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Andrady AL, Heikkilä AM, Pandey KK, Bruckman LS, White CC, Zhu M, Zhu L. Effects of UV radiation on natural and synthetic materials. Photochem Photobiol Sci 2023; 22:1177-1202. [PMID: 37039962 PMCID: PMC10088630 DOI: 10.1007/s43630-023-00377-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/01/2023] [Accepted: 01/13/2023] [Indexed: 04/12/2023]
Abstract
The deleterious effects of solar ultraviolet (UV) radiation on construction materials, especially wood and plastics, and the consequent impacts on their useful lifetimes, are well documented in scientific literature. Any future increase in solar UV radiation and ambient temperature due to climate change will therefore shorten service lifetimes of materials, which will require higher levels of stabilisation or other interventions to maintain their lifetimes at the present levels. The implementation of the Montreal Protocol and its amendments on substances that deplete the ozone layer, controls the solar UV-B radiation received on Earth. This current quadrennial assessment provides a comprehensive update on the deleterious effects of solar UV radiation on the durability of natural and synthetic materials, as well as recent innovations in better stabilising of materials against solar UV radiation-induced damage. Pertinent emerging technologies for wood and plastics used in construction, composite materials used in construction, textile fibres, comfort fabric, and photovoltaic materials, are addressed in detail. Also addressed are the trends in technology designed to increase sustainability via replacing toxic, unsustainable, legacy additives with 'greener' benign substitutes that may indirectly affect the UV stability of the redesigned materials. An emerging class of efficient photostabilisers are the nanoscale particles that include oxide fillers and nanocarbons used in high-performance composites, which provide good UV stability to materials. They also allow the design of UV-shielding fabric materials with impressive UV protection factors. An emerging environmental issue related to the photodegradation of plastics is the generation of ubiquitous micro-scale particles from plastic litter exposed to solar UV radiation.
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Affiliation(s)
- A. L. Andrady
- Department of Chemical and Biomolecular Engineering, North Carolina State University, Raleigh, NC USA
| | | | - K. K. Pandey
- Indian Academy of Wood Science, Bangalore, India
| | - L. S. Bruckman
- Department of Materials Science and Engineering, Case Western Reserve University, Cleveland, OH USA
| | | | - M. Zhu
- College of Materials Science and Engineering, Donghua University, Shanghai, China
| | - L. Zhu
- State Key Laboratory for Modification of Chemical Fibres and Polymer Materials, Donghua University, Shanghai, China
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2
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Jansen MAK, Barnes PW, Bornman JF, Rose KC, Madronich S, White CC, Zepp RG, Andrady AL. The Montreal Protocol and the fate of environmental plastic debris. Photochem Photobiol Sci 2023:10.1007/s43630-023-00372-x. [PMID: 36705849 DOI: 10.1007/s43630-023-00372-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/20/2022] [Accepted: 01/13/2023] [Indexed: 01/28/2023]
Abstract
Microplastics (MPs) are an emerging class of pollutants in air, soil and especially in all aquatic environments. Secondary MPs are generated in the environment during fragmentation of especially photo-oxidised plastic litter. Photo-oxidation is mediated primarily by solar UV radiation. The implementation of the Montreal Protocol and its Amendments, which have resulted in controlling the tropospheric UV-B (280-315 nm) radiation load, is therefore pertinent to the fate of environmental plastic debris. Due to the Montreal Protocol high amounts of solar UV-B radiation at the Earth's surface have been avoided, retarding the oxidative fragmentation of plastic debris, leading to a slower generation and accumulation of MPs in the environment. Quantifying the impact of the Montreal Protocol in reducing the abundance of MPs in the environment, however, is complicated as the role of potential mechanical fragmentation of plastics under environmental mechanical stresses is poorly understood.
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Affiliation(s)
- M A K Jansen
- School of Biological, Earth and Environmental Sciences, Environmental Research Institute, University College Cork, Cork, Ireland.
| | - P W Barnes
- Biological Sciences and Environmental Program, Loyola University New Orleans, New Orleans, LA, USA
| | - J F Bornman
- Food Futures Institute, Murdoch University, Perth, Australia
| | - K C Rose
- Biological Sciences, Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute, Troy, USA
| | - S Madronich
- Atmospheric Chemistry Observations and Modeling Laboratory, National Center for Atmospheric Research, Boulder, CO, USA
| | - C C White
- Exponent, Inc, Bowie, MD, 20715, USA
| | - R G Zepp
- ORD/CEMM, US Environmental Protection Agency, Athens, GA, USA
| | - A L Andrady
- Chemical and Biomolecular Engineering, North Carolina State University, Raleigh, NC, USA
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3
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Andrady AL, Barnes PW, Bornman JF, Gouin T, Madronich S, White CC, Zepp RG, Jansen MAK. Oxidation and fragmentation of plastics in a changing environment; from UV-radiation to biological degradation. Sci Total Environ 2022; 851:158022. [PMID: 35970458 PMCID: PMC9765214 DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2022.158022] [Citation(s) in RCA: 39] [Impact Index Per Article: 19.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/19/2022] [Revised: 08/09/2022] [Accepted: 08/10/2022] [Indexed: 05/26/2023]
Abstract
Understanding the fate of plastics in the environment is of critical importance for the quantitative assessment of the biological impacts of plastic waste. Specially, there is a need to analyze in more detail the reputed longevity of plastics in the context of plastic degradation through oxidation and fragmentation reactions. Photo-oxidation of plastic debris by solar UV radiation (UVR) makes material prone to subsequent fragmentation. The fragments generated following oxidation and subsequent exposure to mechanical stresses include secondary micro- or nanoparticles, an emerging class of pollutants. The paper discusses the UV-driven photo-oxidation process, identifying relevant knowledge gaps and uncertainties. Serious gaps in knowledge exist concerning the wavelength sensitivity and the dose-response of the photo-fragmentation process. Given the heterogeneity of natural UV irradiance varying from no exposure in sediments to full UV exposure of floating, beach litter or air-borne plastics, it is argued that the rates of UV-driven degradation/fragmentation will also vary dramatically between different locations and environmental niches. Biological phenomena such as biofouling will further modulate the exposure of plastics to UV radiation, while potentially also contributing to degradation and/or fragmentation of plastics independent of solar UVR. Reductions in solar UVR in many regions, consequent to the implementation of the Montreal Protocol and its Amendments for protecting stratospheric ozone, will have consequences for global UV-driven plastic degradation in a heterogeneous manner across different geographic and environmental zones. The interacting effects of global warming, stratospheric ozone and UV radiation are projected to increase UV irradiance at the surface in localized areas, mainly because of decreased cloud cover. Given the complexity and uncertainty of future environmental conditions, this currently precludes reliable quantitative predictions of plastic persistence on a global scale.
