1
|
Cadaillon AM, Mattera B, Albizzi A, Montoya N, Maldonado S, Raya Rey A, Riccialdelli L, Almandoz GO, Schloss IR. Multispecies mass mortality in the Beagle Channel associated with paralytic shellfish toxins. HARMFUL ALGAE 2024; 132:102581. [PMID: 38331545 DOI: 10.1016/j.hal.2024.102581] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/06/2023] [Revised: 12/06/2023] [Accepted: 01/10/2024] [Indexed: 02/10/2024]
Abstract
The Beagle Channel is a Subantarctic semi-estuarine environment at the southern tip of South America, where intoxication events associated with harmful algal blooms have been reported since 1886, including a world record in toxicity due to Alexandrium catenella in 1992. Toxic algae affect public health and ecosystem services, particularly mussel aquaculture and fisheries management. During the austral summer of 2022, an intense bloom of A. catenella (5 × 104 cells L-1) occurred in the Beagle Channel, leading to the second most toxic event in the area, with mussel toxicity reaching 197,266 µg STXeq kg-1. This event was synchronous with the mortality of marine organisms from different trophic levels and terrestrial fauna, i.e., two Fuegian red foxes and a southern caracara. Stomach content and liver samples from dead kelp gulls (Larus dominicanus), Magellanic penguins (Spheniscus magellanicus), papua penguins (Pygoscelis papua), and imperial cormorants (Leucocarbo atriceps), presented variable paralytic shellfish toxins (PST) levels (up to 3427 µg STXeq kg-1) as measured by high performance liquid chromatography (HPLC), suggesting that deaths were associated with high PST toxicity level. The different toxin profiles found in phytoplankton, zooplankton, squat lobsters (Grimothea gregaria), Fuegian sprat (Sprattus fuegensis), and seabirds evidenced possible toxin transformation along the food web and the possible transfer vectors. The unexpected detection of PST in terrestrial fauna (up to 2707 µg STXeq kg-1) suggested intoxication by scavenging on squat lobsters, which had high toxicity (26,663 µg STXeq kg-1). PST trace levels were also detected in a liver sample of a dead false killer whale (Pseudorca crassidens), an oceanic odontocete stranded on the coast during the bloom. Overall, our results denote the exceptional nature of the toxic, multispecies mortality event and that toxins may propagate to several levels of the food web in this Subantarctic environment.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- A M Cadaillon
- Centro Austral de Investigaciones Científicas (CADIC) - Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y Técnicas (CONICET), Bernardo Houssay 200, Ushuaia, Argentina; Instituto de Desarrollo Económico e Innovación (IDEI), Universidad Nacional de Tierra del Fuego, Antártida e Islas del Atlántico Sur (UNTDF), Yrigoyen 879, Ushuaia 9410, Argentina.
| | - B Mattera
- Instituto Nacional de Investigación y Desarrollo Pesquero, Paseo Victoria Ocampo N°1, Mar del Plata 7600, Argentina
| | - A Albizzi
- Centro Austral de Investigaciones Científicas (CADIC) - Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y Técnicas (CONICET), Bernardo Houssay 200, Ushuaia, Argentina
| | - N Montoya
- Instituto Nacional de Investigación y Desarrollo Pesquero, Paseo Victoria Ocampo N°1, Mar del Plata 7600, Argentina
| | - S Maldonado
- Dirección General de Laboratorio de Toxinas y Microbiología, Secretaría de Pesca y Acuicultura, Ministerio de Produccion y Ambiente. Gobierno de la Provincia de Tierra del Fuego, Antártida e Islas del Atlántico Sur, Argentina
| | - A Raya Rey
- Centro Austral de Investigaciones Científicas (CADIC) - Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y Técnicas (CONICET), Bernardo Houssay 200, Ushuaia, Argentina; Instituto de Ciencias Polares, Ambiente y Recursos Naturales (ICPA), UNTDF, Yrigoyen 879, Ushuaia 9410, Argentina; Wildlife Conservation Society, Amenábar 1595, Office 19, C1426AKC CABA, Buenos Aires, Argentina
