrity offers a different way of seeing how the human body functions, using it as a theoretical framework to explain the effects of manual therapies such as chiropractic may be premature. The use of the biotensegrity hypothesis requires further research and investigation before application in clinical settings.

Form-Finding of Spine Inspired Biotensegrity Model

This paper presents a study on form-finding of four-stage class one self-equilibrated spine biotensegrity models. Advantageous features such as slenderness and natural curvature of the human spine, as well as the stabilizing network that consists of the spinal column and muscles, were modeled and incorporated in the mathematical formulation of the spine biotensegrity models. Form-finding analysis, which involved determination of independent self-equilibrium stress modes using generalized inverse and their linear combination, was carried out. Form-finding strategy for searching the self-equilibrated models was studied through two approaches: application of various combinations of (1) twist angles and (2) nodal coordinates. A total of three configurations of the spine biotensegrity models with different sizes of triangular cell were successfully established for the first time in this study. All members in the spine biotensegrity models satisfied the assumption of linear elastic material behavior. With the established spine biotensegrity model, the advantageous characteristics of flexibility and versatility of movement can be further studied for potential application in deployable structures and flexible arm in the robotic industry.

The Shape and Function of Solid Fascias Depend on the Presence of Liquid Fascias

Scientific research is not a showcase of his own talent or own resources, it is a chance to improve common knowledge on certain topics for the collective well-being. A researcher should use multidisciplinarity to observe a phenomenon in its entirety and not only its alignment of thought, federations, committees, and knowledge; to get to understand it is necessary to exploit more tools and more disciplines. The article discusses the importance of the fluids (or liquid fascia) in maintaining the shape and function of the human body, as, currently, many texts forget how much body fluids are fundamental for understanding structural dynamics (bones and muscles, fibrils, and cells). By revisiting the current literature, the text wishes to highlight how the liquid fascia determines body adaptation in the presence of mechanical stress. Without fluids, there would be no body shape that we know.

Development of a biotensegrity focused therapy for the treatment of pelvic organ prolapse: A retrospective case series

INTRODUCTION

Pelvic organ prolapse (POP), the bulging of pelvic organs into the vagina, is a common condition thought to be caused by weak pelvic tissue. There is a paucity of evidence supporting current treatment approaches. This case series proposes a new biotensegrity-focused hypothesis that POP is caused by taut pelvic tissue and that releasing pelvic tension will improve POP.

METHODS

Three retrospective patient cohorts are presented illustrating the development of the new biotensegrity-focused therapy (BFT) approach. All women received: postural assessment; pelvic tissue examination; and myofascial release of taut pelvic tissue, trigger points, and scar tissue. A standard assessment protocol (SOTAP) recorded patients' Subjective experience, the therapist's Objective assessment, the Treatment plan, Assessment of treatment outcomes, and subsequent treatment and self-care Plans. Cohort three additionally self-reported symptoms using the short-form PDFI-20 questionnaire at baseline and after final treatment.

RESULTS

Twenty-three women participated (Cohort 1 n = 7; Cohort 2 n = 7; Cohort 3 n = 9). Fourteen (61%) presented with cystocele, 10 (44%) urethracele, 7 (30%), cervical descent, and 17 (74%) rectocele. Seven (30%) presented with single prolapse, 8 (35%) double, 6 (26%) triple, and 2 (9%) quadruple. Median treatments received was 5 (range 3-8). All women reported improved prolapse symptoms. Cohort 3 (n = 9) reported clinically meaningful reductions (mean 56%) in PFDI-20 total after final treatment.

CONCLUSIONS

This case series offers preliminary evidence for the association between POP and pelvic tissue tension. Further research is needed to explore these findings and to determine the efficacy of BFT for treating POP in a wider sample.

Rotator phases in alkane systems: In bulk, surface layers and micro/nano-confinements

Medium- and long-chain alkanes and their mixtures possess a remarkable physical property - they form intermediate structured phases between their isotropic liquid phase and their fully ordered crystal phase. These intermediate phases are called "rotator phases" or "plastic phases" (soft solids) because the incorporated alkane molecules possess a long-range positional order while preserving certain mobility to rotate, which results in complex visco-plastic rheological behaviour. The current article presents a brief overview of our current understanding of the main phenomena involved in the formation of rotator phases from single alkanes and their mixtures. In bulk, five rotator phases with different structures were identified and studied in detail. Along with the thermodynamically stable rotator phases, metastable and transient (short living) rotator phases were observed. Bulk rotator phases provided important information about several interfacial phenomena of high scientific interest, such as the energy of crystal nucleation, entropy and enthalpy of alkane freezing, interfacial energy between a crystal and its melt, etc. In alkane mixtures, the region of existence of rotator phases increases significantly, reflecting the disturbed packing of different molecules. All these phenomena are very important in the context of alkane applications as lubricants, in cosmetics, as phase-change materials for energy storage, etc. Significant expansion of the domain of rotator phases was observed also in confinements - in the pores of solid materials impregnated with alkanes, in polymeric microcapsules containing alkanes, and in micrometer sized emulsion droplets. The rotator phases were invoked to explain the mechanisms of two recently discovered phenomena in cooled alkane-in-water emulsions - the spontaneous "self-shaping" and the spontaneous "self-bursting" (fragmentation) of emulsion drops. The so-called "α-phases" formed by fatty acids and alcohols, and the "gel phase" formed in phospholipid and soap systems exhibit structural characteristics similar to those in the alkane rotator phases. The subtle connections between all these diverse systems are outlined, providing a unified outlook of the main phenomena related to the formation of such soft solid materials. The occurrence of alkane rotator phases in natural materials and in several technological applications is also reviewed to illustrate the general importance of these unique materials and the related phenomena.

