1
|
Bowley JL, Heveran C, Weaver DK, Adams B, Rohwer M, Willemssens K, Oberg E, Higley LG, Peterson RKD. Thermal profiles of Cicindelidia haemorrhagica (Coleoptera: Cicindelidae) activity in hot springs in Yellowstone National Park. ENVIRONMENTAL ENTOMOLOGY 2024; 53:829-836. [PMID: 38986502 DOI: 10.1093/ee/nvae067] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/10/2024] [Revised: 06/14/2024] [Accepted: 06/20/2024] [Indexed: 07/12/2024]
Abstract
The wetsalts tiger beetle, Cicindelidia haemorrhagica (LeConte) (Coleoptera: Cicindelidae), is found in several active thermal hot spring areas in Yellowstone National Park (YNP) where substrate surface temperatures can exceed 50 °C. However, relationships between surface temperatures and the time adults spend on them remain poorly understood. Therefore, we characterized thermal profiles of Dragon Spring and Rabbit Creek, 2 thermally active research sites containing C. haemorrhagica in YNP, to quantify the time adults spend at different surface temperatures. We took 58 thermal video recordings of adults over 6 total days of observation ranging from 10 to 15 min for each adult. Thermal video analysis results indicated a positive relationship between the total time adult beetles spent on surface temperatures from Dragon Spring and Rabbit Creek as temperatures increased from 20 °C. Once surface temperatures exceeded 40 °C, the total time spent at those surface temperatures declined. Adults were recorded on substrates exceeding 50 °C at one of the 2 research locations. Rabbit Creek had substantially more instances of adults present with surface temperatures exceeding 40 °C, including one individual on a surface temperature of 61.5 °C. There were 3 instances of beetles spending more than 4 min at a particular surface temperature, all within the preferred range of 30-40 °C. Our thermal profile results and previous behavioral observations suggest that adults may be resistant to the heat produced from the thermal waters that influence the substrate temperatures but may not be subject to high surface temperatures as previously reported.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- John L Bowley
- Department of Land Resources & Environmental Sciences, Montana State University, Bozeman, MT 59717, USA
| | - Chelsea Heveran
- Department of Mechanical & Industrial Engineering, Montana State University, Bozeman, MT 59717, USA
| | - David K Weaver
- Department of Land Resources & Environmental Sciences, Montana State University, Bozeman, MT 59717, USA
| | - Braymond Adams
- Department of Plant Pathology, Entomology, and Microbiology, Iowa State University, Ames, IA 50011, USA
| | - Monica Rohwer
- School of Natural Resources, University of Nebraska, Lincoln, NE 68198, USA
| | - Kelly Willemssens
- School of Natural Resources, University of Nebraska, Lincoln, NE 68198, USA
| | - Erik Oberg
- National Park Service, Yellowstone National Park, WY 82190, USA
| | - Leon G Higley
- School of Natural Resources, University of Nebraska, Lincoln, NE 68198, USA
| | - Robert K D Peterson
- Department of Land Resources & Environmental Sciences, Montana State University, Bozeman, MT 59717, USA
| |
Collapse
|
2
|
Mermer S, Maslen EA, Dalton DT, Nielsen AL, Rucker A, Lowenstein D, Wiman N, Bhattarai M, Soohoo-Hui A, Harris ET, Pfab F, Walton VM. Temperature-Dependent Life Table Parameters of Brown Marmorated Stink Bug, Halyomorpha halys (Stål) (Hemiptera: Pentatomidae) in the United States. INSECTS 2023; 14:248. [PMID: 36975933 PMCID: PMC10058958 DOI: 10.3390/insects14030248] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/31/2022] [Revised: 02/27/2023] [Accepted: 02/27/2023] [Indexed: 06/18/2023]
Abstract
Brown marmorated stink bug, Halyomorpha halys (Stål) (Hemiptera: Pentatomidae), is a generalist pest that causes serious injury to a variety of crops around the world. After the first detection in the USA, H. halys became a serious threat to growers resulting in significant crop damage. Understanding the effect of temperature on H. halys development will help to achieve successful control by predicting the phenological timing of the pest. Here, life table parameters (survival, development, reproduction, and daily mortality) of H. halys were evaluated for New Jersey and Oregon populations in the US. Parameters were determined from field-collected and laboratory-reared individuals. The results indicated that New Jersey populations had higher levels of egg-laying than Oregon populations and exhibited higher and earlier fecundity peaks. Survival levels were similar between populations. Linear and nonlinear fit were used to estimate the minimum (14.3 °C), optimal (27.8 °C), and maximum (35.9 °C) temperatures where development of H. halys can take place. An age-specific fecundity peak (Mx = 36.63) was recorded at 936 degree days for New Jersey populations, while maximum fecundity (Mx = 11.85) occurred at 1145 degree days in Oregon. No oviposition was recorded at the lowest (15 °C) or highest (35 °C) trialed temperatures. Developmental periods increased at temperatures above 30 °C, indicating that such higher temperatures are suboptimal for H. halys development. Altogether the most optimal temperatures for population increase (rm) ranged from 25 to 30 °C. Survival rates of H. halys at suboptimal low temperatures of 8 °C (i.e., 61%) is comparable to previous reports. The present paper provides additional data and context from a range of experimental conditions and populations. Such temperature-related H. halys life table parameters can be used to provide determine the risk to susceptible crops.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Serhan Mermer
- Department of Horticulture, Oregon State University, Corvallis, OR 97331, USA (V.M.W.)
- Department of Environmental and Molecular Toxicology, Oregon State University, Corvallis, OR 97331, USA
| | - Erika A. Maslen
- Department of Horticulture, Oregon State University, Corvallis, OR 97331, USA (V.M.W.)
| | - Daniel T. Dalton
- Department of Horticulture, Oregon State University, Corvallis, OR 97331, USA (V.M.W.)