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Affiliation(s)
- A L Andrady
- Chemical and Biomolecular Engineering, North Carolina State University, Raleigh, NC, USA
| | - P W Barnes
- Biological Sciences and Environmental Program, Loyola University New Orleans, New Orleans, LA, USA
| | - J F Bornman
- Food Futures Institute, Murdoch University, Perth, Australia
| | - T Gouin
- TG Environmental Research, Sharnbrook, Bedfordshire, UK
| | - S Madronich
- Atmospheric Chemistry Observations and Modeling Laboratory, National Center for Atmospheric Research, Boulder, CO, USA
| | | | - R G Zepp
- ORD/CEMM, US Environmental Protection Agency, Athens, GA, USA
| | - M A K Jansen
- School of BEES, Environmental Research Institute, University College Cork, Cork, Ireland.
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4
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Barnes PW, Robson TM, Neale PJ, Williamson CE, Zepp RG, Madronich S, Wilson SR, Andrady AL, Heikkilä AM, Bernhard GH, Bais AF, Neale RE, Bornman JF, Jansen MAK, Klekociuk AR, Martinez-Abaigar J, Robinson SA, Wang QW, Banaszak AT, Häder DP, Hylander S, Rose KC, Wängberg SÅ, Foereid B, Hou WC, Ossola R, Paul ND, Ukpebor JE, Andersen MPS, Longstreth J, Schikowski T, Solomon KR, Sulzberger B, Bruckman LS, Pandey KK, White CC, Zhu L, Zhu M, Aucamp PJ, Liley JB, McKenzie RL, Berwick M, Byrne SN, Hollestein LM, Lucas RM, Olsen CM, Rhodes LE, Yazar S, Young AR. Environmental effects of stratospheric ozone depletion, UV radiation, and interactions with climate change: UNEP Environmental Effects Assessment Panel, Update 2021. Photochem Photobiol Sci 2022; 21:275-301. [PMID: 35191005 PMCID: PMC8860140 DOI: 10.1007/s43630-022-00176-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/18/2021] [Accepted: 01/14/2022] [Indexed: 12/07/2022]
Abstract
The Environmental Effects Assessment Panel of the Montreal Protocol under the United Nations Environment Programme evaluates effects on the environment and human health that arise from changes in the stratospheric ozone layer and concomitant variations in ultraviolet (UV) radiation at the Earth’s surface. The current update is based on scientific advances that have accumulated since our last assessment (Photochem and Photobiol Sci 20(1):1–67, 2021). We also discuss how climate change affects stratospheric ozone depletion and ultraviolet radiation, and how stratospheric ozone depletion affects climate change. The resulting interlinking effects of stratospheric ozone depletion, UV radiation, and climate change are assessed in terms of air quality, carbon sinks, ecosystems, human health, and natural and synthetic materials. We further highlight potential impacts on the biosphere from extreme climate events that are occurring with increasing frequency as a consequence of climate change. These and other interactive effects are examined with respect to the benefits that the Montreal Protocol and its Amendments are providing to life on Earth by controlling the production of various substances that contribute to both stratospheric ozone depletion and climate change.
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Affiliation(s)
- P W Barnes
- Biological Sciences and Environment Program, Loyola University New Orleans, New Orleans, USA
| | - T M Robson
- Organismal and Evolutionary Biology (OEB), Viikki Plant Science Centre (ViPS), University of Helsinki, Helsinki, Finland
| | - P J Neale
- Smithsonian Environmental Research Center, Edgewater, USA
| | | | - R G Zepp
- ORD/CEMM, US Environmental Protection Agency, Athens, GA, USA
| | - S Madronich
- Atmospheric Chemistry Observations and Modeling Laboratory, National Center for Atmospheric Research, Boulder, USA
| | - S R Wilson
- School of Earth, Atmospheric and Life Sciences, University of Wollongong, Wollongong, Australia
| | - A L Andrady
- Chemical and Biomolecular Engineering, North Carolina State University, Apex, USA
| | - A M Heikkilä
- Finnish Meteorological Institute, Helsinki, Finland
| | | | - A F Bais
- Laboratory of Atmospheric Physics, Department of Physics, Aristotle University, Thessaloniki, Greece
| | - R E Neale
- Population Health Department, QIMR Berghofer Medical Research Institute, Brisbane, Australia
| | - J F Bornman
- Food Futures Institute, Murdoch University, Perth, Australia.
| | | | - A R Klekociuk
- Antarctic Climate Program, Australian Antarctic Division, Kingston, Australia
| | - J Martinez-Abaigar
- Faculty of Science and Technology, University of La Rioja, La Rioja, Logroño, Spain
| | - S A Robinson
- Securing Antarctica's Environmental Future, Global Challenges Program and School of Earth, Atmospheric and Life Sciences, University of Wollongong, Wollongong, Australia
| | - Q-W Wang
- Institute of Applied Ecology, Chinese Academy of Sciences (CAS), Shenyang, China
| | - A T Banaszak
- Unidad Académica De Sistemas Arrecifales, Universidad Nacional Autónoma De México, Puerto Morelos, Mexico
| | - D-P Häder
- Department of Biology, Friedrich-Alexander University, Möhrendorf, Germany
| | - S Hylander
- Centre for Ecology and Evolution in Microbial Model Systems-EEMiS, Linnaeus University, Kalmar, Sweden.
