Exercise mode and attentional networks in older adults: a cross-sectional study

The effect of considering eye movement time in evaluating the efficiency of attentional networks

The attention network test (ANT) is a tool for assessing the executive, alerting, and orienting components of attention. However, conflicting findings exist regarding the nature and correlation between attention networks. This study aims to investigate the influence of eye movement time on the assessment of attention network efficiency. Forty male students, with an average age of 20.8 ± 1.3 years, participated in the study. The revised attention network test was conducted concurrently with the recording of the electrooculogram signal. The electrooculogram signal was used to estimate eye placement time on target stimuli. Considering eye movement time for calculating the score of each network was proposed as a novel method. The study explored the nature of attention networks and their relationships, and revealed significant effects for attention networks with and without considering the eye movement time. Additionally, a significant correlation is observed between the alerting and orienting networks. However, no significant correlation is found between attention networks using the proposed method. Considering eye movement time alters the assessment of attention network efficiency and modifies the correlation among attention networks.

Examining the effects of exercise with different cognitive loads on executive function: A systematic review

Executive functions (EFs) play a pivotal role in daily functioning, academic and vocational achievement, well-being, and the regulation of cognitive processes that impact the quality of life. Physical exercise has been shown to have positive effects on EFs. However, there remains some controversy regarding whether exercise with greater cognitive loads may be more effective for improving EFs. Through this systematic review, we aimed to synthesize available cross-sectional and longitudinal intervention studies concerning the effects of exercise with varying cognitive loads on EFs. The literature search was conducted across three electronic databases, retrieving cross-sectional and longitudinal intervention (randomized controlled trials) studies, using a standardized EF measurement from inception until June 2023. Our search yielded a total of 1570 potentially relevant articles, of which 53 were considered for full-text reading, and 28 were included in the review after full-text reading. The present study utilized Gentile's (2000) taxonomy classification to determine the cognitive load levels in exercises. Overall, findings from the 28 included studies suggested that exercise training interventions are a promising way to promote overall EF. Noteworthy, there is preliminary empirical evidence to suggest that exercises with higher cognitive loads resulted in greater benefits for EF than those with lower cognitive loads.

Effects of a single bout of mobile action video game play on attentional networks

Background

Video game play has been linked to a range of cognitive advantages, and investigations in this domain have predominantly utilized cross-sectional designs or long-term training paradigms. Nevertheless, the specific effects of engaging in a single bout of video game play remain poorly understood. Consequently, the objective of this study is to examine the influence of a single session of mobile action video game (MAVG) play on attentional networks among college students.

Methods

Seventy-two nonvideo game players were assigned randomly into an MAVG and a control game group. Participants in the MAVG group engaged in a 60-minute session of an action video game played on mobile phones, while the control group played a mobile card game for the same duration. All participants completed the attentional network test (ANT), which assesses alerting, orienting, and executive control network efficiencies, before and after the intervention.

Results

The MAVG group had significantly improved alerting network efficiency following the intervention, compared to before (p < 0.05); the control game group did not. Neither executive control network efficiency nor orienting network efficiency were found to be improved by the intervention.

Conclusion

The present data demonstrated that a single bout of MAVG play can improve alerting network efficiency selectively in young-adult college students. MAVGs may be useful for promoting attentional function with the advantages of being accessible virtually any time and anywhere.

The effects of a smartphone game training intervention on executive functions in youth soccer players: a randomized controlled study

Cognitive training primarily aims to improve executive functions (EFs). It has become a popular research topic, as previous studies have provided preliminary evidence that EFs relate to sports performance. However, whether a domain-generic cognitive training intervention can improve EFs in high-performance athletes is still unclear. The present randomized controlled study aimed to examine the effects of an eight-week (5 min/day, 5 days/week) smartphone-based domain-generic cognitive training intervention (i.e., the smartphone game "Fruit Ninja") on EFs in youth soccer athletes (N = 33; intervention: n = 15, passive control: n = 18; German youth soccer academy). We assessed working memory (3-back task), inhibition (Flanker & Go/NoGo task), and cognitive flexibility (number-letter task) in a pre-post design with computerized tasks. The results showed no significant time x group differences attributable to the cognitive training between the intervention group and the control group, except for a response time variable of the Go/NoGo task. These preliminary results do not suggest an application of CT as a smartphone-based game to improve EFs performance in soccer players. However, more research is needed to establish the efficacy of domain-specific interventions in high-level team sport athletes.

