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Becker L, Heimerl A, André E. ForDigitStress: presentation and evaluation of a new laboratory stressor using a digital job interview-scenario. Front Psychol 2023; 14:1182959. [PMID: 37404593 PMCID: PMC10315916 DOI: 10.3389/fpsyg.2023.1182959] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/09/2023] [Accepted: 05/18/2023] [Indexed: 07/06/2023] Open
Abstract
Introduction Since the COVID-19 pandemic, working environments and private lives have changed dramatically. Digital technologies and media have become more and more important and have found their way into nearly all private and work environments. Communication situations have been largely relocated to virtual spaces. One of these scenarios is digital job interviews. Job interviews are usually-also in the non-digital world-perceived as stressful and associated with biological stress responses. We here present and evaluate a newly developed laboratory stressor that is based on a digital job interview-scenario. Methods N = 45 healthy people participated in the study (64.4% female; mean age: 23.2 ± 3.6 years; mean body mass index = 22.8 ± 4.0 kg/m2). Salivary alpha-amylase (sAA) and cortisol were assessed as measures for biological stress responses. Furthermore, perceived stress was rated at the time points of the saliva samplings. The job interviews lasted between 20 and 25 min. All materials, including instructions for the experimenter (i.e., the job interviewer) and the data set used for statistical analysis, as well as a multimodal data set, which includes further measures, are publicly available. Results Typical subjective and biological stress-response patterns were found, with peak sAA and perceived stress levels observed immediately after the job interviews and peak cortisol concentrations 5 min afterwards. Female participants experienced the scenario as more stressful than male participants. Cortisol peaks were higher for participants who experienced the situation as a threat in comparison to participants who experienced it as a challenge. Associations between the strength of the stress response with further person characteristics and psychological variables such as BMI, age, coping styles, and personality were not found. Discussion Overall, our method is well-suited to induce biological and perceived stress, mostly independent of person characteristics and psychological variables. The setting is naturalistic and easily implementable in standardized laboratory settings.
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Affiliation(s)
- Linda Becker
- Chair of Health Psychology, Department of Psychology, Friedrich-Alexander-Universität Erlangen-Nürnberg, Erlangen, Germany
| | - Alexander Heimerl
- Chair for Human-Centered Artificial Intelligence, Institute of Computer Science, Universität Augsburg, Augsburg, Germany
| | - Elisabeth André
- Chair for Human-Centered Artificial Intelligence, Institute of Computer Science, Universität Augsburg, Augsburg, Germany
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Gellisch M, Morosan-Puopolo G, Wolf OT, Moser DA, Zaehres H, Brand-Saberi B. Interactive teaching enhances students' physiological arousal during online learning. Ann Anat 2023; 247:152050. [PMID: 36693546 DOI: 10.1016/j.aanat.2023.152050] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/21/2022] [Revised: 12/16/2022] [Accepted: 01/06/2023] [Indexed: 01/22/2023]
Abstract
The pure transfer of face-to-face teaching to a digital learning environment can be accompanied by a significant reduction in the physiological arousal of students, which in turn can be associated with passivity during the learning process, often linked to insufficient levels of concentration and engagement in the course work. Therefore, the aim of this study was to investigate whether students' psychobiological stress responses can be enhanced in the context of anatomical online learning and how increased physiological parameters correlate with characteristics of learning experiences in a digital learning environment. Healthy first-year medical students (n = 104) experienced a regular practical course in Microscopic Anatomy either in face-to-face learning, in passive online learning or in an interaction-enhanced version of online learning. Compared to passive online learning, students engaged in the interaction-enhanced version of online learning displayed a significantly reduced Heart Rate Variability (P 0.001, partial η2 = 0.381) along with a strong increase in salivary cortisol (P 0.001, partial η2 = 0.179) and salivary alpha-amylase activity (P 0.001, partial η2 = 0.195). These results demonstrated that the physiological arousal of students engaged in online learning can be enhanced via interactive teaching methods and pointed towards clear correlations between higher physiological responses and elementary criteria of learning experience such as engagement and attention.