| | - K C Rose
- Biological Sciences, Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute, Troy, USA
| | - S-Å Wängberg
- Marine Sciences, University of Gothenburg, Gothenburg, Sweden
| | - B Foereid
- Environment and Natural Resources, Norwegian Institute of Bioeconomy Research, Ås, Norway
| | - W-C Hou
- Environmental Engineering, National Cheng Kung University, Tainan, Taiwan
| | - R Ossola
- Environmental System Science (D-USYS), ETH Zürich, Zürich, Switzerland
| | - N D Paul
- Lancaster Environment Centre, Lancaster University, Lancaster, UK
| | - J E Ukpebor
- Chemistry Department, Faculty of Physical Sciences, University of Benin, Benin City, Nigeria
| | - M P S Andersen
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, California State University, Northridge, USA
- Department of Chemistry, University of Copenhagen, Copenhagen, Denmark
| | - J Longstreth
- The Institute for Global Risk Research, LLC, Bethesda, USA
| | - T Schikowski
- Research Group of Environmental Epidemiology, Leibniz Institute of Environmental Medicine, Düsseldorf, Germany
| | - K R Solomon
- Centre for Toxicology, School of Environmental Sciences, University of Guelph, Guelph, Canada
| | - B Sulzberger
- Academic Guest, Swiss Federal Institute of Aquatic Science and Technology, 8600, Dübendorf, Switzerland
| | - L S Bruckman
- Materials Science and Engineering, Case Western Reserve University, Cleveland, USA
| | - K K Pandey
- Wood Processing Division, Institute of Wood Science and Technology, Bangalore, India
| | - C C White
- Polymer Science and Materials Chemistry (PSMC), Exponent, Bethesda, USA
| | - L Zhu
- College of Materials Science and Engineering, Donghua University, Shanghai, China
| | - M Zhu
- State Key Laboratory for Modification of Chemical Fibers and Polymer Materials, Donghua University, Shanghai, China
| | - P J Aucamp
- Ptersa Environmental Consultants, Pretoria, South Africa
| | - J B Liley
- National Institute of Water and Atmospheric Research, Alexandra, New Zealand
| | - R L McKenzie
- National Institute of Water and Atmospheric Research, Alexandra, New Zealand
| | - M Berwick
- Internal Medicine, University of New Mexico, Albuquerque, USA
| | - S N Byrne
- Applied Medical Science, University of Sydney, Sydney, Australia
| | - L M Hollestein
- Department of Dermatology, Erasmus MC Cancer Institute, Rotterdam, The Netherlands
| | - R M Lucas
- National Centre for Epidemiology and Population Health, Australian National University, Canberra, Australia
| | - C M Olsen
- Population Health Department, QIMR Berghofer Medical Research Institute, Brisbane, Australia
| | - L E Rhodes
- Photobiology Unit, Dermatology Research Centre, School of Biological Sciences, Faculty of Biology Medicine and Health, University of Manchester, Manchester, UK
| | - S Yazar
- Garvan Institute of Medical Research, Sydney, Australia
| | - A R Young
- St John's Institute of Dermatology, King's College London (KCL), London, UK
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5
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Sevwandi Dharmadasa WLS, Andrady AL, Kumara PBTP, Maes T, Gangabadage CS. Microplastic pollution in Marine Protected Areas of Southern Sri Lanka. Mar Pollut Bull 2021; 168:112462. [PMID: 33993039 DOI: 10.1016/j.marpolbul.2021.112462] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/07/2020] [Revised: 05/01/2021] [Accepted: 05/04/2021] [Indexed: 05/26/2023]
Abstract
Microplastics (MPs) are ubiquitous in marine environment. The prevalence of MPs in coastal and lagoon sediments, and water were studied in two Marine Protected Areas (MPAs); Bundala National Park (BNP) and Hikkaduwa Marine National Park (HNP) in Sri Lanka. Both areas are important for turtles, birds and coral ecosystems, all of which are particularly threatened by MPs. Abundance of MPs was generally higher in both coastal sediments and waters in HNP (111±29 MPs/m2 for sediments and 0.515±0.054 MPs/m3 for water) than in the BNP (102±16 MPs/m2 for sediments and 0.276±0.077 MPs/m3 for water). The most common shape and polymer type of MPs were fragments and Polyethylene respectively. This research is the first to survey MPs in MPAs in Sri Lanka and provides a baseline of MPs pollution in these environments for future research and management.
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Affiliation(s)
- W L S Sevwandi Dharmadasa
- Department of Oceanography and Marine Geology, Faculty of Fisheries and Marine Sciences & Technology, University of Ruhuna, Matara, Sri Lanka.
| | - A L Andrady
- Department of Biology and Marine Biology, University of North Carolina at Wilmington, Wilmington, NC 28403, USA
| | - P B Terney Pradeep Kumara
- Department of Oceanography and Marine Geology, Faculty of Fisheries and Marine Sciences & Technology, University of Ruhuna, Matara, Sri Lanka; Marine Environment Protection Authority, No.177, Nawala Road, Narahenpita, Colombo 05, Sri Lanka
| | - T Maes
- Grid-Arendal, Teaterplassen 3, 4836 Arendal, Norway
| | - C S Gangabadage
- Department of Chemistry, Faculty of Science, University of Ruhuna, Matara, Sri Lanka
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6
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Neale RE, Barnes PW, Robson TM, Neale PJ, Williamson CE, Zepp RG, Wilson SR, Madronich S, Andrady AL, Heikkilä AM, Bernhard GH, Bais AF, Aucamp PJ, Banaszak AT, Bornman JF, Bruckman LS, Byrne SN, Foereid B, Häder DP, Hollestein LM, Hou WC, Hylander S, Jansen MAK, Klekociuk AR, Liley JB, Longstreth J, Lucas RM, Martinez-Abaigar J, McNeill K, Olsen CM, Pandey KK, Rhodes LE, Robinson SA, Rose KC, Schikowski T, Solomon KR, Sulzberger B, Ukpebor JE, Wang QW, Wängberg SÅ, White CC, Yazar S, Young AR, Young PJ, Zhu L, Zhu M. Environmental effects of stratospheric ozone depletion, UV radiation, and interactions with climate change: UNEP Environmental Effects Assessment Panel, Update 2020. Photochem Photobiol Sci 2021; 20:1-67. [PMID: 33721243 PMCID: PMC7816068 DOI: 10.1007/s43630-020-00001-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 47] [Impact Index Per Article: 15.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/05/2020] [Accepted: 11/10/2020] [Indexed: 01/31/2023]
Abstract
This assessment by the Environmental Effects Assessment Panel (EEAP) of the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) provides the latest scientific update since our most recent comprehensive assessment (Photochemical and Photobiological Sciences, 2019, 18, 595-828). The interactive effects between the stratospheric ozone layer, solar ultraviolet (UV) radiation, and climate change are presented within the framework of the Montreal Protocol and the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals. We address how these global environmental changes affect the atmosphere and air quality; human health; terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems; biogeochemical cycles; and materials used in outdoor construction, solar energy technologies, and fabrics. In many cases, there is a growing influence from changes in seasonality and extreme events due to climate change. Additionally, we assess the transmission and environmental effects of the severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2), which is responsible for the COVID-19 pandemic, in the context of linkages with solar UV radiation and the Montreal Protocol.