- Fachhochschule Kärnten, Faculty of Engineering and IT, 9524 Villach, Austria
| | - Anne L. Nielsen
- Department of Entomology, Rutgers Agricultural Research and Extension Center, Rutgers University, Bridgeton, NJ 08302, USA
| | - Ann Rucker
- Department of Entomology, Rutgers Agricultural Research and Extension Center, Rutgers University, Bridgeton, NJ 08302, USA
| | - David Lowenstein
- Department of Horticulture, Oregon State University, Corvallis, OR 97331, USA (V.M.W.)
- Macomb Country Extension Office, Michigan State University, Clinton Township, MI 48036, USA
| | - Nik Wiman
- Department of Horticulture, Oregon State University, Corvallis, OR 97331, USA (V.M.W.)
- Department of Horticulture, North Willamette Research and Extension Center, Oregon State University, Aurora, OR 97002, USA
| | - Mukesh Bhattarai
- Department of Horticulture, Oregon State University, Corvallis, OR 97331, USA (V.M.W.)
| | - Alexander Soohoo-Hui
- Department of Horticulture, Oregon State University, Corvallis, OR 97331, USA (V.M.W.)
| | - Edwin T. Harris
- Department of Horticulture, Oregon State University, Corvallis, OR 97331, USA (V.M.W.)
| | - Ferdinand Pfab
- Department of Ecology, Evolution, and Marine Biology, University of California Santa Barbara, Santa Barbara, CA 93016, USA
| | - Vaughn M. Walton
- Department of Horticulture, Oregon State University, Corvallis, OR 97331, USA (V.M.W.)
| |
Collapse
|
3
|
Kleckova I, Okrouhlik J, Svozil T, Matos-Maraví P, Klecka J. Body size, not species identity, drives body heating in alpine Erebia butterflies. J Therm Biol 2023; 113:103502. [PMID: 37055121 DOI: 10.1016/j.jtherbio.2023.103502] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/03/2022] [Revised: 02/07/2023] [Accepted: 02/07/2023] [Indexed: 02/12/2023]
Abstract
Efficient thermoregulation is crucial for animals living under fluctuating climatic and weather conditions. We studied the body heating of six butterfly species of the genus Erebia (Lepidoptera: Nymphalidae) that co-occur in the European Alps. We tested whether butterfly physical characteristics (body size, wing loading) are responsible for the inter-specific differences in body temperatures recorded previously under natural conditions. We used a thermal camera to measure body heating of wild butterfly individuals in a laboratory experiment with artificial light and heating sources. We revealed that physical characteristics had a small effect on explaining inter-specific differences in mean body temperatures recorded in the field. Our results show that larger butterflies, with higher weight and wing loading, heated up more slowly but reached the same asymptotic body temperature as smaller butterflies. Altogether, our results suggest that differences in body temperatures among Erebia species observed in the field might be caused mainly by species-specific microhabitat use and point towards an important role of active behavioural thermoregulation in adult butterflies. We speculate that microclimate heterogeneity in mountain habitats facilitates behavioural thermoregulation of adults. Similarly, microclimate structuring might also increase survival of less mobile butterfly life stages, i.e., eggs, larvae and pupae. Thus, landscape heterogeneity in management practices may facilitate long term survival of montane invertebrates under increased anthropogenic pressures.
Collapse
|
4
|
Nolasco-Soto J, González-Astorga J, Espinosa de los Monteros A, Favila ME. Evolutionary history and diversity in the ball roller beetle Canthon cyanellus. Front Ecol Evol 2023. [DOI: 10.3389/fevo.2022.1066439] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/18/2023] Open
Abstract
To understand the evolutionary history of species, it is necessary to know the mechanisms for reproductive isolation, divergence-time between populations, and the relative action of the evolutionary forces (e.g., mutation, genetic drift, gene flow) within and between populations of the same, or closely related species. Although Canthon is one of the more diverse genera of neotropical beetles, insufficient research has been done to comprehend the divergent patterns that explain its speciation process. The absence of diagnostic morphological characters and the wide geographic variation of qualitative traits in Scarabaeinae obscures species delimitation, genealogical limits between populations, and its taxonomy. Canthon cyanellus is one of the best-known species in ecological and evolutionary aspects. It is a widely distributed species in the tropical forests of America. Also, the current deforestation has facilitated its incursion into open areas. Individuals from different populations have similar morphological characters but show wide variation in body color throughout their distribution, which makes it difficult to delimit the subspecies that comprise it. Recently, studies have been carried out to elucidate the pre-and postzygotic isolation mechanisms between populations and the historical biogeographical processes favoring cladogenesis events during the Pleistocene. Morphological variation of the male genitalia does not correspond to the phylogeographic structure. However, the morphological differences in one of the pieces of the endophallic sclerites have allowed a preliminary delimitation of some genetically differentiated clades. Finally, we consider that the joint analysis of traditional morphological taxonomy and phylogeography is important to understand the speciation process in the C. cyanellus complex.