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Affiliation(s)
- Morris Gellisch
- Department of Anatomy and Molecular Embryology, Institute of Anatomy, Medical Faculty, Ruhr University Bochum, Bochum, Germany.
| | - Gabriela Morosan-Puopolo
- Department of Anatomy and Molecular Embryology, Institute of Anatomy, Medical Faculty, Ruhr University Bochum, Bochum, Germany
| | - Oliver T Wolf
- Department of Cognitive Psychology, Faculty of Psychology, Ruhr University Bochum, Bochum, Germany
| | - Dirk A Moser
- Department of Genetic Psychology, Faculty of Psychology, Ruhr University Bochum, Bochum, Germany
| | - Holm Zaehres
- Department of Anatomy and Molecular Embryology, Institute of Anatomy, Medical Faculty, Ruhr University Bochum, Bochum, Germany
| | - Beate Brand-Saberi
- Department of Anatomy and Molecular Embryology, Institute of Anatomy, Medical Faculty, Ruhr University Bochum, Bochum, Germany
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Becker L, Kaltenegger HC, Nowak D, Rohleder N, Weigl M. Differences in stress system (re-)activity between single and dual- or multitasking in healthy adults: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Health Psychol Rev 2022; 17:78-103. [PMID: 35477383 DOI: 10.1080/17437199.2022.2071323] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/04/2022]
Abstract
AbstractIn the age of digitization, multitasking requirements are ubiquitous, especially in the workplace. Multitasking (MT) describes the activity of performing multiple (at least two) tasks at the same time. Dual tasking (DT) refers to the sequential switching between two tasks. The aim of our systematic review and meta-analysis was first to investigate whether physiological stress systems become activated in response to or during MT/DT and, secondly, whether this (re-)activity is higher compared to single tasking. We focused on the Sympathetic Nervous System (SNS), the Parasympathetic Nervous System (PNS), the hypothalamic-pituitary adrenal (HPA) axis, and the immune system. The systematic review has been pre-registered with PROSPERO (CRD42020181415). A total of twenty-five articles were identified as eligible, in which n = 26 studies were reported, with N = 1,142 participants. Our main findings are that SNS activity is significantly higher and PNS activity is significantly lower during MT/DT than during single tasking. Only two studies were found, in which HPA axis (re-)activity was surveyed. No eligible study was identified in which immune system (re-)activity was investigated. This is the first systematic synthesis of the literature base showing that stress system activity is increased during MT/DT in comparison to single-tasking.
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Affiliation(s)
- Linda Becker
- Department of Psychology, Chair of Health Psychology, Friedrich-Alexander-Universität Erlangen-Nürnberg, Erlangen, Germany
| | - Helena C Kaltenegger
- Institute and Clinic for Occupational, Social and Environmental Medicine, LMU University Hospital Munich, Germany
| | - Dennis Nowak
- Institute and Clinic for Occupational, Social and Environmental Medicine, LMU University Hospital Munich, Germany
| | - Nicolas Rohleder
- Department of Psychology, Chair of Health Psychology, Friedrich-Alexander-Universität Erlangen-Nürnberg, Erlangen, Germany
| | - Matthias Weigl
- Institute and Clinic for Occupational, Social and Environmental Medicine, LMU University Hospital Munich, Germany.,Institute for Patient Safety, University Hospital, Bonn, Germany
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Becker L, Kaltenegger HC, Nowak D, Weigl M, Rohleder N. Physiological stress in response to multitasking and work interruptions: Study protocol. PLoS One 2022; 17:e0263785. [PMID: 35134093 PMCID: PMC8824354 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0263785] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/03/2021] [Accepted: 01/26/2022] [Indexed: 12/25/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND The biopsychological response patterns to digital stress have been sparsely investigated so far. Important potential stressors in modern working environments due to increased digitalization are multitasking and work interruptions. In this study protocol, we present a protocol for a laboratory experiment, in which we will investigate the biopsychological stress response patterns to multitasking and work interruptions. METHODS