Preventive Strategies for Cognitive Decline and Dementia: Benefits of Aerobic Physical Activity, Especially Open-Skill Exercise

As there is no curative treatment for dementia, including Alzheimer's disease (AD), it is important to establish an optimal nonpharmaceutical preventive intervention. Physical inactivity is a representative modifiable risk factor for dementia, especially for AD in later life (>65 years). As physical activity and exercise are inexpensive and easy to initiate, they may represent an effective nonpharmaceutical intervention for the maintenance of cognitive function. Several studies have reported that physical activity and exercise interventions are effective in preventing cognitive decline and dementia. This review outlines the effects of physical activity and exercise-associated interventions in older adults with and without cognitive impairment and subsequently summarizes their possible mechanisms. Furthermore, this review describes the differences between two types of physical exercise-open-skill exercise (OSE) and closed-skill exercise (CSE)-in terms of their effects on cognitive function. Aerobic physical activity and exercise interventions are particularly useful in preventing cognitive decline and dementia, with OSE exerting a stronger protective effect on cognitive functions than CSE. Therefore, the need to actively promote physical activity and exercise interventions worldwide is emphasized.

Impairment of attention network function in posterior circulation ischemia-evidence from the Attention Network Test

Objective

This study aimed to investigate the effect of posterior circulation ischemia (PCI) on attention network function and to determine whether PCI is holistic or selective attention network deficit and which attention network is affected.

Methods

Thirty-six PCI patients aged 30 to 75 were assessed using the Attention Network Test and the Mini-Mental State Examination (MMSE). There were no significant differences in age, sex, and education between PCI group and the control group (n = 32). All data were statistically analyzed by SPSS 23.0 software.

Result

There were no significant difference in the MMSE scores between the two groups. Compared with the control group, the PCI group had significantly shorter response time for alerting and orienting network. The executive control network response time was significantly longer in PCI group than in the control group. The overall mean response time was also significantly longer in PCI group than in normal control group. There was no significant difference in mean accuracy between the two groups.

Conclusion

The alerting, orienting, and executive control networks were significantly less efficient in PCI group than in the control group (P < 0.01). This indicates impaired attention network in PCI patients. Since transient nerve seizures caused by vertebrobasilar ischemia may precede posterior circulation stroke, early assessment of cognitive function in patients with PCI is particularly important, and ANT is an excellent tool for this assessment.

The Impact of Practicing Open- vs. Closed-Skill Sports on Executive Functions-A Meta-Analytic and Systematic Review with a Focus on Characteristics of Sports

Exercise modes can be categorized based on the skills required (open vs. closed skills), which implicates various demands on cognitive skills, especially executive functions (EFs). Thus, their practice may have varying effects on EFs. There is a lack of detailed analysis of cognitive requirements and suitable classification of sports. It is hypothesized that the amount and type of cognitive requirements of sports lead to small effect sizes when comparing open-skill exercising (OSE) and closed-skill exercising (CSE) athletes. The current meta-analysis evaluates the variances in EFs skills caused by particular sport modes. Four research databases (Web of Science, PubMed, ScienceDirect, PsychINFO) were searched for cross-sectional studies in which the authors compare the performance in EF tasks of OSE and CSE athletes. Risk of bias assessment was conducted using funnel plots and two reviewer selection process (overall and subgroup analysis; low risk of publication and selection bias). A total of 19 studies were included, revealing an overall effect size of Hedge’s g = 0.174 (p = 0.157), favoring OSE for the development of EFs. The subgroup analysis revealed the effects for the subdomains of EFs (cognitive flexibility: Hedge’s g = 0.210 > inhibitory control: Hedge’s g = 0.191 > working memory: Hedge’s g = 0.138; p > 0.05), which could be characterized as low to moderate. The hypothesis that studies with the smallest effect sizes compare sport modes with similar cognitive demands was rejected. The paper discusses the differentiation of sports into OSE and CSE and presents new approaches for their categorization.