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Affiliation(s)
- R E Neale
- Population Health Department, QIMR Berghofer Medical Research Institute, Brisbane, Australia
| | - P W Barnes
- Biological Sciences and Environmental Program, Loyola University New Orleans, New Orleans, LA, USA
| | - T M Robson
- Organismal and Evolutionary Biology (OEB), Viikki Plant Sciences Centre (ViPS), University of Helsinki, Helsinki, Finland
| | - P J Neale
- Smithsonian Environmental Research Center, Maryland, USA
| | - C E Williamson
- Department of Biology, Miami University, Oxford, OH, USA
| | - R G Zepp
- ORD/CEMM, US Environmental Protection Agency, Athens, GA, USA
| | - S R Wilson
- School of Earth, Atmospheric and Life Sciences, University of Wollongong, Wollongong, Australia
| | - S Madronich
- Atmospheric Chemistry Observations and Modeling Laboratory, National Center for Atmospheric Research, Boulder, CO, USA
| | - A L Andrady
- Chemical and Biomolecular Engineering, North Carolina State University, Raleigh, NC, USA
| | - A M Heikkilä
- Finnish Meteorological Institute, Helsinki, Finland
| | - G H Bernhard
- Biospherical Instruments Inc, San Diego, CA, USA
| | - A F Bais
- Department of Physics, Laboratory of Atmospheric Physics, Aristotle University, Thessaloniki, Greece
| | - P J Aucamp
- Ptersa Environmental Consultants, Pretoria, South Africa
| | - A T Banaszak
- Unidad Académica de Sistemas Arrecifales, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, Puerto Morelos, México
| | - J F Bornman
- Food Futures Institute, Murdoch University, Perth, Australia.
| | - L S Bruckman
- Department of Materials Science and Engineering, Case Western Reserve University, Cleveland, OH, USA
| | - S N Byrne
- The University of Sydney, School of Medical Sciences, Discipline of Applied Medical Science, Sydney, Australia
| | - B Foereid
- Environment and Natural Resources, Norwegian Institute of Bioeconomy Research, Ås, Norway
| | - D-P Häder
- Department of Biology, Friedrich-Alexander University, Möhrendorf, Germany
| | - L M Hollestein
- Department of Dermatology, Erasmus MC Cancer Institute, Rotterdam, The Netherlands
| | - W-C Hou
- Department of Environmental Engineering, National Cheng Kung University, Tainan, Taiwan, Republic of China
| | - S Hylander
- Centre for Ecology and Evolution in Microbial model Systems-EEMiS, Linnaeus University, Kalmar, Sweden.
| | - M A K Jansen
- School of BEES, Environmental Research Institute, University College Cork, Cork, Ireland
| | - A R Klekociuk
- Antarctic Climate Program, Australian Antarctic Division, Kingston, Australia
| | - J B Liley
- National Institute of Water and Atmospheric Research, Lauder, New Zealand
| | - J Longstreth
- The Institute for Global Risk Research, LLC, Bethesda, MD, USA
| | - R M Lucas
- National Centre of Epidemiology and Population Health, Australian National University, Canberra, Australia
| | - J Martinez-Abaigar
- Faculty of Science and Technology, University of La Rioja, Logroño, Spain
| | | | - C M Olsen
- Cancer Control Group, QIMR Berghofer Medical Research Institute, Brisbane, Australia
| | - K K Pandey
- Department of Wood Properties and Uses, Institute of Wood Science and Technology, Bangalore, India
| | - L E Rhodes
- Photobiology Unit, Dermatology Research Centre, School of Biological Sciences, Faculty of Biology Medicine and Health, University of Manchester, Manchester, UK
| | - S A Robinson
- Securing Antarctica's Environmental Future, Global Challenges Program and School of Earth, Atmospheric and Life Sciences, University of Wollongong, Wollongong, Australia
| | - K C Rose
- Department of Biological Sciences, Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute, Troy, NY, USA
| | - T Schikowski
- IUF-Leibniz Institute of Environmental Medicine, Dusseldorf, Germany
| | - K R Solomon
- Centre for Toxicology, School of Environmental Sciences, University of Guelph, Guelph, Canada
| | - B Sulzberger
- Academic Guest Eawag: Swiss Federal Institute of Aquatic Science and Technology, Duebendorf, Switzerland
| | - J E Ukpebor
- Chemistry Department, Faculty of Physical Sciences, University of Benin, Benin City, Nigeria
| | - Q-W Wang
- Institute of Applied Ecology, Chinese Academy of Sciences (CAS), Shenyang, China
| | - S-Å Wängberg
- Department of Marine Sciences, University of Gothenburg, Gothenburg, Sweden
| | - C C White
- Bee America, 5409 Mohican Rd, Bethesda, MD, USA
| | - S Yazar
- Garvan Institute of Medical Research, Sydney, Australia
| | - A R Young
- St John's Institute of Dermatology, King's College London, London, UK
| | - P J Young
- Lancaster Environment Centre, Lancaster University, Lancaster, UK
| | - L Zhu
- Center for Advanced Low-Dimension Materials, Donghua University, Shanghai, China
| | - M Zhu
- State Key Laboratory for Modification of Chemical Fibers and Polymer Materials, Donghua University, Shanghai, China
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7
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Bernhard GH, Neale RE, Barnes PW, Neale PJ, Zepp RG, Wilson SR, Andrady AL, Bais AF, McKenzie RL, Aucamp PJ, Young PJ, Liley JB, Lucas RM, Yazar S, Rhodes LE, Byrne SN, Hollestein LM, Olsen CM, Young AR, Robson TM, Bornman JF, Jansen MAK, Robinson SA, Ballaré CL, Williamson CE, Rose KC, Banaszak AT, Häder DP, Hylander S, Wängberg SÅ, Austin AT, Hou WC, Paul ND, Madronich S, Sulzberger B, Solomon KR, Li H, Schikowski T, Longstreth J, Pandey KK, Heikkilä AM, White CC. Environmental effects of stratospheric ozone depletion, UV radiation and interactions with climate change: UNEP Environmental Effects Assessment Panel, update 2019. Photochem Photobiol Sci 2020; 19:542-584. [PMID: 32364555 PMCID: PMC7442302 DOI: 10.1039/d0pp90011g] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/23/2020] [Accepted: 03/23/2020] [Indexed: 12/24/2022]
Abstract
This assessment, by the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) Environmental Effects Assessment Panel (EEAP), one of three Panels informing the Parties to the Montreal Protocol, provides an update, since our previous extensive assessment (Photochem. Photobiol. Sci., 2019, 18, 595-828), of recent findings of current and projected interactive environmental effects of ultraviolet (UV) radiation, stratospheric ozone, and climate change. These effects include those on human health, air quality, terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems, biogeochemical cycles, and materials used in construction and other services. The present update evaluates further evidence of the consequences of human activity on climate change that are altering the exposure of organisms and ecosystems to UV radiation. This in turn reveals the interactive effects of many climate change factors with UV radiation that have implications for the atmosphere, feedbacks, contaminant fate and transport, organismal responses, and many outdoor materials including plastics, wood, and fabrics. The universal ratification of the Montreal Protocol, signed by 197 countries, has led to the regulation and phase-out of chemicals that deplete the stratospheric ozone layer. Although this treaty has had unprecedented success in protecting the ozone layer, and hence all life on Earth from damaging UV radiation, it is also making a substantial contribution to reducing climate warming because many of the chemicals under this treaty are greenhouse gases.