In total, N = 192 healthy, adult participants will be assigned to six experimental conditions in a randomized order (one single-task, three dual-task (two in parallel and one as interruption), one multitasking, and one passive control condition). Salivary alpha-amylase as well as heart rate as markers for Sympathetic Nervous System Activity, heart rate variability as measure for Parasympathetic Nervous System (PNS) activity, and cortisol as measure for activity of the hypothalamic-pituitary adrenal (HPA) axis will be assessed at six time points throughout the experimental session. Furthermore, inflammatory markers (i.e., IL-6, C-reactive protein (CRP), and secretory immunoglobulin-A) will be assessed before and after the task as well as 24 hours after it (IL-6 and CRP only). Main outcomes will be the time course of these physiological stress markers. Reactivity of these measures will be compared between the experimental conditions (dual-tasking, work interruptions, and multitasking) with the control conditions (single-tasking and passive control). DISCUSSION With this study protocol, we present a comprehensive experiment, which will enable an extensive investigation of physiological stress-responses to multitasking and work interruptions. Our planned study will contribute to a better understanding of physiological response patterns to modern (digital) stressors. Potential risks and limitations are discussed. The findings will have important implications, especially in the context of digital health in modern working and living environments.
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Affiliation(s)
- Linda Becker
- Department of Psychology, Chair of Health Psychology, Friedrich-Alexander University Erlangen-Nürnberg, Erlangen, Germany
| | - Helena C. Kaltenegger
- Institute and Clinic for Occupational, Social and Environmental Medicine, LMU University Hospital Munich, Munich, Germany
| | - Dennis Nowak
- Institute and Clinic for Occupational, Social and Environmental Medicine, LMU University Hospital Munich, Munich, Germany
| | - Matthias Weigl
- Institute and Clinic for Occupational, Social and Environmental Medicine, LMU University Hospital Munich, Munich, Germany
- Institute for Patient Safety, University Hospital, Bonn, Germany
| | - Nicolas Rohleder
- Department of Psychology, Chair of Health Psychology, Friedrich-Alexander University Erlangen-Nürnberg, Erlangen, Germany
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Revisiting the SECPT-G: A template for the group-administered socially evaluated cold-pressor test to robustly induce stress. COMPREHENSIVE PSYCHONEUROENDOCRINOLOGY 2022; 10:100115. [PMID: 35755207 PMCID: PMC9216420 DOI: 10.1016/j.cpnec.2022.100115] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/11/2022] [Accepted: 01/11/2022] [Indexed: 11/22/2022] Open
Abstract
The Socially Evaluated Cold-Pressor Test (SECPT (Schwabe et al., 2008) [1]; reliably elicits stress responses. We refined the group-administered version of the SECPT (SECPT-G) aiming to increase its' effectiveness. In Experiment 1 (N = 39), we gathered data from 12 participants simultaneously, employing a stress confederate for each participant. In Experiment 2 (N = 69), we gathered data from six participants simultaneously, employing either six stress confederates (individual-observation) or a single one (group-observation). In Experiment 1, we found that the SECPT-G elicited cortisol responses compared to a control condition; in Experiment 2, we replicated these findings and observed that cortisol responses were similar in the individual- and the group-observation setting. The findings of Experiment 2 were corroborated by people's subjective stress experience. Importantly, both experiments show a similar magnitude of cortisol response, and a greater responder rate than in the regular SECPT or the regular Trier Social Stress Test (TSST). The presented SECPT-G template may thus serve as a reliable and efficient stress induction tool that allows standardization across research groups. We refined the group-administered socially evaluative cold-pressor test (SECPT-G). The SECPT-G can be conducted with up to 12 participants in different settings. The SECPT-G elicits cortisol and subjective stress responses in the lab. The SECPT-G's effectiveness is comparable with regular SECPTs or TSSTs. The SECPT-G template enables reliable, efficient and standardized stress induction.