Effects of Physical Activity Level on Attentional Networks in Young Adults

Although physical activity is associated with better attentional functioning in elderly populations or in specific clinical populations, the association between physical activity level and attention has been less studied in young adult populations. Thus, the purpose of this study was to investigate whether the positive effects of physical activity on attentional networks extend to young adults. In total, 57 college students were recruited and assigned to one of three groups of physical activity levels (high, moderate, and low) based on their self-reported exercise. Each participant completed the Attention Network Test to evaluate the efficiency of three components of attention: alerting, orienting, and executive control. Compared with the low physical activity group, both the high and moderate physical activity groups exhibited better executive control. In addition, the efficiency of the executive control network was positively correlated with physical activity. By contrast, no statistically significant differences were detected among these three groups for the functioning of the alerting or orienting networks. These findings suggested that physical activity had a positive effect on attention in young adults, with the benefit primarily observed for the executive control component rather than for the alerting and orienting components of attention.

Comparison of the effects of open- and closed-skill exercise on cognition and peripheral proteins: A cross-sectional study

Previous research indicates that different exercise modes might create different effects on cognition and peripheral protein signals. This study aimed to compare the effects of long-term participation in an open and closed-skill exercise on cognitive functions and Brain-derived neurotrophic factor and Cathepsin B levels. 18 fencers, 18 swimmers, 18 sedentary controls between 18–25 years old participated in the study. Participants performed visuospatial working memory, verbal fluency and selective attention tasks. Blood samples were tested for Brain-derived neurotrophic factor and Cathepsin B using ELISA. The results showed that fencers performed superiorly on some part of visuospatial working memory, verbal fluency, and selective attention tasks than swimmers and sedentary controls. Athlete groups showed higher scores on some subtests of visuospatial working memory and selective attention tasks than sedentary controls. The basal serum Brain-derived neurotrophic factor level was not significant between the groups, but Cathepsin B was higher in fencers than swimmers and sedentary controls. The peripheric protein signal response to acute exercise was significantly higher in athletes, particularly in the open-skill group for Cathepsin B. Our research provided noteworthy results that more cognitively challenging exercise may provide more benefits for some aspects of cognition. Since our findings suggest that open-skill exercise improves specific types of executive-control functioning, this exercise mode might be included in training programs to support cognition and prevent cognitive impairment.

Effects of Open-Skill Exercises on Cognition on Community Dwelling Older Adults: Protocol of a Randomized Controlled Trial

(1) Cognitive function may benefit from physical exercise in older adults. However, controversy remains over which mode of exercise is more beneficial. (2) The aim of the proposed study is to investigate the effect of open-skill exercise training on cognitive function in community dwelling older adults compared with closed-skill exercise, cognitive training, and active control. (3) One hundred and sixty participants, aged between 60 and 80 years old, will be recruited from community senior centers in Yangzhou, China and randomly assigned to one of four groups: open-skill exercise group, closed-skill exercise group, mobile game playing group, and active control group. All participants will join a 24-week program involving 50 min sessions three times a week. The primary outcome measure is visuospatial working memory. Secondary measures include subjective memory complaint, attention network, nonverbal reasoning ability, and physical activities. All participants will be measured before, mid-way, and immediately after intervention, and three months later. (4) If successful, this study is expected to provide evidence-based recommendations for older adults to select the most efficient and effective mode of exercise to improve cognitive function. Importantly, the three intervention groups provide an opportunity to separate the cognitive activity component from the physical activity component. Comparison of these components is expected to help elucidate possible mechanisms contributing to the additional cognitive benefit of open-skill exercises.