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Affiliation(s)
- G H Bernhard
- Biospherical Instruments Inc., San Diego, California, USA
| | - R E Neale
- Population Health Department, QIMR Berghofer Medical Research Institute, Brisbane, Australia
| | - P W Barnes
- Biological Sciences and Environment Program, Loyola University, New Orleans, USA
| | - P J Neale
- Smithsonian Environmental Research Center, Edgewater, Maryland, USA
| | - R G Zepp
- United States Environmental Protection Agency, Athens, Georgia, USA
| | - S R Wilson
- School of Earth, Atmospheric and Life Sciences, University of Wollongong, Wollongong, Australia
| | - A L Andrady
- Department of Chemical and Biomolecular Engineering, North Carolina State University, Raleigh, North Carolina, USA
| | - A F Bais
- Department of Physics, Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, Greece
| | - R L McKenzie
- National Institute of Water & Atmospheric Research, Lauder, Central Otago, New Zealand
| | - P J Aucamp
- Ptersa Environmental Consultants, Faerie Glen, South Africa
| | - P J Young
- Lancaster Environment Centre, Lancaster University, Lancaster, UK
| | - J B Liley
- National Institute of Water & Atmospheric Research, Lauder, Central Otago, New Zealand
| | - R M Lucas
- National Centre for Epidemiology and Population Health, Australian National University, Canberra, Australia
| | - S Yazar
- Garvan Institute of Medical Research, Sydney, Australia
| | - L E Rhodes
- Faculty of Biology Medicine and Health, University of Manchester, and Salford Royal Hospital, Manchester, UK
| | - S N Byrne
- School of Medical Sciences, University of Sydney, Sydney, Australia
| | - L M Hollestein
- Erasmus MC, University Medical Center Rotterdam, Manchester, The Netherlands
| | - C M Olsen
- Population Health Department, QIMR Berghofer Medical Research Institute, Brisbane, Australia
| | - A R Young
- St John's Institute of Dermatology, King's College, London, London, UK
| | - T M Robson
- Organismal & Evolutionary Biology, Viikki Plant Science Centre, University of Helsinki, Helsinki, Finland
| | - J F Bornman
- Food Futures Institute, Murdoch University, Perth, Australia.
| | - M A K Jansen
- School of Biological, Earth and Environmental Sciences, University College Cork, Cork, Ireland
| | - S A Robinson
- Centre for Sustainable Ecosystem Solutions, University of Wollongong, Wollongong, Australia
| | - C L Ballaré
- Faculty of Agronomy and IFEVA-CONICET, University of Buenos Aires, Buenos Aires, Argentina
| | - C E Williamson
- Department of Biology, Miami University, Oxford, Ohio, USA
| | - K C Rose
- Department of Biological Sciences, Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute, Troy, New York, USA
| | - A T Banaszak
- Unidad Académica de Sistemas Arrecifales, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, Puerto Morelos, Mexico
| | - D -P Häder
- Department of Biology, Friedrich-Alexander University, Möhrendorf, Germany
| | - S Hylander
- Centre for Ecology and Evolution in Microbial Model Systems, Linnaeus University, Kalmar, Sweden
| | - S -Å Wängberg
- Department of Marine Sciences, University of Gothenburg, Gothenburg, Sweden
| | - A T Austin
- Faculty of Agronomy and IFEVA-CONICET, University of Buenos Aires, Buenos Aires, Argentina
| | - W -C Hou
- Department of Environmental Engineering, National Cheng Kung University, Tainan City, Taiwan, China
| | - N D Paul
- Lancaster Environment Centre, Lancaster University, Lancaster, UK
| | - S Madronich
- National Center for Atmospheric Research, Boulder, Colorado, USA
| | - B Sulzberger
- Swiss Federal Institute of Aquatic Science and Technology, Dübendorf, Switzerland
| | - K R Solomon
- Centre for Toxicology, School of Environmental Sciences, University of Guelph, Guelph, Canada
| | - H Li
- Institute of Atmospheric Environment, Chinese Research Academy of Environmental Sciences, Beijing, China
| | - T Schikowski
- Research Group of Environmental Epidemiology, Leibniz Institute of Environmental Medicine, Düsseldorf, Germany
| | - J Longstreth
- Institute for Global Risk Research, Bethesda, Maryland, USA
| | - K K Pandey
- Institute of Wood Science and Technology, Bengaluru, India
| | - A M Heikkilä
- Finnish Meteorological Institute, Helsinki, Finland
| | - C C White
- , 5409 Mohican Rd, Bethesda, Maryland, USA
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Abstract
Solar UV radiation adversely affects the properties of organic materials used in construction, such as plastics and wood.
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Affiliation(s)
- A. L. Andrady
- Department of Chemical and Biomolecular Engineering
- North Carolina State Univ
- Raleigh
- USA
| | - K. K. Pandey
- Institute of Wood Science and Technology
- Bengaluru
- India
| | - A. M. Heikkilä
- Finnish Meteorological Institute R&D/Climate Research
- Helsinki
- Finland
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Bimali Koongolla J, Andrady AL, Terney Pradeep Kumara PB, Gangabadage CS. Evidence of microplastics pollution in coastal beaches and waters in southern Sri Lanka. Mar Pollut Bull 2018; 137:277-284. [PMID: 30503436 DOI: 10.1016/j.marpolbul.2018.10.031] [Citation(s) in RCA: 38] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/12/2018] [Revised: 10/13/2018] [Accepted: 10/13/2018] [Indexed: 05/23/2023]
Abstract
The abundance of microplastics (MPs) in surface water and beach sediment in Southern Sri Lanka covering a distance of 91 km of coastline is reported. MPs were classified according to polymer type, geometry and color of the sites tested 60% showed MP contamination in sand and 70% in surface waters off the coast. The size range of MPs from surface waters and beaches were to 1.5-2.5 mm and 3-4.5 mm, respectively. Majority of these were identified as polyethylene (PE) and polypropylene (PP) with some polystyrene (PS) foam at a few sites. Fragments derived from larger debris appears to be the dominant type of MP at most sites and only 2 sites showed virgin pellets that accounted for 14% of the samples collected.