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Infortuna C, Mineo L, Buffer S, Thomas FP, Muscatello MRA, Aguglia E, Bruno A, Zoccali RA, Sheikh A, Chusid E, Han Z, Battaglia F. Acute social and somatic stress alters cortical metaplasticity probed with non-invasive brain stimulation in humans. Int J Psychophysiol 2021; 170:1-5. [PMID: 34547303 DOI: 10.1016/j.ijpsycho.2021.09.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/26/2021] [Revised: 09/08/2021] [Accepted: 09/14/2021] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
Studying the neuronal mechanisms that govern the cortical adaptations to acute stress is critical for understanding the development of neuropsychiatric diseases. Homeostatic plasticity stabilizes the neural activity in which a previous synaptic event drives subsequent synaptic plasticity. In this study, we evaluated the effect of acute stress induced with the socially evaluated cold pressor test (SECPT) on cortical metaplasticity in humans using a non-invasive brain stimulation protocol. After being exposed to the SECPT and control stress conditions, 30 healthy participants were tested for cortical metaplasticity assessed with changes in the amplitude of the motor evoked potential (MEP) induced by a single-pulse transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS). Cortical metaplasticity was induced by combining priming with cathodal tDCS (cTDCS) followed by a sub-threshold 1-Hz repetitive stimulation (rTMS) test session. Our results showed that SECPT induced cardiovascular adaptations (increase in systolic, diastolic blood pressure, and heart rate), indicating that SECPT effectively induced acute stress. Also, in our experiments stimulation of subjects with 1-Hz rTMS after they had undergone the SECPT condition induced inhibition of MEP whereas 1-Hz rTMS administered after the control condition induced a facilitatory (physiologic) response pattern. Here we observed that acute stress impairs homeostatic metaplasticity. The dysfunctional regulation of cortical plastic changes after stress could play a pivotal role in the pathogenesis of neurological and psychiatric diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Carmenrita Infortuna
- Department of Biomedical and Dental Sciences and Morphofunctional Imaging, Policlinico Universitario, University of Messina, Messina, Italy
| | - Ludovico Mineo
- Department of Clinical and Experimental Medicine, Psychiatry Unit, University of Catania, Italy
| | - Steven Buffer
- Department of Medical Sciences and Department of Neurology, Hackensack Meridian School of Medicine, Nutley, NJ, USA
| | - Florian P Thomas
- Department of Neurology, Hackensack University Medical Center, Hackensack Meridian School of Medicine, Hackensack, NJ, USA
| | - Maria Rosaria Anna Muscatello
- Department of Biomedical and Dental Sciences and Morphofunctional Imaging, Policlinico Universitario, University of Messina, Messina, Italy
| | - Eugenio Aguglia
- Department of Clinical and Experimental Medicine, Psychiatry Unit, University of Catania, Italy
| | - Antonio Bruno
- Department of Clinical and Experimental Medicine, Psychiatry Unit, University of Catania, Italy
| | - Rocco Antonio Zoccali
- Department of Biomedical and Dental Sciences and Morphofunctional Imaging, Policlinico Universitario, University of Messina, Messina, Italy
| | - Asad Sheikh
- Department of Pre-clinical Sciences, New York College of Podiatric Medicine, New York, USA
| | - Eileen Chusid
- Department of Pre-clinical Sciences, New York College of Podiatric Medicine, New York, USA
| | - Zhyiong Han
- Department of Neurology, Hackensack University Medical Center, Hackensack Meridian School of Medicine, Hackensack, NJ, USA
| | - Fortunato Battaglia
- Department of Neurology, Hackensack University Medical Center, Hackensack Meridian School of Medicine, Hackensack, NJ, USA.