Collapse
|
5
|
deCastro‐Arrazola I, Andrew NR, Berg MP, Curtsdotter A, Lumaret J, Menéndez R, Moretti M, Nervo B, Nichols ES, Sánchez‐Piñero F, Santos AMC, Sheldon KS, Slade EM, Hortal J. A trait-based framework for dung beetle functional ecology. J Anim Ecol 2023; 92:44-65. [PMID: 36443916 PMCID: PMC10099951 DOI: 10.1111/1365-2656.13829] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/26/2022] [Accepted: 09/27/2022] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
Traits are key for understanding the environmental responses and ecological roles of organisms. Trait approaches to functional ecology are well established for plants, whereas consistent frameworks for animal groups are less developed. Here we suggest a framework for the study of the functional ecology of animals from a trait-based response-effect approach, using dung beetles as model system. Dung beetles are a key group of decomposers that are important for many ecosystem processes. The lack of a trait-based framework tailored to this group has limited the use of traits in dung beetle functional ecology. We review which dung beetle traits respond to the environment and affect ecosystem processes, covering the wide range of spatial, temporal and biological scales at which they are involved. Dung beetles show trait-based responses to variation in temperature, water, soil properties, trophic resources, light, vegetation structure, competition, predation and parasitism. Dung beetles' influence on ecosystem processes includes trait-mediated effects on nutrient cycling, bioturbation, plant growth, seed dispersal, other dung-based organisms and parasite transmission, as well as some cases of pollination and predation. We identify 66 dung beetle traits that are either response or effect traits, or both, pertaining to six main categories: morphology, feeding, reproduction, physiology, activity and movement. Several traits pertain to more than one category, in particular dung relocation behaviour during nesting or feeding. We also identify 136 trait-response and 77 trait-effect relationships in dung beetles. No response to environmental stressors nor effect over ecological processes were related with traits of a single category. This highlights the interrelationship between the traits shaping body-plans, the multi-functionality of traits, and their role linking responses to the environment and effects on the ecosystem. Despite current developments in dung beetle functional ecology, many knowledge gaps remain, and there are biases towards certain traits, functions, taxonomic groups and regions. Our framework provides the foundations for the thorough development of trait-based dung beetle ecology. It also serves as an example framework for other taxa.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Indradatta deCastro‐Arrazola
- Germans Cabot Franciscans 48BunyolaSpain
- Departamento de Zoología, Facultad de CienciasUniversidad de GranadaGranadaSpain
| | - Nigel R. Andrew
- Insect Ecology Lab, Natural History MuseumUniversity of New EnglandArmidaleNew South WalesAustralia
| | - Matty P. Berg
- Department of Ecological ScienceVrije Universiteit AmsterdamAmsterdamThe Netherlands
- Groningen Institute for Evolutionary Life SciencesUniversity of GroningenGroningenThe Netherlands
| | - Alva Curtsdotter
- Insect Ecology Lab, Natural History MuseumUniversity of New EnglandArmidaleNew South WalesAustralia
| | | | - Rosa Menéndez
- Lancaster Environment CentreLancaster UniversityLancasterUK
| | - Marco Moretti
- Biodiversity and Conservation BiologySwiss Federal Research Institute WSLBirmensdorfSwitzerland
| | - Beatrice Nervo
- Department of Life Sciences and Systems BiologyUniversity of TorinoTorinoItaly
| | | | | | - Ana M. C. Santos
- Terrestrial Ecology Group (TEG‐UAM), Departamento de EcologíaUniversidad Autónoma de MadridMadridSpain
- Centro de Investigación en Biodiversidad y Cambio Global (CIBC‐UAM)Universidad Autónoma de MadridMadridSpain
| | - Kimberly S. Sheldon
- Department of Ecology & Evolutionary BiologyUniversity of TennesseeKnoxvilleTennesseeUnited States
| | - Eleanor M. Slade
- Asian School of the Environment, Nanyang Technological UniversitySingaporeSingapore
| | - Joaquín Hortal
- Department of Biogeography and Global ChangeMuseo Nacional de Ciencias Naturales (MNCN‐CSIC)MadridSpain
- Departamento de Ecologia, Instituto de Ciências BiológicasUniversidade Federal de GoiásGoiâniaBrazil
- cE3c – Centre for Ecology, Evolution and Environmental Changes, Faculdade de Ciências da Universidade de LisboaLisbonPortugal
| |
Collapse
|
6
|
Barrett M, O’Donnell S. Individual reflectance of solar radiation confers a thermoregulatory benefit to dimorphic males bees (Centris pallida) using distinct microclimates. PLoS One 2023; 18:e0271250. [PMID: 36917573 PMCID: PMC10013911 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0271250] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/25/2022] [Accepted: 02/28/2023] [Indexed: 03/15/2023] Open
Abstract
Incoming solar radiation (wavelengths 290-2500 nm) significantly affects an organism's thermal balance via radiative heat gain. Species adapted to different environments can differ in solar reflectance profiles. We hypothesized that conspecific individuals using thermally distinct microhabitats to engage in fitness-relevant behaviors would show intraspecific differences in reflectance: we predicted individuals that use hot microclimates (where radiative heat gain represents a greater thermoregulatory challenge) would be more reflective across the entire solar spectrum than those using cooler microclimates. Differences in near-infrared (NIR) reflectance (700-2500 nm) are strongly indicative of thermoregulatory adaptation as, unlike differences in visible reflectance (400-700 nm), they are not perceived by ecological or social partners. We tested these predictions in male Centris pallida (Hymenoptera: Apidae) bees from the Sonoran Desert. Male C. pallida use alternative reproductive tactics that are associated with distinct microclimates: Large-morph males, with paler visible coloration, behave in an extremely hot microclimate close to the ground, while small-morph males, with a dark brown dorsal coloration, frequently use cooler microclimates above the ground near vegetation. We found that large-morph males had higher reflectance of solar radiation (UV through NIR) resulting in lower solar absorption coefficients. This thermoregulatory adaptation was specific to the dorsal surface, and produced by differences in hair, not cuticle, characteristics. Our results showed that intraspecific variation in behavior, particular in relation to microclimate use, can generate unique thermal adaptations that changes the reflectance of shortwave radiation among individuals within the same population.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Meghan Barrett
