Relative availability of natural prey versus livestock predicts landscape suitability for cheetahs Acinonyx jubatus in Botswana

Carnivore Detection at the Domestic/Wildlife Interface within Mpumalanga Province, South Africa

Simple Summary

The management of carnivore populations in protected areas includes disease management and census taking. The presence of prey species and environmental variables influence the detection of wild carnivore species. The aim of this study was to identify the important predictors of wild carnivore detection within two South African wildlife reserves using motion-detection camera traps. The study further investigated the difference between traditional census call-up surveys and camera traps within nearby locations. Buffalo, impala, and warthog were associated with lion and spotted hyena detections. Detections of lions and spotted hyenas and also leopards and spotted hyena were correlated, suggesting competition between these wild carnivore species. Competition among wild carnivore species has importance for implementing appropriate management procedures, including infectious disease prevention.

Abstract

South African protected areas account for 8% of the total landmass according to World Bank indicators. Effective conservation of biodiversity in protected areas requires the development of specific reserve management objectives addressing species and disease management. The primary objective of the current study was to identify predictors of carnivore detection in an effort to inform carnivore species management plans on Andover and Manyeleti nature reserves in South Africa. A limited number of camera traps were placed randomly using a grid system. Species detection data were analysed using mixed-effects logistic regression and Spearman’s correlation coefficients. Deterministic inverse distance weighted distribution maps were used to describe the spatial distribution of carnivore species. Camera traps identified similar species as traditional call-up surveys during the study and would be useful as an adjunct census method. Carnivore detection was associated with several variables, including the presence of specific prey species. The measured intra-and interspecies interactions suggested the risk of disease transmission among species, and vaccination for prevalent diseases should be considered to manage this risk.

Spatial ecology of lions in a small, semi-fenced park surrounded by dense human populations: the case study of Nairobi National Park, Kenya

Human population growth near protected areas often results in detrimental edge effects for apex carnivores, such as the African lion. Urbanization leads to new scenarios of the human–lion conflict, thus understanding ranging patterns close to urban environments is crucial to inform future management strategies. We collected GPS data from 12 collared lions between 2014 and 2018 in Nairobi National Park, which borders the capital city of Kenya, Nairobi city. We estimated home ranges, calculated daily distance traveled and tested for differences between sex, season and pride. Additionally, we investigated how disturbance from Nairobi and surrounding human settlements affected space-use of lions, and tested for differences between sex, season and time of day. Lions showed restricted movements (4.5 km/day) and had small home ranges (49 km2). Male lions had larger ranges than females, but avoidance behavior of disturbed areas was similar. Lions took advantage during times of low human activity, i.e., during the night, to extend ranging behavior in search for resources. Risk for livestock depredation also increased during the wet season when lions roamed longer, more frequently, and deeper into the community lands. We recommend the establishment of buffer zones to maintain a viable lion population and reduced risk for conflict.

An insight into the prey spectra and livestock predation by cheetahs in Kenya using faecal DNA metabarcoding

Dietary composition is a fundamental part of animal ecology and an important component of population dynamics. Therefore, obtaining accurate information on what an animal consumes is important for conservation planning, especially for wild large carnivores that exist in human-dominated landscapes where they are prone to direct conflicts with local people. We used faecal DNA metabarcoding to identify the vertebrate taxa commonly predated on by cheetahs (Acinonyx jubatus) with an emphasis on domestic taxa and determine the drivers of livestock predation by cheetahs residing in the Maasai Mara and Amboseli ecosystems which are important population strongholds in southern Kenya. From 84 cheetah faeces that we analysed, a total of 14 prey taxa were identified, including birds, wild and domestic mammals. The livestock taxa identified in cheetah faeces occurred at moderate frequency (12.8%) and the results showed that livestock predation was influenced neither by the sex of the cheetah nor by season. In general, our study shows that cheetahs prey on a diverse range of prey taxa including birds, wild ungulates of various sizes and occasionally on domestic animals, and that the faecal DNA metabarcoding approach represents a valuable complement to traditional dietary analysis methods.