| | - L Riccialdelli
- Centro Austral de Investigaciones Científicas (CADIC) - Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y Técnicas (CONICET), Bernardo Houssay 200, Ushuaia, Argentina
| | - G O Almandoz
- División Ficología, Facultad de Ciencias Naturales y Museo, Universidad Nacional de La Plata, Paseo del Bosque s/n, B1900FWA La Plata, Argentina; CONICET, Godoy Cruz 2290 (C1425FQB), Ciudad Autónoma de Buenos Aires, Argentina
| | - I R Schloss
- Centro Austral de Investigaciones Científicas (CADIC) - Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y Técnicas (CONICET), Bernardo Houssay 200, Ushuaia, Argentina; Instituto de Ciencias Polares, Ambiente y Recursos Naturales (ICPA), UNTDF, Yrigoyen 879, Ushuaia 9410, Argentina; Instituto Antártico Argentino, Buenos Aires, Argentina
| |
Collapse
|
2
|
Van Hemert C, Harley JR, Baluss G, Smith MM, Dusek RJ, Lankton JS, Hardison DR, Schoen SK, Kaler RSA. Paralytic shellfish toxins associated with Arctic Tern mortalities in Alaska. HARMFUL ALGAE 2022; 117:102270. [PMID: 35944958 PMCID: PMC10237520 DOI: 10.1016/j.hal.2022.102270] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/06/2022] [Revised: 05/25/2022] [Accepted: 06/08/2022] [Indexed: 06/04/2023]
Abstract
Harmful algal blooms produce biotoxins that can injure or kill fish, wildlife, and humans. These blooms occur naturally but have intensified in many locations globally due to recent climatic changes, including ocean warming. Such changes are especially pronounced in northern regions, where the effects of paralytic shellfish toxins (PSTs) on marine wildlife are of growing concern. In Alaska, seabird mortality events have increased in frequency, magnitude, and duration since 2015 alongside anomalously high ocean temperatures. Although starvation has been implicated as the apparent cause of death in many of these die-offs, saxitoxin (STX) and other PSTs have been identified as possible contributing factors. Here, we describe a mortality event at a nesting colony of Arctic Terns (Sterna paradisaea) near Juneau, Alaska in 2019 and report elevated concentrations of PSTs in bird, forage fish, and mussel samples. Concentrations of STX and other PSTs in tern tissues (2.5-51.2 µg 100g-1 STX-equivalents [STX-eq]) were of similar magnitude to those reported from other PST-induced bird die-offs. We documented high PST concentrations in blue mussels (>11,000 µg 100g-1 STX-eq; Mytilus edulis spp.) collected from nearby beaches, as well as in forage fish (up to 494 µg 100g-1 STX-eq) retrieved from Arctic Tern nests, thereby providing direct evidence of PST exposure via the terns' prey. At maximum concentrations measured in this study, a single 5 g Pacific Sand Lance (Ammodytes personatus) could exceed the median lethal STX dose (LD50) currently estimated for birds, offering strong support for PSTs as a likely source of tern mortality. In addition to describing this localized bird mortality event, we used existing energetics data from adult and nestling Arctic Terns to calculate estimated cumulative daily PST exposure based on ecologically relevant concentrations in forage fish. Our estimates revealed potentially lethal levels of PST exposure even at relatively low (≤30 ug 100g-1 STX-eq) toxin concentrations in prey. These findings suggest that PSTs present a significant hazard to Arctic Terns and other northern seabirds and should be included in future investigations of avian mortality events as well as assessments of population health.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Caroline Van Hemert
- U.S. Geological Survey, Alaska Science Center, 4210 University Drive, Anchorage, AK, 99508, USA.