- Department of Biology, Drexel University, Philadelphia, PA, United States of America
- Department of Biology, California State University Dominguez Hills, Carson, CA, United States of America
- * E-mail:
| | - Sean O’Donnell
- Department of Biology, Drexel University, Philadelphia, PA, United States of America
- Department of Biodiversity, Earth, and Environmental Sciences, Drexel University, Philadelphia, PA, United States of America
| |
Collapse
|
7
|
Ospina-Rozo L, Subbiah J, Seago A, Stuart-Fox D. Pretty Cool Beetles: Can Manipulation of Visible and Near-Infrared Sunlight Prevent Overheating? Integr Org Biol 2022; 4:obac036. [PMID: 36110288 PMCID: PMC9470487 DOI: 10.1093/iob/obac036] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/11/2022] [Revised: 07/09/2022] [Accepted: 08/04/2022] [Indexed: 11/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Passive thermoregulation is an important strategy to prevent overheating in thermally challenging environments. Can the diversity of optical properties found in Christmas beetles (Rutelinae) be an advantage to keep cool? We measured changes in temperature of the elytra of 26 species of Christmas beetles, exclusively due to direct radiation from a solar simulator in visible (VIS: 400–700 nm) and near infrared (NIR: 700–1700 nm) wavebands. Then, we evaluated if the optical properties of elytra could predict their steady state temperature and heating rates, while controlling for size. We found that higher absorptivity increases the heating rate and final steady state of the beetle elytra in a biologically significant range (3 to 5°C). There was substantial variation in the absorptivity of Christmas beetle elytra; and this variation was achieved by different combinations of reflectivity and transmissivity in both VIS and NIR. Size was an important factor predicting the change in temperature of the elytra after 5 min (steady state) but not maximum heating rate. Lastly, we show that the presence of the elytra covering the body of the beetle can reduce heating of the body itself. We propose that beetle elytra can act as a semi-insulating layer to enable passive thermoregulation through high reflectivity of elytra, resulting in low absorptivity of solar radiation. Alternatively, if beetle elytra absorb a high proportion of solar radiation, they may reduce heat transfer from the elytra to the body through behavioral or physiological mechanisms.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Laura Ospina-Rozo
- School of Biosciences, University of Melbourne , Building 147, Parkville Victoria 3010, Australia
| | - Jegadesan Subbiah
- School of Chemistry, Bio21 Institute - University of Melbourne , 30 Flemington Road, Victoria 3010, Australia
| | - Ainsley Seago
- Carnegie Museum of Natural History , 4400 Forbes Ave, Pittsburgh PA 15213, USA
| | - Devi Stuart-Fox
- School of Biosciences, University of Melbourne , Building 147, Parkville Victoria 3010, Australia
| |
Collapse
|
8
|
Williamson J, Teh E, Jucker T, Brindle M, Bush E, Chung AYC, Parrett J, Lewis OT, Rossiter SJ, Slade EM. Local‐scale temperature gradients driven by human disturbance shape the physiological and morphological traits of dung beetle communities in a Bornean oil‐palm‐forest mosaic. Funct Ecol 2022. [DOI: 10.1111/1365-2435.14062] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Joseph Williamson
- School of Biological and Behavioural Sciences Queen Mary University of London, Mile End Road London UK
| | - Enoch Teh
- Asian School of the Environment Nanyang Technological University, 50 Nanyang Avenue Singapore City Singapore
| | - Tommaso Jucker
- School of Biological Sciences University of Bristol, 24 Tyndall Ave Bristol UK
| | - Matilda Brindle
- Department of Anthropology University College London 14 Taviton Street London
| | - Emma Bush
- Royal Botanic Garden Edinburgh, Arboretum Pl Edinburgh UK
| | - Arthur Y. C. Chung
- Forest Research Centre, Sabah Forestry Department, P.O. Box 1407, 90715 Sandakan Sabah Malaysia
| | - Jonathan Parrett
- Evolutionary Biology Group, Faculty of Biology Adam Mickiewicz University ul. Uniwersytetu Poznańskiego 6 Poznań Poland
| | - Owen T. Lewis
- Department of Zoology University of Oxford Oxford UK
| | - Stephen J. Rossiter
- School of Biological and Behavioural Sciences Queen Mary University of London, Mile End Road London UK
| | - Eleanor M. Slade
- Asian School of the Environment Nanyang Technological University, 50 Nanyang Avenue Singapore City Singapore
- Department of Zoology University of Oxford Oxford UK
| |
Collapse
|
9
|
Cuesta E, Lobo JM. Can the spectrophotometric response of the elytra explain environmental preferences? A study in seven Onthophagus species (Coleoptera, Scarabaeidae). JOURNAL OF PHOTOCHEMISTRY AND PHOTOBIOLOGY B-BIOLOGY 2021; 225:112348. [PMID: 34742032 DOI: 10.1016/j.jphotobiol.2021.112348] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/28/2021] [Revised: 09/13/2021] [Accepted: 10/29/2021] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
Beetles are the most successful and diversified animal taxa characterized by the possession of an external pair of sclerotized wings (elytra). Managing electromagnetic radiations could be one of the functions of the exoskeleton. We studied the spectrophotometric response to ultraviolet, visible, and near-infrared radiations of the elytra of seven closely related and sympatric Onthophagus species to examine if the environmental preferences of these species could be associated with the spectrophotometric behaviour of their elytra. Our results indicated that sibling species can drastically differ in their environmental preferences but not in their spectrophotometric responses. However, our results corroborated that there are interspecific differences in the spectrophotometric characteristics of the elytra, which are mainly explained by morphological features. Among the examined morphological variables, darkness seems to be especially relevant as it facilitates the absorbance and obstructs the transmittance of visible and near-infrared radiations.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Eva Cuesta
- Department of Biogeography and Global Change, Museo Nacional de Ciencias Naturales (C.S.I.C.), Madrid, Spain; Escuela Internacional de Doctorado, Universidad Rey Juan Carlos, Móstoles, Madrid, Spain
| | - Jorge M Lobo
- Department of Biogeography and Global Change, Museo Nacional de Ciencias Naturales (C.S.I.C.), Madrid, Spain.