Reassessment of an introduced cheetah Acinonyx jubatus population in Matusadona National Park, Zimbabwe

Translocations are used to mitigate human–wildlife conflict, secure population viability of isolated populations and introduce or reintroduce populations in former or new range. With wild species increasingly confined to small patches of habitat embedded in human-dominated landscapes, the use of translocations is likely to increase. The cheetah Acinonyx jubatus is a large carnivore species with a long history of translocations. As for other species, evaluation of the success of cheetah translocations is complicated by a scarcity of published results, especially of failed attempts. Yet, such information is crucial to improve future translocations. A relatively well documented case is the translocation of alleged problem cheetahs into Matusadona National Park, Zimbabwe, in the early 1990s. In this study we used a combination of survey methods to reassess the status of Matusadona's cheetah population and model current occupancy in relation to densities of competing carnivores and altitude. Our findings indicate this cheetah population has effectively been extirpated, highlighting the importance of thorough planning and standardized long-term monitoring of translocated populations for the understanding of the factors that affect translocation success.

The distribution and numbers of cheetah (Acinonyx jubatus) in southern Africa

Assessing the numbers and distribution of threatened species is a central challenge in conservation, often made difficult because the species of concern are rare and elusive. For some predators, this may be compounded by their being sparsely distributed over large areas. Such is the case with the cheetah Acinonyx jubatus. The IUCN Red List process solicits comments, is democratic, transparent, widely-used, and has recently assessed the species. Here, we present additional methods to that process and provide quantitative approaches that may afford greater detail and a benchmark against which to compare future assessments. The cheetah poses challenges, but also affords unique opportunities. It is photogenic, allowing the compilation of thousands of crowd-sourced data. It is also persecuted for killing livestock, enabling estimation of local population densities from the numbers persecuted. Documented instances of persecution in areas with known human and livestock density mean that these data can provide an estimate of where the species may or may not occur in areas without observational data. Compilations of extensive telemetry data coupled with nearly 20,000 additional observations from 39 sources show that free-ranging cheetahs were present across approximately 789,700 km2 of Namibia, Botswana, South Africa, and Zimbabwe (56%, 22%, 12% and 10% respectively) from 2010 to 2016, with an estimated adult population of 3,577 animals. We identified a further 742,800 km2 of potential cheetah habitat within the study region with low human and livestock densities, where another ∼3,250 cheetahs may occur. Unlike many previous estimates, we make the data available and provide explicit information on exactly where cheetahs occur, or are unlikely to occur. We stress the value of gathering data from public sources though these data were mostly from well-visited protected areas. There is a contiguous, transboundary population of cheetah in southern Africa, known to be the largest in the world. We suggest that this population is more threatened than believed due to the concentration of about 55% of free-ranging individuals in two ecoregions. This area overlaps with commercial farmland with high persecution risk; adult cheetahs were removed at the rate of 0.3 individuals per 100 km2 per year. Our population estimate for confirmed cheetah presence areas is 11% lower than the IUCN's current assessment for the same region, lending additional support to the recent call for the up-listing of this species from vulnerable to endangered status.

Increasing game prices may alter farmers' behaviours towards leopards (Panthera pardus) and other carnivores in South Africa

Human-carnivore conflict occurs globally, particularly in regions where large carnivores predate livestock. Retaliatory killings do occur, and although predation of livestock by carnivores happens, losses from other factors such as disease or injury can be misattributed because of landowner perceptions. Game farming for both trophy hunting and eco-tourism is becoming increasingly common in South Africa, and there has been a rapid increase in the cost of game animals (in some species as much as five-fold) between 2010 and 2015. This could result in an increase in conflict between commercial game farmers and carnivores. We conducted two questionnaire surveys of farmers in 2010 and 2015 to investigate this. We asked if there had been changes in farming practices, perceived predator activity, perceived amount of livestock and commercial game losses, and actions taken towards carnivores in a South African farming community. We found no significant change in farming types in the area or losses of livestock between the years. However, there was a significant increase in perceived commercial game losses reported, even though protection of game had increased. Actions taken towards carnivores by livestock/game farmers were also significantly more negative in 2015 compared to farmers growing crops, but there was no such difference in 2010. We suggest that these changes could be a result of the increase in game prices over that period, leading to greater financial losses when an animal is predated, which in turn could increase the likelihood of retaliatory killings of carnivores.

