Human leucocyte antigen class I-redirected anti-tumour CD4+ T cells require a higher T cell receptor binding affinity for optimal activity than CD8+ T cells

CD4⁺ T helper cells are a valuable component of the immune response towards cancer. Unfortunately, natural tumour‐specific CD4⁺ T cells occur in low frequency, express relatively low‐affinity T cell receptors (TCRs) and show poor reactivity towards cognate antigen. In addition, the lack of human leucocyte antigen (HLA) class II expression on most cancers dictates that these cells are often unable to respond to tumour cells directly. These deficiencies can be overcome by transducing primary CD4⁺ T cells with tumour‐specific HLA class I‐restricted TCRs prior to adoptive transfer. The lack of help from the co‐receptor CD8 glycoprotein in CD4⁺ cells might result in these cells requiring a different optimal TCR binding affinity. Here we compared primary CD4⁺ and CD8⁺ T cells expressing wild‐type and a range of affinity‐enhanced TCRs specific for the HLA A*0201‐restricted NY‐ESO‐1‐ and gp100 tumour antigens. Our major findings are: (i) redirected primary CD4⁺ T cells expressing TCRs of sufficiently high affinity exhibit a wide range of effector functions, including cytotoxicity, in response to cognate peptide; and (ii) optimal TCR binding affinity is higher in CD4⁺ T cells than CD8⁺ T cells. These results indicate that the CD4⁺ T cell component of current adoptive therapies using TCRs optimized for CD8⁺ T cells is below par and that there is room for substantial improvement.

T cell receptor binding affinity governs the functional profile of cancer-specific CD8+ T cells

Antigen-specific T cell receptor (TCR) gene transfer via patient-derived T cells is an attractive approach to cancer therapy, with the potential to circumvent immune regulatory networks. However, high-affinity tumour-specific TCR clonotypes are typically deleted from the available repertoire during thymic selection because the vast majority of targeted epitopes are derived from autologous proteins. This process places intrinsic constraints on the efficacy of T cell-based cancer vaccines and therapeutic strategies that employ naturally generated tumour-specific TCRs. In this study, we used altered peptide ligands and lentivirus-mediated transduction of affinity-enhanced TCRs selected by phage display to study the functional properties of CD8(+) T cells specific for three different tumour-associated peptide antigens across a range of binding parameters. The key findings were: (i) TCR affinity controls T cell antigen sensitivity and polyfunctionality; (ii) supraphysiological affinity thresholds exist, above which T cell function cannot be improved; and (iii) T cells transduced with very high-affinity TCRs exhibit cross-reactivity with self-derived peptides presented by the restricting human leucocyte antigen. Optimal system-defined affinity windows above the range established for natural tumour-specific TCRs therefore allow the enhancement of T cell effector function without off-target effects. These findings have major implications for the rational design of novel TCR-based biologics underpinned by rigorous preclinical evaluation.

Post-translational hydroxylation at the N-terminus of the prion protein reveals presence of PPII structure in vivo

The transmissible spongiform encephalopathies are characterized by conversion of a host protein, PrP(C) (cellular prion protein), to a protease-resistant isoform, PrP(Sc) (prion protein scrapie isoform). The importance of the highly flexible, N-terminal region of PrP has recently become more widely appreciated, particularly the biological activities associated with its metal ion-binding domain and its potential to form a poly(L-proline) II (PPII) helix. Circular dichroism spectroscopy of an N-terminal peptide, PrP(37-53), showed that the PPII helix is formed in aqueous buffer; as it also contains an Xaa-Pro-Gly consensus sequence, it may act as a substrate for the collagen-modifying enzyme prolyl 4-hydroxylase. Direct evidence for this modification was obtained by mass spectrometry and Edman sequencing in recombinant mouse PrP secreted from stably transfected Chinese hamster ovary cells. Almost complete conversion of proline to 4-hydroxyproline occurs specifically at residue Pro44 of this murine protein; the same hydroxylated residue was detected, at lower levels, in PrP(Sc) from the brains of scrapie-infected mice. Cation binding and/or post-translational hydroxylation of this region of PrP may regulate its role in the physiology and pathobiology of the cell.

Alleviation of mechanical and thermal allodynia by CGRP(8-37) in a rodent model of chronic central pain