| |
Collapse
|
10
|
Wang LY, Franklin AM, Black JR, Stuart-Fox D. Heating rates are more strongly influenced by near-infrared than visible reflectance in beetles. J Exp Biol 2021; 224:272113. [PMID: 34494652 DOI: 10.1242/jeb.242898] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/19/2021] [Accepted: 08/31/2021] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
Adaptations to control heat transfer through the integument are a key component of temperature regulation in animals. However, there remain significant gaps in our understanding of how different optical and morphological properties of the integument affect heating rates. To address these gaps, we examined the effect of reflectivity in both ultraviolet-visible and near-infrared wavelengths, surface rugosity (roughness), effective area (area subjected to illumination) and cuticle thickness on radiative heat gain in jewel beetles (Buprestidae). We measured heating rate using a solar simulator to mimic natural sunlight, a thermal chamber to control the effects of conduction and convection, and optical filters to isolate different wavelengths. We found that effective area and reflectivity predicted heating rate. The thermal effect of reflectivity was driven by variation in near-infrared rather than ultraviolet-visible reflectivity. By contrast, cuticle thickness and surface rugosity had no detectable effect. Our results provide empirical evidence that near-infrared reflectivity has an important effect on radiative heat gain. Modulating reflectance of near-infrared wavelengths of light may be a more widespread adaptation to control heat gain than previously appreciated.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Lu-Yi Wang
- School of Biosciences, The University of Melbourne, Melbourne, VIC 3010, Australia
| | - Amanda M Franklin
- School of Biosciences, The University of Melbourne, Melbourne, VIC 3010, Australia
| | - Jay R Black
- School of Geography, Earth and Atmospheric Sciences, The University of Melbourne, Melbourne, VIC 3010, Australia
| | - Devi Stuart-Fox
- School of Biosciences, The University of Melbourne, Melbourne, VIC 3010, Australia
| |
Collapse
|
11
|
Gotcha N, Machekano H, Cuthbert RN, Nyamukondiwa C. Heat tolerance may determine activity time in coprophagic beetle species (Coleoptera: Scarabaeidae). INSECT SCIENCE 2021; 28:1076-1086. [PMID: 32567803 DOI: 10.1111/1744-7917.12844] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/20/2019] [Revised: 06/10/2020] [Accepted: 06/10/2020] [Indexed: 06/11/2023]
Abstract
Although reports have documented loss of species diversity and ecological services caused by stressful temperature changes that result from climate change, some species cope through behavioral compensation. As temperatures and magnitudes of temperature extremes increase, animals should compensate to maintain fitness (such as through temporary behavioral shifts in activity times). Appropriate timing of activity helps avoid competition across species. Although coprophagic dung beetles exhibit species-specific temporal activity times, it is unknown whether temperature drives evolution of these species-specific temporal activity times. Using nine dung beetle species (three each of diurnal, crepuscular, and nocturnal species), we explored differences in heat stress tolerance measured as critical thermal maxima (CTmax ; the highest temperature allowing activity) and heat knockdown time (HKDT; survival time under acute heat stress) across these species, and examined the results using a phylogenetically informed approach. Our results showed that day-active species had significantly higher CTmax (diurnal > crepuscular = nocturnal species), whereas crepuscular species had higher HKDT (crepuscular > nocturnal > diurnal species). There was no correlation between heat tolerance and body size across species with distinct temporal activity, and no significant phylogenetic constraint for activity. Species with higher CTmax did not necessarily have higher HKDT, which indicates that species may respond differently to diverse heat tolerance metrics. Acute heat tolerance for diurnal beetles indicates that this trait may constrain activity time and, under high acute temperatures with climate change, species may shift activity times in more benign environments. These results contribute to elucidate the evolution of foraging behavior and management of coprophagic beetle ecosystem services under changing environments.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Nonofo Gotcha
- Department of Biological Sciences and Biotechnology, Botswana International University of Science and Technology, Palapye, Botswana
| | - Honest Machekano
- Department of Biological Sciences and Biotechnology, Botswana International University of Science and Technology, Palapye, Botswana
| | - Ross N Cuthbert
- GEOMAR, Helmholtz-Zentrum für Ozeanforschung Kiel, Kiel, Germany
| | - Casper Nyamukondiwa
- Department of Biological Sciences and Biotechnology, Botswana International University of Science and Technology, Palapye, Botswana
| |
Collapse
|
12
|
Lobo JM, Cuesta E. Seasonal variation in the diel activity of a dung beetle assemblage. PeerJ 2021; 9:e11786. [PMID: 34306833 PMCID: PMC8280883 DOI: 10.7717/peerj.11786] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/26/2021] [Accepted: 06/24/2021] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
The seasonal and diel variations of dung beetle species were studied in an Iberian mid-mountain locality to examine the interaction between these two temporal rhythms. We assume that a seasonal variation in the diel activity would support the notion that both rhythms may assist in achieving a quick and flexible response when the climatic conditions change. Data coming from 4,104 pitfall traps placed during 15 sampling periods and totalling 30 daily sampling cycles were analysed using circular statistics and General Linear Models. A wide variety of seasonal patterns are observed, highlighting those species with a clear unimodal or spring-autumn bimodal seasonal pattern. However, a midday diel pattern is the norm in most of the species, except in the case of those exhibiting a high body weight that prefer dusk or night periods. We hypothesize that most of the dung beetle species fly at noon to promote the passive heating of their muscle activity and minimize the metabolic energy expenditure. Results only partially support the seasonal variation in diel activity. Diel preferences are mainly manifested at the time of the year in which the abundance is greater. Approximately two-thirds of the considered species exhibit a similar diel activity along their seasonal active period. As consequence, a significant portion of the dung beetle species currently inhabiting Mediterranean mid-mountains are not able to use the daily variation in climatic conditions to limit the inconveniences of climate change.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Jorge M. Lobo