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Affiliation(s)
- J Bimali Koongolla
- Department of Oceanography and Marine Geology, Faculty of Fisheries and Marine Sciences and Technology, University of Ruhuna, Matara, Sri Lanka.
| | - A L Andrady
- Department of Biology and Marine Biology, University of North Carolina at Wilmington, Wilmington, NC 28403, USA
| | - P B Terney Pradeep Kumara
- Department of Oceanography and Marine Geology, Faculty of Fisheries and Marine Sciences and Technology, University of Ruhuna, Matara, Sri Lanka; Marine Environment Protection Authority, No. 758, 2nd Floor, Baseline Road, Colombo 09, Sri Lanka
| | - C S Gangabadage
- Department of Chemistry, Faculty of Science, University of Ruhuna, Matara, Sri Lanka
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Bais F, Luca RM, Bornman JF, Williamson CE, Sulzberger B, Austin AT, Wilson SR, Andrady AL, Bernhard G, McKenzie RL, Aucamp PJ, Madronich S, Neale RE, Yazar S, Young AR, de Gruijl FR, Norval M, Takizawa Y, Barnes PW, Robson TM, Robinson SA, Ballaré CL, Flint SD, Neale PJ, Hylander S, Rose KC, Wängberg SÅ, Häder DP, Worrest RC, Zepp RG, Paul ND, Cory RM, Solomon KR, Longstreth J, Pandey KK, Redhwi HH, Torikai A, Heikkilä AM. Environmental effects of ozone depletion, UV radiation and interactions with climate change: UNEP Environmental Effects Assessment Panel, update 2017. Photochem Photobiol Sci 2018; 17:127-179. [PMID: 29404558 PMCID: PMC6155474 DOI: 10.1039/c7pp90043k] [Citation(s) in RCA: 87] [Impact Index Per Article: 14.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/21/2017] [Accepted: 12/21/2017] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
The Environmental Effects Assessment Panel (EEAP) is one of three Panels of experts that inform the Parties to the Montreal Protocol. The EEAP focuses on the effects of UV radiation on human health, terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems, air quality, and materials, as well as on the interactive effects of UV radiation and global climate change. When considering the effects of climate change, it has become clear that processes resulting in changes in stratospheric ozone are more complex than previously held. Because of the Montreal Protocol, there are now indications of the beginnings of a recovery of stratospheric ozone, although the time required to reach levels like those before the 1960s is still uncertain, particularly as the effects of stratospheric ozone on climate change and vice versa, are not yet fully understood. Some regions will likely receive enhanced levels of UV radiation, while other areas will likely experience a reduction in UV radiation as ozone- and climate-driven changes affect the amounts of UV radiation reaching the Earth's surface. Like the other Panels, the EEAP produces detailed Quadrennial Reports every four years; the most recent was published as a series of seven papers in 2015 (Photochem. Photobiol. Sci., 2015, 14, 1-184). In the years in between, the EEAP produces less detailed and shorter Update Reports of recent and relevant scientific findings. The most recent of these was for 2016 (Photochem. Photobiol. Sci., 2017, 16, 107-145). The present 2017 Update Report assesses some of the highlights and new insights about the interactive nature of the direct and indirect effects of UV radiation, atmospheric processes, and climate change. A full 2018 Quadrennial Assessment, will be made available in 2018/2019.
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Affiliation(s)
- F. Bais
- Aristotle Univ. of Thessaloniki, Laboratory of Atmospheric Physics, Thessaloniki, Greece
| | - R. M. Luca
- National Centre for Epidemiology and Population Health, Australian National Univ., Canberra, Australia
| | - J. F. Bornman
- Curtin Univ., Curtin Business School, Perth, Australia
| | | | - B. Sulzberger
- Swiss Federal Institute of Aquatic Science and Technology, Dübendorf, Switzerland
| | - A. T. Austin
- Univ. of Buenos Aires, Faculty of Agronomy and IFEVA-CONICET, Buenos Aires, Argentina
| | - S. R. Wilson
- School of Chemistry, Centre for Atmospheric Chemistry, Univ. of Wollongong, Wollongong, Australia
| | - A. L. Andrady
- Department of Chemical and Biomolecular Engineering, North Carolina State Univ., Raleigh, NC, USA
| | - G. Bernhard
- Biospherical Instruments Inc., San Diego, CA, USA
| | | | - P. J. Aucamp
- Ptersa Environmental Consultants, Faerie Glen, South Africa
| | - S. Madronich
- National Center for Atmospheric Research, Boulder, Colorado, USA
| | - R. E. Neale
- Queensland Institute of Medical Research, Royal Brisbane Hospital, Brisbane, Australia
| | - S. Yazar
- Univ. of Western Australia, Centre for Ophthalmology and Visual Science, Lions Eye Institute, Perth, Australia
| | | | - F. R. de Gruijl
- Department of Dermatology, Leiden Univ. Medical Centre, Leiden, The Netherlands
| | - M. Norval
- Univ. of Edinburgh Medical School, UK
| | - Y. Takizawa
- Akita Univ. School of Medicine, National Institute for Minamata Disease, Nakadai, Itabashiku, Tokyo, Japan
| | - P. W. Barnes
- Department of Biological Sciences and Environment Program, Loyola Univ., New Orleans, USA
| | - T. M. Robson
- Research Programme in Organismal and Evolutionary Biology, Viikki Plant Science Centre, Univ. of Helsinki, Finland
| | - S. A. Robinson
- Centre for Sustainable Ecosystem Solutions, School of Biological Sciences, Univ. of Wollongong, Wollongong, NSW 2522, Australia
| | - C. L. Ballaré
- Univ. of Buenos Aires, Faculty of Agronomy and IFEVA-CONICET, Buenos Aires, Argentina
| | - S. D. Flint
- Dept of Forest, Rangeland and Fire Sciences, Univ. of Idaho, Moscow, ID, USA
| | - P. J. Neale
- Smithsonian Environmental Research Center, Edgewater, Maryland, USA
| | - S. Hylander
- Centre for Ecology and Evolution in Microbial model Systems, Linnaeus Univ., Kalmar, Sweden
| | - K. C. Rose
- Dept of Biological Sciences, Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute, Troy, NY, USA
| | - S.-Å. Wängberg
- Dept Marine Sciences, Univ. of Gothenburg, Göteborg, Sweden
| | - D.-P. Häder
- Friedrich-Alexander Univ. Erlangen-Nürnberg, Dept of Biology, Möhrendorf, Germany
| | - R. C. Worrest
- CIESIN, Columbia Univ., New Hartford, Connecticut, USA
| | - R. G. Zepp
- United States Environmental Protection Agency, Athens, Georgia, USA
| | - N. D. Paul
- Lanter Environment Centre, Lanter Univ., LA1 4YQ, UK
| | - R. M. Cory
- Earth and Environmental Sciences, Univ. of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI, USA
| | - K. R. Solomon
- Centre for Toxicology, School of Environmental Sciences, Univ. of Guelph, Guelph, ON, Canada
| | - J. Longstreth
- The Institute for Global Risk Research, Bethesda, MD, USA
| | - K. K. Pandey
- Institute of Wood Science and Technology, Bengaluru, India
| | - H. H. Redhwi
- Chemical Engineering Dept, King Fahd Univ. of Petroleum and Minerals, Dhahran, Saudi Arabia
| | - A. Torikai
- Materials Life Society of Japan, Kayabacho Chuo-ku, Tokyo, Japan
| | - A. M. Heikkilä
- Finnish Meteorological Institute R&D/Climate Research, Helsinki, Finland
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Andrady AL, Torikai A, Redhwi HH, Pandey KK, Gies P. Consequences of stratospheric ozone depletion and climate change on the use of materials. Photochem Photobiol Sci 2015; 14:170-84. [PMID: 25388638 DOI: 10.1039/c4pp90038c] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
Abstract
Materials used in the exterior of buildings and in construction are routinely exposed to solar UV radiation. Especially in the case of wood and plastic building materials, the service life is determined by their weather-induced deterioration. Any further increase in ground-level solar UV radiation, UV-B radiation in particular, will therefore reduce the outdoor service life of these products. Any increase in ambient temperature due to climate change will also have the same effect. However, the existing light-stabilizer technologies are likely to be able to mitigate the additional damaging effects due to increased solar UV radiation and maintain the outdoor lifetimes of these materials at the present levels. These mitigation choices invariably increase the lifetime cost of these products. A reliable estimate of what this additional cost might be for different products is not available at the present time. Personal exposure to UV radiation is reduced both by clothing fabrics and glass windows used in buildings and automobiles. This assessment describes how the recent technical advances in degradation and stabilization techniques impact the lifetimes of plastics and wood products routinely exposed to solar UV radiation and the protection to humans offered by materials against solar UV radiation.