CGRP(8-37) is a truncated version of calcitonin gene-related peptide (CGRP) that binds to the CGRP receptor with similar affinity but does not activate the receptor and is a highly selective CGRP receptor antagonist. CGRP and activation of its receptor appear to play a role in peripheral inflammatory and neuropathic models of pain although there is considerable controversy. The aim of this study was to examine possible anti-nociceptive effects of CGRP(8-37) on a model of chronic central neuropathic pain known to develop weeks after spinal hemisection. Adult male Sprague-Dawley rats were given a spinal hemisection (N=34) or a sham surgery (N=10) at the T13 spinal segment. An externally accessible PE-10 intrathecal catheter that terminated at T13 was used for drug delivery. Animals were allowed to recover for 4 weeks at which time the hemisected animals displayed mechanical and thermal allodynia bilaterally, in both forelimbs and hindlimbs. CGRP(8-37) was delivered just prior to a testing session in 1, 5, 10, or 50 nM doses in artificial cerebral spinal fluid in 10 microl volumes. CGRP(8-37) was effective in alleviating mechanical and thermal allodynia in a dose-dependent manner (P<0.05). The 50 nM dose was most efficacious for both forelimb and hindlimb responses (P<0.05). The period of efficacy was 10 min to onset for a duration of 20 min. Post-drug washout responses were not statistically significant compared to pre-drug responses. The sham control groups demonstrated no statistically significant difference at any dose of CGRP(8-37) when compared to pre-surgical baseline values. In conclusion, CGRP(8-37) is effective in abolishing mechanical and thermal allodynia produced by spinal hemisection. Consequently, the CGRP receptor may play a role in chronic central neuropathic pain and offers a novel therapeutic approach to managing chronic central pain.

Intrathecal administration of an NMDA or a non-NMDA receptor antagonist reduces mechanical but not thermal allodynia in a rodent model of chronic central pain after spinal cord injury

Spinal cord injuries (SCI) result in a devastating loss of function and chronic central pain syndromes frequently develop in the majority of these patients. The present study uses a rodent spinal hemisection model of SCI in which mechanical and thermal allodynia develops by 24 days after injury. Post-operative paw withdrawal responses to low threshold and high threshold mechanical stimuli compared to pre-operative responses (4.78, 9.96, and 49.9 mN) were increased and were statistically significant (p<0.05) for both forelimbs and hindlimbs indicating the development of mechanical allodynia. By contrast, post-operatively, the temperature at which paw withdrawal accompanied by paw lick occurred was significantly decreased (p<0.05), indicating the development of thermal allodynia. The intrathecal application of either D-AP5, a competitive NMDA receptor antagonist, or NBQX-disodium salt, a competitive non-NMDA AMPA/kainate receptor antagonist, alleviated the mechanical allodynia and lowered the threshold of response for the high threshold mechanical stimuli in a dose-dependent manner, and these decreases were statistically significant (p<0.05). By contrast, neither the D-AP5 nor the NBQX produced a statistically significant change in the thermal allodynia behavior in either forelimbs or hindlimbs in the hemisected group. No significant changes in locomotion scores, and thus no sedation, were demonstrated by the hemisected group for the doses tested. These data support the potential efficacy of competitive excitatory amino acid receptor antagonists in the treatment of chronic central pain, particularly where input from low threshold mechanical afferents trigger the onset of the painful sensation. Furthermore, these data suggest a role for both NMDA and non-NMDA receptors in the development of plastic changes in the spinal cord that provide the underlying mechanisms for central neuropathic pain.

Characterization and polyanion-binding properties of purified recombinant prion protein

Certain polysulphated polyanions have been shown to have prophylactic effects on the progression of transmissible spongiform encephalopathy disease, presumably because they bind to prion protein (PrP). Until now, the difficulty of obtaining large quantities of native PrP has precluded detailed studies of these interactions. We have over-expressed murine recombinant PrP (recPrP), lacking its glycophosphoinositol membrane anchor, in modified mammalian cells. Milligram quantities of secreted, soluble and partially glycosylated protein were purified under non-denaturing conditions and the identities of mature-length aglycosyl recPrP and two cleavage fragments were determined by electrospray MS. Binding was assessed by surface plasmon resonance techniques using both direct and competitive ligand-binding approaches. recPrP binding to immobilized polyanions was enhanced by divalent metal ions. Polyanion binding was strong and showed complex association and dissociation kinetics that were consistent with ligand-directed recPrP aggregation. The differences in the binding strengths of recPrP to pentosan polysulphate and to other sulphated polyanions were found to parallel their in vivo anti-scrapie and in vitro anti-scrapie-specific PrP formation potencies. When recPrP was immobilized by capture on metal-ion chelates it was found, contrary to expectation, that the addition of polyanions promoted the dissociation of the protein.

NGF-resistant PC12 cell death induced by arachidonic acid is accompanied by a decrease of active PKC zeta and nuclear factor kappa B

Inflammation and the associated release of inflammatory cytokines such as tumor necrosis factor alpha (TNFalpha) may be a component of neurodegenerative diseases associated with aging or chronic HIV-1 infection. Most of the neurons that are affected under these conditions require a constant supply of trophic factors such as nerve growth factor (NGF) for survival. NGF acts via binding to a specific tyrosine kinase receptor (TrkA). NGF also binds to the common neurotrophin receptor (p75(NTR)), a member of the TNFalpha receptor (TNFR-I) superfamily, whose function may be to modulate apoptosis via the release of ceramide and the activation of the transcription factor nuclear factor kappa B (NFkappaB). The similarity between p75(NTR) and TNFR-I signal transduction pathways suggests that one of the mechanisms by which TNFalpha affects neuronal survival is by impacting upon these pathways that normally promote NGF support of neurons. Here we show that arachidonic acid (AA), a signaling lipid potentially associated with TNFR-I signal cascade, induces apoptosis in PC12 cells through inhibition of both protein kinase C zeta (PKCzeta) and NFkappaB activity. We also show that apoptosis induced by AA cannot be prevented by NGF. These data support the idea that PKCzeta and NFkappaB are both essential signaling elements for mediating NGF-promoted rescue from apoptosis. Our results also suggest that AA, an inflammatory signal lipid induced by TNFalpha via binding to TNFR-I, may reduce neuronal survival by inhibiting elements of the signal cascade induced by NGF.