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Baumeister D, Pillinger T, Howes O, Peters E. Psychophysiological stress-reactivity in clinical and non-clinical voice-hearers. Schizophr Res 2021; 235:52-59. [PMID: 34315061 PMCID: PMC8429638 DOI: 10.1016/j.schres.2021.07.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/25/2019] [Revised: 12/09/2020] [Accepted: 07/07/2021] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Psychosis is associated with dysregulation of psychophysiological stress-reactivity, including in subjective, autonomic nervous system (ANS) and hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) parameters. AIMS This study investigated whether dysregulated psychophysiological stress-reactivity is specifically associated with auditory verbal hallucinations (AVHs) or psychosis more generally by comparing voice-hearers with and without a need for care. METHOD Clinical (n = 20) and non-clinical voice-hearers (n = 23), as well as a healthy control group with no voices (n = 23), were compared on HPA and ANS responses, and subjective reactivity, to a psychophysiological stress paradigm, the socially evaluative cold pressor test. RESULTS Measures of HPA function in both clinical and non-clinical voice-hearers diverged from non-voice-hearing controls. Clinical participants showed a blunted peak response compared to both non-clinical groups (p = 0.02), whilst non-clinical voice-hearers showed, at trend-level, reduced cortisol levels during stress exposure compared to both clinical voice-hearers (p = 0.07) and healthy controls (p = 0.07), who unexpectedly did not differ from each other (p = 0.97). Clinical participants showed greater subjective stress levels than both non-clinical groups (p < 0.001), as well as greater anticipatory stress (p = 0.001) and less recovery. There were no differences between groups on parameters of the ANS (all p > 0.05). CONCLUSIONS Dysregulated psychophysiological stress-function is present in clinical voice-hearers, and partially discriminates them from non-clinical voice-hearers. Overall, the present findings identified specific potential psychophysiological markers of risk and resilience in auditory verbal hallucinations and need for care.
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Affiliation(s)
- David Baumeister
- Institute of Psychiatry, Psychology & Neuroscience, King's College London, Department of Psychology, London, UK; Department of General Internal Medicine and Psychosomatics, University Hospital Heidelberg, Germany.
| | - Toby Pillinger
- Institute of Psychiatry, Psychology & Neuroscience, King's College London, Department of Psychosis Studies, London, UK
| | - Oliver Howes
- Institute of Psychiatry, Psychology & Neuroscience, King's College London, Department of Psychosis Studies, London, UK
| | - Emmanuelle Peters
- Institute of Psychiatry, Psychology & Neuroscience, King's College London, Department of Psychology, London, UK; South London and Maudsley NHS Foundation Trust, London, UK
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Britting S, Kob R, Sieber CC, Rohleder N, Freiberger E, Becker L. Physiological stress in safer cycling in older age (SiFAr-stress): effect of a multicomponent exercise intervention-a study protocol for a randomized controlled trial. Trials 2021; 22:552. [PMID: 34419134 PMCID: PMC8379566 DOI: 10.1186/s13063-021-05481-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/15/2021] [Accepted: 07/22/2021] [Indexed: 11/23/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND SiFAr-Stress investigates the impact of cycling on stress levels in older adults. Uncertainty due to change to motorized bicycle or fear of falling can be perceived as stressors for cyclists. Stress activates different physiological signal cascades and stimulates the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis, which leads to the release of the stress hormone cortisol and further effects such as the development of low-grade inflammation. Both can-in the long term-be associated with negative health outcomes. The aim of the study SiFAr-Stress is to analyze inflammatory processes as well as the activity of stress systems before and after a cycling intervention for older adults. METHODS In this study, community-dwelling older adults aged 65 years and older will be randomly assigned to either a cycling or a control intervention in a parallel-group design. Objective HPA axis-related measures (saliva cortisol and hair cortisol) will be assessed before, after, and 6-9 months after the cycling and control intervention (T0, T1, and T2). Furthermore, changes in cortisol reactivity in response to the cycling intervention will be investigated at the second and seventh training lessons. Furthermore, secondary outcomes (fear of falling, perceived stress, salivary alpha amylase, and C-reactive protein) will be assessed at T0, T1, and T2. DISCUSSION The study will be the first, in which stress- and health-related bio-physiological outcomes will be assessed in the context of a multicomponent exercise intervention, addressing cycling in older adults. It will enable us to better understand the underlying patho-physiological and psychological mechanisms and will help to improve interventions for this target group. TRIAL REGISTRATION ClinicalTrials.gov NCT04362514 . Prospectively registered on 27 April 2020.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sabine Britting
- Institute for Biomedicine of Aging, Friedrich-Alexander-Universität Erlangen-Nürnberg, Kobergerstraße 60, 90408, Nuremberg, Bavaria, Germany.