Biotensegrity or Fascintegrity?

The biotensegrity view of the living is a theoretical model and there is no mathematical study in vitro or in vivo that demonstrates its validity, taking into account the presence of liquids (blood, lymph, water), the tension produced by nerves and blood vessels, just as the displacement of the viscera and their resistances and contractions are not taken into consideration. The concept of cellular transduction is reviewed as it is the key to understanding if the passage of different mechanical information occurs only through solid structures, such as the cytoskeleton, or even liquid and viscous. The article focuses on reviewing the weaknesses of the biotensegrity model in the light of new scientific information, trying to coin another term that better reflects the dynamics of living: fascintegrity.

Decreased amplitude of surface electromyo- graphic recordings of muscle activation along the posterior myofascial kinematic chain in subjects with chronic nonspecific low back pain compared to healthy subjects

BACKGROUND

The concept of myofascial continuity suggests that muscles activate along kinematic chains with common fascial coverings. Yet, the literature lacks evidence in regards to the function of anatomical chains in populations suffering from low back pain (LBP).

OBJECTIVE

To examine muscle activations along the superficial back line in LBP patients compared to healthy controls.

METHODS

The sample study included 20 males with chronic LBP (mean age 28.7 (± 3.05) years, mean BMI 24.91 (± 2.76)) and 17 healthy controls (mean age 31.06 (± 7.76) years, mean BMI 23.46 (± 3.43)). Muscle activation (gastrocnemius, hamstrings, erector spine, and upper trapezius) along the superficial back line was measured using surface EMG. All subjects underwent five test conditions: Conditions 1-3 involved passive movement, active movement and active movement against maximum isometric resistance of the right gastrocnemius muscle. Conditions 4 and 5 involved neck extension without and with isometric resistance from the prone position. The main outcome was relative muscle activation amplitude between research and control subjects.

RESULTS

Muscle activation along the posterior anatomical chain was observed during distal movement (plantar flexion or neck extension). LBP patients showed significant lower muscle activation in the erector spine of lower back region compared with the control group during active plantar flexion and active neck extension (p< 0.05). Lower muscle activation in other regions (gastrocnemius, hamstrings, erector spine level T6) was observed in the research group (although not significant).

CONCLUSION

LBP may cause or result in a lower muscle activation of the posterior kinematic myofascial chain muscles.

A New Concept of Biotensegrity Incorporating Liquid Tissues: Blood and Lymph

The definition of fascia includes tissues of mesodermal derivation, considered as specialized connective tissue: blood and lymph. As water shapes rocks, bodily fluids modify shapes and functions of bodily structures. Bodily fluids are silent witnesses of the mechanotransductive information, allowing adaptation and life, transporting biochemical and hormonal signals. While the solid fascial tissue divides, supports, and connects the different parts of the body system, the liquid fascial tissue feeds and transports messages for the solid fascia. The focus of this article is to reconsider the model of biotensegrity because it does not take into account the liquid fascia, and to try to integrate the fascial continuum with the lymph and the blood in a new model. The name given to this new model is RAIN—Rapid Adaptability of Internal Network.

Meaning of the Solid and Liquid Fascia to Reconsider the Model of Biotensegrity

The definition of fascia includes tissues of mesodermal derivation considered as specialized connective tissues: the blood and lymph. As water shapes rocks, bodily fluids modify the shape and functioning of bodily structures. Bodily fluids are silent witnesses to mechanotransductive information, allowing adaptation and life, transporting biochemical and hormonal signals. While the solid fascial tissue divides, supports, and connects the different parts of the body system, the liquid fascial tissue feeds and transports messages for the solid fascia. This article reconsiders the model of biotensegrity, by revising the definition of solid and liquid fascia, and tries to integrate the fascial continuum with the lymph and blood in a new model, because in the previous model, these two liquid elements were not taken into consideration. The name given to this new model is Rapid Adaptability of Internal Network (RAIN).