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Affiliation(s)
- A L Andrady
- Department of Chemical and Biomolecular Engineering, North Carolina State University, Raleigh, NC 27523, USA.
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Andrady AL, Aucamp PJ, Bais AF, Ballaré CL, Bjorn LO, Bornman JF, Caldwell MM, Cullen AP, de Gruijl FR, Erickson DJ, Flint SD, Häder DP, Hamid HS, Ilyas M, Kulandaivelu G, Kumar HD, McKenzie RL, Longstreth J, Lucas RM, Noonan FP, Norval M, Paul ND, Smith RC, Soloman KR, Sulzberger B, Takizawa Y, Tang X, Torikai A, van der Leun JC, Wilson SR, Worrest RC, Zepp RG. Environmental effects of ozone depletion: 2006 assessment: interactions of ozone depletion and climate change : Executive summary. Photochem Photobiol Sci 2007; 6:212-7. [PMID: 17344958 DOI: 10.1039/b700050m] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
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Abstract
Nanoscale inorganic fillers with average particle sizes smaller by an order of magnitude or more compared to those of conventional fillers are becoming commercially available. The efficacy of these fillers used in polymer formulations and particularly their effect as photostabilizers are beginning to be investigated. These may enhance or retard photodegradation depending on the surface coating of the particles or their chemical nature. Some recent data indicate their use as effective photostabilizers in some common polymers. However, the potential deleterious interaction of the nanoscale fillers with other additives in the formulation has also been pointed out. Depending on the efficiency of stabilization and the economics of their use nanofillers may provide a useful route to UV-stabilization of plastics and rubber used outdoors. Insufficient data are available at this time to assess their potential impact on material and coatings stabilization. Organic fillers such as lignocellulose continue to be investigated for outdoor applications. Their cost advantage makes them attractive despite the somewhat reduced engineering properties of their composites. Recent reports, however, suggest the photostability of these composites to depend on the source of fiber as well as the processing techniques employed in fabricating products from them. Identification of the key determinants in terms of species, isolation and processing of polymer-wood composites is critical to developing them for long-term outdoor use. Efforts are continuing on the synthesis of new light stabilizers, particularly those based on a hindered amine light stabilizers (HALS), and on identifying synergistic combinations of known stabilizers for common thermoplastics. Variants of HALS-type stabilizers that reduce the loss of stabilizer via leaching or migration were recently reported. Studies on the permanence of the stabilizers themselves when exposed to solar UV wavelengths have also been reported in recent work. Identification of relevant mechanisms is important not only to understand the interactions of climate changes and higher UV solar environments with materials damage, but also to guide future design of light-stabilizers.
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Affiliation(s)
- A L Andrady
- Engineering Technology Division, Research Triangle Institute, 3040 Cornwallis Road, Durham, NC 27709, USA
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Merkel TC, Toy LG, Andrady AL, Gracz H, Stejskal EO. Investigation of Enhanced Free Volume in Nanosilica-Filled Poly(1-trimethylsilyl-1-propyne) by 129Xe NMR Spectroscopy. Macromolecules 2002. [DOI: 10.1021/ma0256690] [Citation(s) in RCA: 42] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- T. C. Merkel
- Center for Energy Technology, Research Triangle Institute, Research Triangle Park, North Carolina 27709-2194
| | - L. G. Toy
- Center for Energy Technology, Research Triangle Institute, Research Triangle Park, North Carolina 27709-2194
| | - A. L. Andrady
- Center for Energy Technology, Research Triangle Institute, Research Triangle Park, North Carolina 27709-2194
| | - H. Gracz
- Department of Molecular and Structural Biochemistry, North Carolina State University, Raleigh, North Carolina 27695-7622
| | - E. O. Stejskal
- Department of Chemistry, North Carolina State University, Raleigh, North Carolina 27695-8204
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Abstract
Inflation of a rubber condom involves biaxial deformation of the material which can be modeled by the use of an appropriate strain-energy function. Force versus deformation data for uniaxial extension of strips of condoms were used to determine the parameters for Ogden's form of a strain-energy function. These parameters were then used to fit experimentally obtained burst test data to a stress-strain equation formulated for inflation of condoms in a burst test. Experimental data on inflation of condoms agree well with theoretical curves verifying the applicability of the biaxial stress-strain equation to the particular strain-energy function on which it is based.
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Affiliation(s)
- T W Wilson
- Research Triangle Institute, Research Triangle Park, North Carolina 27709
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Affiliation(s)
- D. R. Morgan
- Department of Chemistry, North Carolina State University, North Carolina 27695
| | - E. O. Stejskal
- Department of Chemistry, North Carolina State University, North Carolina 27695
| | - A. L. Andrady
- Chemistry and Life Sciences, Research Triangle Institute, North Carolina 27709
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Cockell CS, Andrady AL. The Martian and extraterrestrial UV radiation environment--1. Biological and closed-loop ecosystem considerations. Acta Astronaut 1999; 44:53-62. [PMID: 11541762 DOI: 10.1016/s0094-5765(98)00186-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/23/2023]
Abstract
The Martian surface is exposed to both UVC radiation (<280 nm) and higher doses of UVB (280-315 nm) compared to the surface of the Earth. Terrestrial organisms have not evolved to cope with such high levels of UVC and UVB and thus any attempts to introduce organisms to Mars, particularly in closed-loop life support systems that use ambient sunlight, must address this problem. Here we examine the UV radiation environment of Mars with respect to biological systems. Action spectra and UV surface fluxes are used to estimate the UV stress that both DNA and chloroplasts would experience. From this vantage point it is possible to consider appropriate measures to address the problem of the Martian UV environment for future long term human exploration and settlement strategies. Some prospects for improving the UV tolerance of organisms are also discussed. Existing artificial ecosystems such as Biosphere 2 can provide some insights into design strategies pertinent to high UV environments. Some prospects for improving the UV tolerance of organisms are also discussed. The data also have implications for the establishment of closed-loop ecosystems using natural sunlight on the lunar surface and elsewhere in the Solar System.