- Department of Biogeography and Global Change, Museo Nacional de Ciencias Naturales (C.S.I.C.), Madrid, Spain
| | - Eva Cuesta
- Department of Biogeography and Global Change, Museo Nacional de Ciencias Naturales (C.S.I.C.), Madrid, Spain
- Escuela Internacional de Doctorado, Universidad Rey Juan Carlos, Móstoles, Madrid, Spain
| |
Collapse
|
13
|
Cuesta E, Lobo JM. Visible and near-infrared radiation may be transmitted or absorbed differently by beetle elytra according to habitat preference. PeerJ 2019; 7:e8104. [PMID: 31788360 PMCID: PMC6882417 DOI: 10.7717/peerj.8104] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/14/2019] [Accepted: 10/25/2019] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Background The exoskeleton of an insect could be an important factor in the success of its evolutionary process. This reaches its maximum expression in beetles, which constitute the most diversified animal taxon. The involvement in the management of environmental radiation could be one of the most important functions of the exoskeleton due to the passive contributions to the thermoregulation of body temperature. We study whether the elytra of two sympatric and closely related beetle species respond differentially to the radiation of distinct wavelengths in agreement with their ecological preferences. Methods Onthophagus coenobita (Herbst) and O. medius (Kugelaan) occupy different habitats and environmental conditions (shaded vs. unshaded from solar radiation). The potential adaptive variations to thermoregulation under these different ecological conditions were studied using the responses of their exoskeletons to radiation of different wavelengths (ultraviolet, visible and near-infrared). For these two species, the amounts of the three wavelengths that were reflected, transmitted or absorbed by the exoskeleton were measured using of a spectrophotometer. In addition, the darkness and thickness of the elytra were examined to determine whether these two features influence the management of radiation by the exoskeleton. Results Both species differ in the management of visible and near-infrared radiation. In agreement with habitat preferences, the species inhabiting shaded conditions would allow infrared and visible radiation to penetrate the elytra more easily to heat internal body parts, while the elytra of the heliophilous species would have increased absorbance of these same types of radiation. An increase in body size (and therefore in elytron thickness) and the quantity of dark spots may serve as barriers against exogenous heat gain. However, the maintenance of between-species differences independent of the effects of these two morphological features led us to suspect that an unconsidered elytron characteristic may also be affecting these differences. Discussion The results of the involvement of the exoskeleton thickness and spots in the thermoregulation of insects opens new research lines to obtain a better understanding of the function of the exoskeleton as a passive thermoregulation mechanism in Coleoptera.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Eva Cuesta
- Department of Biogeography and Global Change, Museo Nacional de Ciencias Naturales (C.S.I.C.), Madrid, Spain.,Escuela Internacional de Doctorado, Universidad Rey Juan Carlos, Móstoles, Madrid, España
| | - Jorge M Lobo
- Department of Biogeography and Global Change, Museo Nacional de Ciencias Naturales (C.S.I.C.), Madrid, Spain
| |
Collapse
|
14
|
Verdú JR, Cortez V, Oliva D, Giménez-Gómez V. Thermoregulatory syndromes of two sympatric dung beetles with low energy costs. JOURNAL OF INSECT PHYSIOLOGY 2019; 118:103945. [PMID: 31520597 DOI: 10.1016/j.jinsphys.2019.103945] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/23/2019] [Revised: 08/21/2019] [Accepted: 09/11/2019] [Indexed: 06/10/2023]
Abstract
In heterotherm insects, endothermy implies a high energy cost due to the generation and regulation of body temperature during different activities such as flight, food location, fighting and even walking. We studied the thermoregulation process and the cost of the thermoregulation strategies in two sympatric dung beetles, Sulcophanaeus batesi and S. imperator under heat and cold stress conditions. We used a set of physiological variables to exemplify the capacity of thermolimit respirometry combined with infrared thermography to derive relevant variables capable of describing different thermoregulation syndromes. Habitat use and thermal niche differed notably between S. batesi and S. imperator, reflecting their contrasted thermal requirements. In S. imperator, thermal specialization for high temperatures was observed, being active mainly during the warmer period of the day. On the other hand, thermal adaptation in S. batesi allows its preference for cold exhibiting a morning activity periods, avoiding higher temperatures. The thermophilic strategy used by Sulcophanaeus imperator minimized the energy expenditure produced during the cooling of the body by respiration without thereby endangering higher thermal limits. In this case, S. batesi, the species with a preference for the coldest environments, presented the lowest thermal limits, although the energy cost needed to stay active during cooling was significantly lower than that in S. imperator. Sulcophanaeus imperator and S. batesi showed evident 'economizing' strategies associated with hot and cold environmental conditions, respectively. In contrast, if both species experience a deviation from their thermal optimum, a decrement in their performance could be produced.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- José R Verdú
- I.U.I. CIBIO, Universidad de Alicante, Alicante E-03690, Spain.