Interexaminer reliability study of a standardized myofascial diagnostic technique of the superior thoracic inlet

Regional fascial motion palpation is often incorporated by osteopathic practitioners to enable them to identify superior thoracic inlet (STI) myofascial somatic dysfunction motion patterns; however without standardized instruction, diagnostic outcomes may vary between examiners. This study proposes a protocol for diagnosing the STI motion pattern that standardizes examiner hand placement, palpatory discrimination, posture, and relative body positioning. The study design incorporated useful infrastructure recommended by the Fédération Internationale de Médecine Manuelle (FIMM) including protocol agreement steps prior to conducting the formal interexaminer reliability study with the goals of attaining >80% interexaminer agreement and kappa values >0.6 for each cardinal plane. The agreement phase comprised of testing 52 participants acquired agreements of 92.3% (rotation), 88.9% (translation), and 94.2% (sagittal). Kappa value testing involving an additional 82 participants obtained values of 0.65 (rotation), 0.59 (translation), and 0.70 (sagittal). Such kappa values endorse fair-to-excellent positive interexaminer correlations, demonstrating utility of this standardized palpatory protocol for STI myofascial dysfunctional diagnosis.

Interleukin-1β, lipocalin 2 and nitric oxide synthase 2 are mechano-responsive mediators of mouse and human endothelial cell-osteoblast crosstalk

Endothelial cells are spatially close to osteoblasts and regulate osteogenesis. Moreover, they are sensitive to mechanical stimuli, therefore we hypothesized that they are implicated in the regulation of bone metabolism during unloading. Conditioned media from endothelial cells (EC-CM) subjected to simulated microgravity (0.08g and 0.008g) increased osteoblast proliferation and decreased their differentiation compared to unit gravity (1g) EC-CM. Microgravity-EC-CM increased the expression of osteoblast Rankl and subsequent osteoclastogenesis, and induced the osteoblast de-differentiating factor, Lipocalin 2 (Lcn2), whose downregulation recovered osteoblast activity, decreased Rankl expression and reduced osteoclastogenesis. Microgravity-EC-CM enhanced osteoblast NO-Synthase2 (NOS2) and CycloOXygenase2 (COX2) expression. Inhibition of NOS2 or NO signaling reduced osteoblast proliferation and rescued their differentiation. Nuclear translocation of the Lcn2/NOS2 transcription factor, NF-κB, occurred in microgravity-EC-CM-treated osteoblasts and in microgravity-treated endothelial cells, alongside high expression of the NF-κB activator, IL-1β. IL-1β depletion and NF-κB inhibition reduced osteoblast proliferation and rescued differentiation. Lcn2 and NOS2 were incremented in ex vivo calvarias cultured in microgravity-EC-CM, and in vivo tibias and calvarias injected with microgravity-EC-CM. Furthermore, tibias of botulin A toxin-treated and tail-suspended mice, which featured unloading and decreased bone mass, showed higher expression of IL-1β, Lcn2 and Nos2, suggesting their pathophysiologic involvement in endothelial cell-osteoblast crosstalk.

The biomechanical model in manual therapy: Is there an ongoing crisis or just the need to revise the underlying concept and application?

Different approaches to body biomechanics are based on the classical concept of "ideal posture" which is regarded as the state where body mass is distributed in such a way that ligamentous tensions neutralize the force of gravity and muscles retain their normal tone, as result of the integration of somatic components related to posture and balance mechanisms. When compromised, optimal posture can be restored through the balanced and effective use of musculoskeletal components; however, various research findings and the opinion of experts in this field suggest a move away from the dogmas that have characterized the idea of health dependent on ideal posture, to promote instead dynamic approaches based on the interdependency of the body systems as well as on the full participation of the person in the healing process. Following these concepts, this article proposes a revised biomechanical model that sees posture as the temporary result of the individual's current ability to adapt to the existing allostatic load through the dynamic interaction of extero-proprio-interoceptive information integrated at a neuromyofascial level. Treatments using this revised model aim to restore the optimal posture available to the person in that particular given moment, through the efficient and balanced use of neuro-myofascia-skeletal components in order to normalize aberrant postural responses, to promote interoceptive and proprioceptive integration and to optimize individual responses to the existing allostatic load. The latter is achieved via multimodal programs of intervention, in a salutogenic approach that, from a traditional perspective, evolves on an anthropological basis, to the point of centering its work on the person.

Surface electromyographic recordings after passive and active motion along the posterior myofascial kinematic chain in healthy male subjects

OBJECTIVE

To map the association of muscle activations along the superficial back line (SBL) using separate conditions of active range of motion with and without resistance and passive range of motion.

METHOD

Using surface electromyography, electrodes were placed at specific points along the SBL. Twenty healthy adult males (aged 25.35 ± 1.24 years and body mass index 23.78 ± 2.12) underwent five test conditions. Conditions 1-3 involved passive movement, active movement and active movement against maximum isometric resistance (IR) of the right gastrocnemius and conditions 4 and 5 involved neck extension without and with isometric resistance from prone position.

RESULTS

Passive and active motion without resistance found no significant (p > 0.05) correlations at any electrodes. Maximum IR yielded significant (p < 0.05) correlations with medium to very strong correlations at almost all electrodes. Neck extension without and with resistance showed significant medium to very strong correlations though the posterior superior iliac spine and right hamstring, respectively.

CONCLUSION

Results demonstrated significant associations between the test condition muscle activations and muscle activations along the contiguous SBL. Thus, showing a need for a complete evaluation of the SBL in patients suffering from myofascial pain at all locations along it.