Conservation implications of brown hyaena (Parahyaena brunnea) population densities and distribution across landscapes in Botswana

The brown hyaena (Parahyaena brunnea) is endemic to southern Africa. The largest population of this near-threatened species occurs in Botswana, but limited data were available to assess distribution and density. Our objectives were to use a stratified approach to collate available data and to collect more data to assess brown hyaena distribution and density across land uses in Botswana. We conducted surveys using track counts, camera traps and questionnaires and collated our results and available data to estimate the brown hyaena population based on the stratification of Botswana for large carnivores. Brown hyaenas occur over 533 050 km² (92%) of Botswana. Our density estimates ranged from 0 brown hyaenas/100 km² in strata of northern Botswana to 2.94 (2.16–3.71) brown hyaenas/100 km² in the southern stratum of the Central Kalahari Game Reserve. We made assumptions regarding densities in strata that lacked data, using the best references available. We estimated the brown hyaena population in Botswana as 4642 (3133–5993) animals, with 6.8% of the population in the Northern Conservation Zone, 73.1% in the Southern Conservation Zone, 2.0% in the smaller conservation zones and 18.1% in the agricultural zones. The similar densities of brown hyaenas in the Central Kalahari Game Reserve and the Ghanzi farms highlight the potential of agricultural areas in Botswana to conserve this species. The conservation of brown hyaenas in the agricultural landscape of Botswana is critical for the long-term conservation of the species; these areas provide important links between populations in South Africa, Namibia and Zimbabwe.Conservation implications: Botswana contains the core of the brown hyaena population in southern Africa, and conflict mitigation on agricultural land is crucial to maintaining connectivity among the range countries.

Movement patterns of cheetahs (Acinonyx jubatus) in farmlands in Botswana

Botswana has the second highest population of cheetah (Acinonyx jubatus) with most living outside protected areas. As a result, many cheetahs are found in farming areas which occasionally results in human-wildlife conflict. This study aimed to look at movement patterns of cheetahs in farming environments to determine whether cheetahs have adapted their movements in these human-dominated landscapes. We fitted high-time resolution GPS collars to cheetahs in the Ghanzi farmlands of Botswana. GPS locations were used to calculate home range sizes as well as number and duration of visits to landscape features using a time-based local convex hull method. Cheetahs had medium-sized home ranges compared to previously studied cheetah in similar farming environments. Results showed that cheetahs actively visited scent marking trees and avoided visiting homesteads. A slight preference for visiting game farms over cattle farms was found, but there was no difference in duration of visits between farm types. We conclude that cheetahs selected for areas that are important for their dietary and social needs and prefer to avoid human-occupied areas. Improved knowledge of how cheetahs use farmlands can allow farmers to make informed decisions when developing management practices and can be an important tool for reducing human-wildlife conflict.

Cheetahs (Acinonyx jubatus) running the gauntlet: an evaluation of translocations into free-range environments in Namibia

Following dramatic range and population declines, the cheetah is Africa’s most endangered large felid. In Namibia, private land managers still trap cheetahs but increasingly consider moving animals instead of killing them. Across Africa, managers have translocated perceived conflict carnivores for decades, but rarely evaluated their actions. We analyse the outcomes of 15 cheetah translocations (for 23 adults and 10 dependent offspring) into free-range environments in Namibia. We released cheetahs at an average distance of 419.6 km ± 216.1 km SD (range: 71–816 km) after captive periods ranging from 1–1,184 days (350.6 days ± 439.0 days SD). An individual’s ability to survive the first year predominantly determined the overall translocation success of 40%. Post-release conflict and homing had less impact on success. Cheetah survival was lowest in the first three months after release. Human persecution (50% of deaths) and spotted hyaenas (29% of deaths) had the highest effect on survival. The degree of habituation to humans acquired during captivity significantly influenced chances of survival. Cheetahs surviving the initial post-release period (∼90 days) often settled into ranges and females reproduced successfully. However, all individuals exhibited extensive movements, frequently roaming >4,000 km² in the first six months after release (with a maximum of 19,743 km² in 112 days), resulting in low release site fidelity. Soft release and larger recipient area size did not improve site fidelity. Based on these outcomes, we evaluated which unfenced conservation areas in Namibia could potentially receive cheetahs. We found that there are currently few public and/or private reserves large enough to contain the movement profiles we observed in this study. This suggests that most translocations will result in cheetahs re-entering farmlands where they face a high risk of persecution. In conclusion, translocations into unconfined areas can successfully conserve individual cheetahs. Due to high mortality and unpredictable outcomes, however, conservation efforts need to focus on improving tolerance of cheetahs in commercial livestock and game farming areas in order to reduce the number of indiscriminately trapped animals.