| | - Vieyle Cortez
- I.U.I. CIBIO, Universidad de Alicante, Alicante E-03690, Spain
| | - Daniela Oliva
- Centro de Investigación e Innovación Tecnológica (CENIIT), Universidad Nacional de La Rioja, Av. Luis M. De La Fuente s/n, Ciudad de La Rioja 5300, Argentina
| | - Victoria Giménez-Gómez
- Instituto de Biología Subtropical, Universidad Nacional de Misiones-CONICET, Puerto Iguazú, Argentina
| |
Collapse
|
15
|
Van Dievel M, Tüzün N, Stoks R. Latitude-associated evolution and drivers of thermal response curves in body stoichiometry. J Anim Ecol 2019; 88:1961-1972. [PMID: 31408526 DOI: 10.1111/1365-2656.13088] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/07/2019] [Revised: 07/10/2019] [Accepted: 07/21/2019] [Indexed: 12/26/2022]
Abstract
Trait-based studies are needed to understand the plastic and genetic responses of organisms to warming. A neglected organismal trait is elemental composition, despite its potential to cascade into effects on the ecosystem level. Warming is predicted to shape elemental composition through shifts in storage molecules associated with responses in growth, body size and metabolic rate. Our goals were to quantify thermal response patterns in body composition and to obtain insights into their underlying drivers and their evolution across latitudes. We reconstructed the thermal response curves (TRCs) for body elemental composition [C (carbon), N (nitrogen) and the C:N ratio] of damselfly larvae from high- and low-latitude populations. Additionally, we quantified the TRCs for survival, growth and development rates and body size to assess local thermal adaptation, as well as the TRCs for metabolic rate and key macromolecules (proteins, fat, sugars and cuticular melanin and chitin) as these may underlie the elemental TRCs. All larvae died at 36°C. Up to 32°C, low-latitude larvae increased growth and development rates and did not suffer increased mortality. Instead, growth and development rates of high-latitude larvae were lower and levelled off at 24°C, and mortality increased at 32°C. This latitude-associated thermal adaptation pattern matched the 'hotter-is-better' hypothesis. With increasing temperatures, low-latitude larvae decreased C:N, while high-latitude larvae increased C:N. These patterns were driven by associated changes in N contents, while C contents did not respond to temperature. Consistent with the temperature-size rule and the thermal melanism hypothesis, body size and melanin levels decreased with warming. While all traits and associated macromolecules (except for metabolic rate that showed thermal compensation) assumed to underlie thermal responses in elemental composition showed thermal plasticity, these were largely independent and none could explain the stoichiometric TRCs. Our results highlight that thermal responses in elemental composition cannot be explained by traditionally assumed drivers, asking for a broader perspective including the thermal dependence of elemental fluxes. Another key implication is that thermal evolution can reverse the plastic stoichiometric thermal responses and hence reverse how warming may shape food web dynamics through changes in body composition at different latitudes.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Marie Van Dievel
- Evolutionary Stress Ecology and Ecotoxicology, University of Leuven, Leuven, Belgium
| | - Nedim Tüzün
- Evolutionary Stress Ecology and Ecotoxicology, University of Leuven, Leuven, Belgium
| | - Robby Stoks
- Evolutionary Stress Ecology and Ecotoxicology, University of Leuven, Leuven, Belgium
| |
Collapse
|
16
|
Alves VM, Hernández MIM. Local extinctions may be evidenced by the holes of the morphometric hypervolume in dung beetle communities. AUSTRAL ECOL 2019. [DOI: 10.1111/aec.12752] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/27/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Victor Michelon Alves
- Programa de Pós Graduação em Ecologia; Departamento de Ecologia e Zoologia; Universidade Federal de Santa Catarina; Florianópolis Santa Catarina 88040-900 Brazil
| | - Malva Isabel Medina Hernández
- Programa de Pós Graduação em Ecologia; Departamento de Ecologia e Zoologia; Universidade Federal de Santa Catarina; Florianópolis Santa Catarina 88040-900 Brazil
| |
Collapse
|
17
|
Semmouri I, Asselman J, Van Nieuwerburgh F, Deforce D, Janssen CR, De Schamphelaere KAC. The transcriptome of the marine calanoid copepod Temora longicornis under heat stress and recovery. MARINE ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH 2019; 143:10-23. [PMID: 30415781 DOI: 10.1016/j.marenvres.2018.10.017] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/12/2018] [Revised: 10/10/2018] [Accepted: 10/30/2018] [Indexed: 06/09/2023]
Abstract
Understanding the impacts of global change in zooplankton communities is crucial, as alterations in the zooplankton communities can affect entire marine ecosystems. Despite the economic and ecological importance of the calanoid copepod Temora longicornis in the Belgian part of the North Sea, molecular data is still very limited for this species. Using HiSeq Illumina sequencing, we sequenced the whole transcriptome of T. longicornis, after being exposed to realistic temperatures of 14 and 17 °C. After both an acute (1 day) and a more sustained (5 days) thermal exposure to 17 °C, we investigated gene expression differences with animals exposed to 14 °C, which may be critical for the thermal acclimation and resilience of this copepod species. We also studied the possibility of a short term stress recovery of a heat shock. A total of 179,569 transcripts were yielded, of which 44,985 putative ORF transcripts were identified. These transcripts were subsequently annotated into roughly 22,000 genes based on known sequences using Gene Ontology (GO) and KEGG databases. Temora only showed a mild response to both the temperature and the duration of the exposure. We found that the expression of 27 transcripts varied significantly with an increase in temperature of 3 °C, of which eight transcripts were differentially expressed after acute exposure only. Gene set enrichment analysis revealed that, overall, T. longicornis was more impacted by a sustained thermal exposure, rather than an immediate (acute) exposure, with two times as many enriched GO terms in the sustained treatment. We also identified several general stress responses independent of exposure time, such as modified protein synthesis, energy mobilisation, cuticle and chaperone proteins. Finally, we highlighted candidate genes of a possible recovery from heat exposure, identifying similar terms as those enriched in the heat treatments, i.e. related to for example energy metabolism, cuticle genes and extracellular matrix. The data presented in this study provides the first transcriptome available for T. longicornis which can be used for future genomic studies.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Ilias Semmouri
- Ghent University, Laboratory of Environmental Toxicology and Aquatic Ecology, Faculty of Bioscience Engineering, 9000, Ghent, Belgium.