| | - John R Harley
- Alaska Coastal Rainforest Center, University of Alaska Southeast, 11066 Auke Lake Way, Juneau AK, 99801, USA
| | - Gwen Baluss
- U.S. Forest Service, Juneau Ranger District, 8510 Mendenhall Loop Road, Juneau, AK, 99801, USA
| | - Matthew M Smith
- U.S. Geological Survey, Alaska Science Center, 4210 University Drive, Anchorage, AK, 99508, USA
| | - Robert J Dusek
- U.S. Geological Survey, National Wildlife Health Center, 6006 Schroeder Road, Madison, WI, 53711, USA
| | - Julia S Lankton
- U.S. Geological Survey, National Wildlife Health Center, 6006 Schroeder Road, Madison, WI, 53711, USA
| | - D Ransom Hardison
- National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, Stressor Detection and Impacts Division, National Center for Coastal Ocean Sciences Beaufort Laboratory, 101 Pivers Road, Beaufort, NC, 28516, USA
| | - Sarah K Schoen
- U.S. Geological Survey, Alaska Science Center, 4210 University Drive, Anchorage, AK, 99508, USA
| | - Robert S A Kaler
- U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Migratory Bird Management, 1011 East Tudor Road, Anchorage, AK, 99503, USA
| |
Collapse
|
3
|
Dusek RJ, Smith MM, Van Hemert C, Shearn-Bochsler VI, Hall S, Ridge CD, Hardison DR, Kaler RSA, Bodenstein BL, Hofmeister EK, Hall JS. Acute oral toxicity and tissue residues of saxitoxin in the mallard (Anas platyrhynchos). HARMFUL ALGAE 2021; 109:102109. [PMID: 34815022 DOI: 10.1016/j.hal.2021.102109] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/28/2021] [Revised: 09/16/2021] [Accepted: 09/20/2021] [Indexed: 06/13/2023]
Abstract
Since 2014, widespread, annual mortality events involving multiple species of seabirds have occurred in the Gulf of Alaska, Bering Sea, and Chukchi Sea. Among these die-offs, emaciation was a common finding with starvation often identified as the cause of death. However, saxitoxin (STX) was detected in many carcasses, indicating exposure of these seabirds to STX in the marine environment. Few data are available that describe the effects of STX in birds, thus presenting challenges for determining its contributions to specific mortality events. To address these knowledge gaps, we conducted an acute oral toxicity trial in mallards (Anas platyrhynchos), a common laboratory avian model, using an up-and-down method to estimate the median lethal dose (LD50) for STX. Using an enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA), we tested select tissues from all birds and feces from those individuals that survived initial dosing. Samples with an ELISA result that exceeded approximately 10 µg 100 g-1 STX and randomly selected ELISA negative samples were further tested by high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC). Tissues collected from mallards were also examined grossly at necropsy and then later by microscopy to identify lesions attributable to STX. The estimated LD50 was 167 µg kg-1 (95% CI = 69-275 µg kg-1). Saxitoxin was detected in fecal samples of all mallards tested for up to 48 h after dosing and at the end of the sampling period (7 d) in three birds. In those individuals that died or were euthanized <2 h after dosing, STX was readily detected throughout the gastrointestinal tract but only infrequently in heart, kidney, liver, lung, and breast muscle. No gross or microscopic lesions were observed that could be attributable to STX exposure. Given its acute toxicity, limited detectability, and frequent occurrence in the Alaska marine environment, additional research on STX in seabirds is warranted.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Robert J Dusek
- U.S. Geological Survey, National Wildlife Health Center, 6006 Schroeder Road, Madison, WI 53711, United States.
| | - Matthew M Smith
- U.S. Geological Survey, Alaska Science Center, 4210 University Drive, Anchorage, AK 99508, United States.
| | - Caroline Van Hemert
- U.S. Geological Survey, Alaska Science Center, 4210 University Drive, Anchorage, AK 99508, United States.
| | - Valerie I Shearn-Bochsler
- U.S. Geological Survey, National Wildlife Health Center, 6006 Schroeder Road, Madison, WI 53711, United States.
| | - Sherwood Hall
- U.S. Food and Drug Administration, Center for Food Safety and Applied Nutrition, 5001 Campus Drive, College Park, MD 20740, United States.
| | - Clark D Ridge
- U.S. Food and Drug Administration, Center for Food Safety and Applied Nutrition, 5001 Campus Drive, College Park, MD 20740, United States.
| | - D Ransom Hardison
- National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, National Centers for Coastal Ocean Science, 101 Pivers Island Road, Beaufort, NC 28516, United States.
| | - Robb S A Kaler
- U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Division of Migratory Bird Management, 1011 East Tudor Road, Anchorage, AK 99503, United States.
| | - Barbara L Bodenstein
- U.S. Geological Survey, National Wildlife Health Center, 6006 Schroeder Road, Madison, WI 53711, United States.
| | - Erik K Hofmeister
- U.S. Geological Survey, National Wildlife Health Center, 6006 Schroeder Road, Madison, WI 53711, United States.
| | - Jeffrey S Hall
- U.S. Geological Survey, National Wildlife Health Center, 6006 Schroeder Road, Madison, WI 53711, United States.