Perinatal substance abuse and the drug-exposed neonate

Tobacco and alcohol are the substances most abused during pregnancy. Alcohol (ethanol) is the human teratogen that produces the most serious neurobehavioral effects on the fetus. Cocaine is associated with spontaneous abortions, premature labor, precipitous labor, stillbirths, meconium staining and abruptio placentae. Heroin use during pregnancy has been associated with low birth weight, miscarriage, prematurity, microcephaly and intrauterine growth retardation. Marijuana is not scientifically linked to significant teratogenic effects. Since most substance abusers use multiple drugs, a positive screen for marijuana may indicate a high-risk patient. Cigarette smoking has been associated with spontaneous abortions, premature rupture of membranes, preterm delivery, perinatal death, low birth weight infants, and deficits in learning and behavior.

NGF levels decrease in the spinal cord and dorsal root ganglion after spinal hemisection

To examine changes in nerve growth factor (NGF) levels in spinal cord and dorsal root ganglia (DRG) after spinal injury, male Sprague-Dawley rats weighing 150-175 g were given spinal hemisections. NGF content was measured at various post-surgical times and compared with naive controls (n = 4 per time point) in the spinal cord, DRG and blood serum by ELISA techniques (Promega). Levels of NGF in the blood serum were significantly increased 8-fold at 48h but were significantly decreased in the spinal cord and DRG by 2- to 4-fold until 7 days postsurgery (ANOVA, p < 0.05). Contrary to accepted dogma, spinal injury results in decreased levels of NGF in the spinal cord and DRG following spinal injury.

Are Sinc and the PrP gene congruent? Evidence from PrP gene analysis in Sinc congenic mice

Congenic mouse strains VM/Dk and VM-Sincs7/Dk differ at the Sinc gene, which controls the incubation period of scrapie in mice; VM/Dk mice are Sincp7p7 and VM-Sincs7/Dk mice are Sincs7s7. Restriction fragment length polymorphism and DNA sequencing analysis demonstrated that the PrP genes also differ in these strains, confirming the close genetic linkage of Sinc and PrP. Using the restriction enzyme HhaI, we have shown that at least 100 kb of DNA flanking the PrP gene differs between the two strains, and therefore the congruence of the Sinc and PrP genes is still not certain.

Molecular biology of scrapie-like agents

A detailed account is given of the nature of the causal agent of scrapie and other transmissible spongiform encephalopathies, with reference to proteinase-resistant protein and its gene, subviral particles and the prion hypothesis.

Resistance to fusidic acid in Escherichia coli mediated by the type I variant of chloramphenicol acetyltransferase. A plasmid-encoded mechanism involving antibiotic binding

Plasmid-encoded fusidic acid resistance in Escherichia coli is mediated by a common variant of chloramphenicol acetyltransferase (EC 2.3.1.28), an enzyme which is an effector of chloramphenicol resistance. Resistance to chloramphenicol is a consequence of acetylation of the antibiotic catalysed by the enzyme and the failure of the 3-acetoxy product to bind to bacterial ribosomes. Cell-free coupled transcription and translation studies are in agreement with genetic studies which indicated that the entire structural gene for the type I chloramphenicol acetyltransferase is necessary for the fusidic acid resistance phenotype. The mechanism of resistance does not involve covalent modification of the antibiotic. The other naturally occurring enterobacterial chloramphenicol acetyltransferase variants (types II and III) do not cause fusidic acid resistance. Steady-state kinetic studies with the type I enzyme have shown that the binding of fusidic acid is competitive with respect to chloramphenicol. The inhibition of polypeptide chain elongation in vitro which is observed in the presence of fusidic acid is relieved by addition of purified chloramphenicol acetyltransferase, and equilibrium dialysis experiments with [3H]fusidate and the type I enzyme have defined the stoichiometry and apparent affinity of fusidate for the type I enzyme. Further binding studies with fusidate analogues, including bile salts, have shown some of the structural constraints on the steroidal skeleton of the ligand which are necessary for binding to the enzyme. Determinations of antibiotic resistance levels and estimates of intracellular chloramphenicol acetyltransferase concentrations in vivo support the data from experiments in vitro to give a coherent mechanism for fusidic acid resistance based on reversible binding of the antibiotic to the enzyme.