| | - Robert Kob
- Institute for Biomedicine of Aging, Friedrich-Alexander-Universität Erlangen-Nürnberg, Kobergerstraße 60, 90408, Nuremberg, Bavaria, Germany
| | - Cornel Christian Sieber
- Institute for Biomedicine of Aging, Friedrich-Alexander-Universität Erlangen-Nürnberg, Kobergerstraße 60, 90408, Nuremberg, Bavaria, Germany
- Department of Medicine, Kantonsspital Winterthur, Winterthur, Switzerland
| | - Nicolas Rohleder
- Department of Psychology, Chair of Health Psychology, Friedrich-Alexander-Universität Erlangen-Nürnberg, Erlangen, Bavaria, Germany
| | - Ellen Freiberger
- Institute for Biomedicine of Aging, Friedrich-Alexander-Universität Erlangen-Nürnberg, Kobergerstraße 60, 90408, Nuremberg, Bavaria, Germany
| | - Linda Becker
- Department of Psychology, Chair of Health Psychology, Friedrich-Alexander-Universität Erlangen-Nürnberg, Erlangen, Bavaria, Germany
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Becker L, Semmlinger L, Rohleder N. Resistance training as an acute stressor in healthy young men: associations with heart rate variability, alpha-amylase, and cortisol levels. Stress 2021; 24:318-330. [PMID: 32744460 DOI: 10.1080/10253890.2020.1799193] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
Regular resistance training has been shown to have many physiological and psychological health benefits. However, the underlying physiological processes are not yet fully understood. One explanation is that resistance training acts like an acute stressor and modulates physiological pathways that are associated with the stress response such as the sympathetic nervous system (SNS), the parasympathetic nervous system (PNS), and the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis. This was systematically investigated in our study. Participants were 45 healthy men who had been doing resistance training regularly for at least nine months. Salivary α-amylase and heart rate that were used as markers for SNS activity increased during the training and decreased afterwards. PNS activity that was assessed by means of heart rate variability parameters decreased during the training and increased after it. Salivary cortisol that was used as marker for HPA axis activity decreased throughout the session. Furthermore, an improvement of positive affect was found after the training. However, additional analyses indicated that the physiological response patterns were found for participants who chose upper-body exercises (in contrast to lower-body exercises) only. Therefore, we were able to show that an upper-body resistance training acts partially like an acute stressor which leads to the typical SNS and PNS - but not HPA axis - stress responses. We conclude that resistance trainings might be an alternative to classical relaxation programs which would have the additional advantage that it is a physical training at the same time. However, more research is needed to develop specific trainings which entirely fulfill this goal.