| |
Collapse
|
4
|
Otim FN, Chen IR, Otim O. Indirect assessment of biomass accumulation in a wastewater-based Chlorella vulgaris photobioreactor by pH variation. Sci Rep 2021; 11:19445. [PMID: 34593845 PMCID: PMC8484453 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-021-98634-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/04/2021] [Accepted: 09/13/2021] [Indexed: 11/09/2022] Open
Abstract
Algae bloom in coastal waters is partly supported by residual nutrients in treated wastewater (WW) released from coastally located treatment plants. In response, a Chlorella vulgaris-based photobioreactor was recently proposed for lowering nutrient levels in WW prior to release. However, the solution requires maintaining biomass accumulation to within a photobioreactor capacity for optimum operation. For high density Chlorella vulgaris suspensions, this is easily done by monitoring turbidity increase, a property directly related to biomass accumulation. For low density suspensions however, direct turbidity measurement would require a cumbersome process of concentrating large volumes of Chlorella vulgaris suspensions. Here, we demonstrate that by measuring pH of the suspensions, turbidity (T) can be estimated indirectly by the following wastewater-dependent expression: pH = aT + pH0, hence avoiding the need to concentrate large volumes. The term pH0 is the initial pH of the suspensions and a, a wastewater-dependent constant, can be computed independently from a = - 0.0061*pH0 + 0.052. In the event %WW is unknown, the following wastewater-independent Gaussian expression can be used to estimate T: pH = 8.71*exp(- [(T - 250)2]/[2*1.26E05]). These three equations should offer an avenue for monitoring the turbidity of dilute Chlorella vulgaris suspensions in large, stagnant municipal Chlorella vulgaris-based wastewater treatment system via pH measurements.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Francesca Nyega Otim
- Department of Anthropology, University of California, Davis, 1 Shields Ave, Davis, CA, 95616, USA
| | - I-Ru Chen
- Department of Humanities and Sciences, University of California, Los Angeles, 10960 Wilshire Boulevard, Los Angeles, CA, 90024, USA
| | - Ochan Otim
- Department of Humanities and Sciences, University of California, Los Angeles, 10960 Wilshire Boulevard, Los Angeles, CA, 90024, USA. .,Environmental Monitoring Division, City of Los Angeles, 12000 Vista Del Mar, Playa Del Rey, CA, 90293, USA.
| |
Collapse
|
5
|
Ben-Gigirey B, Soliño L, Bravo I, Rodríguez F, Casero MVM. Paralytic and Amnesic Shellfish Toxins Impacts on Seabirds, Analyses and Management. Toxins (Basel) 2021; 13:454. [PMID: 34209782 PMCID: PMC8309893 DOI: 10.3390/toxins13070454] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/31/2021] [Revised: 06/24/2021] [Accepted: 06/24/2021] [Indexed: 11/30/2022] Open
Abstract
Marine biotoxins have been frequently implicated in morbidity and mortality events in numerous species of birds worldwide. Nevertheless, their effects on seabirds have often been overlooked and the associated ecological impact has not been extensively studied. On top of that, the number of published studies confirming by analyses the presence of marine biotoxins from harmful algal blooms (HABs) in seabirds, although having increased in recent years, is still quite low. This review compiles information on studies evidencing the impact of HAB toxins on marine birds, with a special focus on the effects of paralytic and amnesic shellfish toxins (PSTs and ASTs). It is mainly centered on studies in which the presence of PSTs and/or ASTs in seabird samples was demonstrated through analyses. The analytical techniques commonly employed, the tissues selected and the adjustments done in protocols for processing seabird matrixes are summarized. Other topics covered include the role of different vectors in the seabird intoxications, information on clinical signs in birds affected by PSTs and ASTs, and multifactorial causes which could aggravate the syndromes. Close collaboration between seabird experts and marine biotoxins researchers is needed to identify and report the potential involvement of HABs and their toxins in the mortality events. Future studies on the PSTs and ASTs pharmacodynamics, together with the establishment of lethal doses in various seabird species, are also necessary. These studies would aid in the selection of the target organs for toxins analyses and in the postmortem intoxication diagnoses.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Begoña Ben-Gigirey
- Centro Oceanográfico de Vigo (IEO, CSIC), 36390 Vigo, Spain; (L.S.); (I.B.); (F.R.)
| | - Lucía Soliño
- Centro Oceanográfico de Vigo (IEO, CSIC), 36390 Vigo, Spain; (L.S.); (I.B.); (F.R.)
| | - Isabel Bravo
- Centro Oceanográfico de Vigo (IEO, CSIC), 36390 Vigo, Spain; (L.S.); (I.B.); (F.R.)
| | - Francisco Rodríguez
- Centro Oceanográfico de Vigo (IEO, CSIC), 36390 Vigo, Spain; (L.S.); (I.B.); (F.R.)
| | - María V. M. Casero
- RIAS Wildlife Rehabilitation and Research Centre, Parque Natural da Ria Formosa, 8700-194 Olhão, Portugal;
| |
Collapse
|