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Affiliation(s)
- C S Cockell
- Department of Plant Biology, Carnegie Institute of Washington, Stanford, CA 94035-1297, USA.
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Abstract
Synthetic polymers such as plastics, as well as naturally occurring polymer materials such as wood, are extensively used in building construction and other outdoor applications where they are routinely exposed to sunlight. The UV-B content in sunlight is well known to affect adversely the mechanical properties of these materials, limiting their useful life. Presently their outdoor lifetimes depend on the use of photostabilizers in the case of plastics and on protective surface coatings in the case of wood. Any increase in the solar UV-B content due to a partial ozone depletion would therefore tend to decrease the outdoor service life of these materials. It is the synergistic effect of increased UV radiation with other factors such as the temperature that would determine the extent of such reduction in service life. The increased cost associated with such a change would be felt unevenly across the globe. Those developing countries that depend on plastics as a prime material of construction and experience high ambient temperatures are likely to be particularly affected in spite of the relatively small fractional decrease in ozone at those locations. Assessment of the damage to materials, associated with ozone depletion, requires a knowledge of the wavelength dependence as well as the dose-response characteristics of the polymer degradation processes of interest. While the recent literature includes some reliable spectral sensitivity data, little dose-response information has been reported, so it is difficult to make such assessments reliably at the present time. This is particularly true for the naturally occurring materials popularly used in construction applications. To maintain polymers at the same useful lifetime in spite of increased solar UV-B content, the amount of photostabilizers used in the formulations might be increased. This strategy assumes that conventional stabilizers will continue to be effective with the spectrally altered UV-B-enhanced solar radiation. While the present understanding of the degradation chemistry suggests the strategy to have merit, its effectiveness, in an altered solar radiation environment, has not been demonstrated for common polymers. The availability of these data is crucial for reliably estimating the cost of mitigating the increased damage to materials as a result of a possible partial depletion of the ozone layer using this approach.
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Affiliation(s)
- A L Andrady
- Research Triangle Institute, Research Triangle Park, NC 27709, USA.
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Andrady AL, Pegram JE, Song Y. Studies on enhanced degradable plastics. II. Weathering of enhanced photodegradable polyethylenes under marine and freshwater floating exposure. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 1993. [DOI: 10.1007/bf01418205] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/25/2022]
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Andrady AL, Llorente MA, Mark JE. Effects of dangling chains on some dynamic mechanical properties of model poly(dimethylsiloxane) networks. Polym Bull (Berl) 1992. [DOI: 10.1007/bf01045645] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/25/2022]
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Andrady AL, Llorente MA, Mark JE. Some dynamic mechanical properties of unimodal and bimodal networks of poly(dimethylsiloxane). Polym Bull (Berl) 1991. [DOI: 10.1007/bf00587981] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
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Affiliation(s)
- C. G. Pitt
- Research Triangle Institute, P.O. Box 12194, Research Triangle Park, NC 27709
| | - A. L. Andrady
- Research Triangle Institute, P.O. Box 12194, Research Triangle Park, NC 27709
| | - Y. T. Bao
- Research Triangle Institute, P.O. Box 12194, Research Triangle Park, NC 27709
| | - N. K. P. Samuel
- Research Triangle Institute, P.O. Box 12194, Research Triangle Park, NC 27709
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Andrady AL, Llorente MA, Sharaf MA, Rahalkar RR, Mark JE, Sullivan JL, Yu CU, Falender JR. Model networks of end-linked polydimethylsiloxane chains. XII. Dependence of ultimate properties on dangling-chain irregularities. J Appl Polym Sci 1981. [DOI: 10.1002/app.1981.070260608] [Citation(s) in RCA: 45] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/07/2022]
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Mark JE, Andrady AL. Model Networks of End-Linked Polydimethylsiloxane Chains. X. Bimodal Networks Prepared in Two-Stage Reactions Designed to Give High Spatial Heterogeneity. Rubber Chemistry and Technology 1981. [DOI: 10.5254/1.3535811] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/11/2022]
Abstract
Abstract
End-linking mixtures of very short and relatively long polydimethylsiloxane chains with a multi-functional alkoxy silane yields model elastomeric networks having a bimodal chain length distributions, and earlier studies have shown that this compositional heterogeneity increases the ultimate properties of the networks. The present investigation focuses on possible additional effects of the spatial heterogeneity introduced by the prereaction of some of the very short chains into tightly crosslinked domains. Increasing the extent of prereaction did not give any significant increases in modulus or ultimate strength. Thus, it is indicated that the unusual ultimate properties of bimodal networks are due to limited chain extensibilities, rather than to reinforcing effects.
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Affiliation(s)
- J. E. Mark
- 1Department of Chemistry and Polymer Research Center The University of Cincinnati, Cincinnati, Ohio 45221
| | - A. L. Andrady
- 1Department of Chemistry and Polymer Research Center The University of Cincinnati, Cincinnati, Ohio 45221
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Llorente MA, Andrady AL, Mark JE. Model networks of end-linked polydimethylsiloxane chains. XI. Use of very short network chains to improve ultimate properties. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 1981. [DOI: 10.1002/pol.1981.180190406] [Citation(s) in RCA: 85] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
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Llorente MA, Andrady AL, Mark JE. Chemical analysis of vinyl-crosslinked poly(dimethylsiloxane) model networks and use of the resulting structural information in the interpretation of their elastomeric properties. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 1980. [DOI: 10.1002/pol.1980.180181110] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
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Andrady AL, Llorente MA, Mark JE. Model networks of end‐linked polydimethylsiloxane chains. IX. Gaussian, non‐Gaussian, and ultimate properties of the trifunctional networks. J Chem Phys 1980. [DOI: 10.1063/1.440205] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/14/2022] Open
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Andrady AL, Llorente MA, Mark JE. Model networks of end‐linked polydimethylsiloxane chains. VII. Networks designed to demonstrate non‐Gaussian effects related to limited chain extensibility. J Chem Phys 1980. [DOI: 10.1063/1.439472] [Citation(s) in RCA: 94] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/14/2022] Open
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