| | - Jana Asselman
- Ghent University, Laboratory of Environmental Toxicology and Aquatic Ecology, Faculty of Bioscience Engineering, 9000, Ghent, Belgium
| | - Filip Van Nieuwerburgh
- Ghent University, Laboratory of Pharmaceutical Biotechnology, Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences, 9000, Ghent, Belgium
| | - Dieter Deforce
- Ghent University, Laboratory of Pharmaceutical Biotechnology, Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences, 9000, Ghent, Belgium
| | - Colin R Janssen
- Ghent University, Laboratory of Environmental Toxicology and Aquatic Ecology, Faculty of Bioscience Engineering, 9000, Ghent, Belgium
| | - Karel A C De Schamphelaere
- Ghent University, Laboratory of Environmental Toxicology and Aquatic Ecology, Faculty of Bioscience Engineering, 9000, Ghent, Belgium
| |
Collapse
|
18
|
da Silva PG, Lobo JM, Hernández MIM. The role of habitat and daily activity patterns in explaining the diversity of mountain Neotropical dung beetle assemblages. AUSTRAL ECOL 2018. [DOI: 10.1111/aec.12675] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Pedro G. da Silva
- Programa de Pós-Graduação em Ecologia; Universidade Federal de Santa Catarina; Florianópolis Santa Catarina Brazil
| | - Jorge M. Lobo
- Depto. de Biogeografía y Cambio Global; Museo Nacional de Ciencias Naturales, C.S.I.C.; Madrid Spain
| | | |
Collapse
|
19
|
Distribution of Canthon rutilans rutilans and Canthon rutilans cyanescens Along Spatio-Temporal and Temperature Gradients. INSECTS 2018; 9:insects9040124. [PMID: 30248894 PMCID: PMC6316853 DOI: 10.3390/insects9040124] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/17/2018] [Revised: 09/05/2018] [Accepted: 09/18/2018] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
Subspecies is a debated taxonomic rank that, in some cases, could indicate that a speciation process is taking place. Studying the degree of co-occurrence among subspecies along environmental gradients may help to determine its taxonomic status. In this study, we explore the distribution of two subspecies of Canthon rutilans along spatio-temporal and temperature gradients in the Atlantic Forest of southern Brazil in order to reinforce their current subspecies status or to support their consideration as two different species. A yearly survey conducted along an elevational transect (from 250 m to 1630 m) shows that there is no spatio-temporal overlap between the two taxa. We collected 899 individuals of Canthon rutilans cyanescens and 29 individuals of Canthon rutilans rutilans. C. rutilans cyanescens can be found at 250 m (all year except in June), 430 m (August to April), and 840 m (September to April) in elevation, and when the air temperature oscillates from 15.3 °C to 24.0 °C. C. rutilans rutilans can be found at 1360 m (October to February), 1630 m (January) in elevation, and when the air temperature oscillates from 14.4 °C to 18.6 °C. Furthermore, local temperature data taken during the survey indicates that both subspecies also have a limited overlap in their thermal response curves. All these results suggest that these two taxa could be considered as two different species with dissimilar physiological and ecological requirements probably as a consequence of temperature-mediated divergent adaptation. Further molecular data can confirm or reject this supposition in the near future.
Collapse
|
20
|
Alves VM, Hernández MIM, Lobo JM. Elytra Absorb Ultraviolet Radiation but Transmit Infrared Radiation in Neotropical Canthon Species (Coleoptera, Scarabaeinae). Photochem Photobiol 2018; 94:532-539. [PMID: 29368396 DOI: 10.1111/php.12889] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/16/2017] [Accepted: 12/19/2017] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
Strategies to deal with global radiation may be related to important aspects of species biology and ecology by reflecting, transmitting or absorbing the radiation of varying wavelengths differently. The elytra capacity to manage infrared, visible and ultraviolet radiations (from 185 to 1400 nm) was assessed with a spectrophotometric analysis in five Canthon species of dung beetles; we calculated the reflectance, transmittance and absorbance capacity of the elytra of these species. These species have different ecologies: two species preferentially inhabit forest areas (Canthon angularis and Canthon lividus lividus), two species preferentially inhabit open areas (Canthon chalybaeus and Canthon tetraodon) including agricultural crops, and one species does not present a clear habitat preference and can be found in both habitats (Canthon quinquemaculatus). All the species show a similar pattern in which the light from shorter wavelengths and higher frequencies is almost entirely absorbed by the elytra, while radiation from longer wavelengths and lower frequencies can mostly pass through the elytra. However, C. quinquemaculatus seems to have significantly higher rates of reflectance and transmittance in the visible- and near-infrared spectrum. This different pattern found in C. quinquemaculatus may be associated with its capacity to establish populations both in agricultural and forest areas.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Victor M Alves
- Programa de Pós Graduação em Ecologia, Departamento de Ecologia e Zoologia, Universidade Federal de Santa Catarina, Florianópolis, Santa Catarina, Brazil
| | - Malva I M Hernández
- Programa de Pós Graduação em Ecologia, Departamento de Ecologia e Zoologia, Universidade Federal de Santa Catarina, Florianópolis, Santa Catarina, Brazil
| | - Jorge M Lobo
- Department of Biogeography and Global Change, Museo Nacional de Ciencias Naturales, CSIC, Madrid, Spain
| |
Collapse
|