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Affiliation(s)
- Linda Becker
- Department of Psychology, Friedrich-Alexander University Erlangen-Nürnberg, Erlangen, Germany
| | - Lucas Semmlinger
- Department of Psychology, Friedrich-Alexander University Erlangen-Nürnberg, Erlangen, Germany
| | - Nicolas Rohleder
- Department of Psychology, Friedrich-Alexander University Erlangen-Nürnberg, Erlangen, Germany
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Becker L, Rohleder N. Associations between Attention and Implicit Associative Learning in Healthy Adults: The Role of Cortisol and Salivary Alpha-Amylase Responses to an Acute Stressor. Brain Sci 2020; 10:brainsci10080544. [PMID: 32806521 PMCID: PMC7463622 DOI: 10.3390/brainsci10080544] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/15/2020] [Revised: 07/30/2020] [Accepted: 08/10/2020] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
In this study, we investigated the associations between implicit associative learning with the cortisol and salivary alpha-amylase (sAA) stress response to an acute stressor as well as their associations with attention. Eighty one healthy adults (25 male) participated and either performed the socially evaluated cold-pressor test (SECPT) or a warm-water control task (WWT). Either prior to or immediately after the SECPT/WWT, participants implicitly learned digit-symbol pairs. A not-previously announced recall test was conducted about 20 min after the SECPT/WWT. Attention was assessed by means of a Stroop task at nine time points over the course of the experiment. Memory recall performance was not significantly associated with the acquisition time point (pre or post stressor) and did not significantly differ between the responder groups (i.e., non-responders, sAA-and-cortisol responders, only sAA responders, and only cortisol responders). Attentional performance increased throughout the experiment (i.e., reaction times in the Stroop task decreased). No differences in the attentional time course were found between the responder groups. However, some associations were found (puncorrected < 0.05) that did not pass the multiple comparison adjusted alpha level of αadjusted = 0.002, indicating different associations between attention and implicit learning between the responder groups. We conclude that the associations of sAA and cortisol responses with implicit learning are complex and are related to each other. Further studies in which both (sAA and cortisol responses) are selectively (de-) activated are needed. Furthermore, different learning tasks and less—potentially stressful—attentional assessments should be used in future research. Moreover, field studies are needed in which the associations between acute stress and implicit associative learning are investigated in everyday life.
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Becker L, Schade U, Rohleder N. Activation of the hypothalamic-pituitary adrenal axis in response to a verbal fluency task and associations with task performance. PLoS One 2020; 15:e0227721. [PMID: 32298298 PMCID: PMC7161971 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0227721] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/22/2019] [Accepted: 04/01/2020] [Indexed: 01/01/2023] Open
Abstract
Speech fluency can be impaired in stressful situations. In this study, it was investigated whether a verbal fluency task by itself, i.e. without the presence of any further stressors, induces responses of the hypothalamic-pituitary adrenal (HPA) axis and of the sympathetic nervous system (SNS). The sample consisted of n = 85 participants (68.2% female; 33.3 ± 15.2 years) who performed two consecutive verbal fluency tasks for two minutes each. The categories were either ‘stress’ or ‘disease’ and ‘animals’ or ‘foods’ which were presented in a randomized order. Three saliva samples were collected, prior to the task (t0), immediately after (t1), and ten minutes after it (t2). Salivary α-amylase and cortisol were assessed. Furthermore, blood pressure, heart rate, and ratings of actual stress perception, level of effort, and tiredness were measured. The verbal fluency task induced a HPA axis response with a maximum cortisol level at t2 which was independent of task performance. Furthermore, perceived stress and effort, as well as tiredness increased after the task. Moreover, tiredness immediately after the task was negatively correlated with task performance. No α-amylase, blood pressure, or heart rate, and therefore SNS, responses were found. Implications for the integrated specificity model are discussed. We conclude that a verbal fluency task acts like an acute stressor that induces a cortisol and a perceived stress response without the need for further (e.g., social-evaluative) stress components. Therefore, it is a less time-consuming alternative to other stress tasks that can be used in field studies with little effort.
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Affiliation(s)
- Linda Becker
- Department of Psychology, Friedrich-Alexander University Erlangen-Nürnberg, Erlangen, Germany
- * E-mail:
| | - Ursula Schade
- Department of Psychology, Friedrich-Alexander University Erlangen-Nürnberg, Erlangen, Germany
| | - Nicolas Rohleder
- Department of Psychology, Friedrich-Alexander University Erlangen-Nürnberg, Erlangen, Germany
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