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Billon C, Schoepke E, Avdagic A, Chatterjee A, Butler AA, Elgendy B, Walker JK, Burris TP. A Synthetic ERR Agonist Alleviates Metabolic Syndrome. J Pharmacol Exp Ther 2024; 388:232-240. [PMID: 37739806 PMCID: PMC10801787 DOI: 10.1124/jpet.123.001733] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/09/2023] [Revised: 07/27/2023] [Accepted: 08/07/2022] [Indexed: 09/24/2023] Open
Abstract
Physical exercise induces physiologic adaptations and is effective at reducing the risk of premature death from all causes. Pharmacological exercise mimetics may be effective in the treatment of a range of diseases including obesity and metabolic syndrome. Previously, we described the development of SLU-PP-332, an agonist for the estrogen-related receptor (ERR)α, β, and γ nuclear receptors that activates an acute aerobic exercise program. Here we examine the effects of this exercise mimetic in mouse models of obesity and metabolic syndrome. Diet-induced obese or ob/ob mice were administered SLU-PP-332, and the effects on a range of metabolic parameters were assessed. SLU-PP-332 administration mimics exercise-induced benefits on whole-body metabolism in mice including increased energy expenditure and fatty acid oxidation. These effects were accompanied by decreased fat mass accumulation. Additionally, the ERR agonist effectively reduced obesity and improved insulin sensitivity in models of metabolic syndrome. Pharmacological activation of ERR may be an effective method to treat metabolic syndrome and obesity. SIGNIFICANCE STATEMENT: An estrogen receptor-related orphan receptor agonist, SLU-PP-332, with exercise mimetic activity, holds promise as a therapeutic to treat metabolic diseases by decreasing fat mass in mouse models of obesity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Cyrielle Billon
- Center for Clinical Pharmacology, St. Louis College of Pharmacy, Washington University School of Medicine, University of Health Sciences and Pharmacy, St. Louis, Missouri (C.B., A.A., B.E.); Department of Pharmacology & Physiology (E.S., A.C., A.A.B., J.K.W.) and Department of Chemistry (J.K.W.), Saint Louis University School of Medicine, St. Louis, Missouri; and University of Florida Genetics Institute, Gainesville, Florida (T.P.B.)
| | - Emmalie Schoepke
- Center for Clinical Pharmacology, St. Louis College of Pharmacy, Washington University School of Medicine, University of Health Sciences and Pharmacy, St. Louis, Missouri (C.B., A.A., B.E.); Department of Pharmacology & Physiology (E.S., A.C., A.A.B., J.K.W.) and Department of Chemistry (J.K.W.), Saint Louis University School of Medicine, St. Louis, Missouri; and University of Florida Genetics Institute, Gainesville, Florida (T.P.B.)
| | - Amer Avdagic
- Center for Clinical Pharmacology, St. Louis College of Pharmacy, Washington University School of Medicine, University of Health Sciences and Pharmacy, St. Louis, Missouri (C.B., A.A., B.E.); Department of Pharmacology & Physiology (E.S., A.C., A.A.B., J.K.W.) and Department of Chemistry (J.K.W.), Saint Louis University School of Medicine, St. Louis, Missouri; and University of Florida Genetics Institute, Gainesville, Florida (T.P.B.)
| | - Arindam Chatterjee
- Center for Clinical Pharmacology, St. Louis College of Pharmacy, Washington University School of Medicine, University of Health Sciences and Pharmacy, St. Louis, Missouri (C.B., A.A., B.E.); Department of Pharmacology & Physiology (E.S., A.C., A.A.B., J.K.W.) and Department of Chemistry (J.K.W.), Saint Louis University School of Medicine, St. Louis, Missouri; and University of Florida Genetics Institute, Gainesville, Florida (T.P.B.)
| | - Andrew A Butler
- Center for Clinical Pharmacology, St. Louis College of Pharmacy, Washington University School of Medicine, University of Health Sciences and Pharmacy, St. Louis, Missouri (C.B., A.A., B.E.); Department of Pharmacology & Physiology (E.S., A.C., A.A.B., J.K.W.) and Department of Chemistry (J.K.W.), Saint Louis University School of Medicine, St. Louis, Missouri; and University of Florida Genetics Institute, Gainesville, Florida (T.P.B.)
| | - Bahaa Elgendy
- Center for Clinical Pharmacology, St. Louis College of Pharmacy, Washington University School of Medicine, University of Health Sciences and Pharmacy, St. Louis, Missouri (C.B., A.A., B.E.); Department of Pharmacology & Physiology (E.S., A.C., A.A.B., J.K.W.) and Department of Chemistry (J.K.W.), Saint Louis University School of Medicine, St. Louis, Missouri; and University of Florida Genetics Institute, Gainesville, Florida (T.P.B.)
| | - John K Walker
- Center for Clinical Pharmacology, St. Louis College of Pharmacy, Washington University School of Medicine, University of Health Sciences and Pharmacy, St. Louis, Missouri (C.B., A.A., B.E.); Department of Pharmacology & Physiology (E.S., A.C., A.A.B., J.K.W.) and Department of Chemistry (J.K.W.), Saint Louis University School of Medicine, St. Louis, Missouri; and University of Florida Genetics Institute, Gainesville, Florida (T.P.B.)
| | - Thomas P Burris
- Center for Clinical Pharmacology, St. Louis College of Pharmacy, Washington University School of Medicine, University of Health Sciences and Pharmacy, St. Louis, Missouri (C.B., A.A., B.E.); Department of Pharmacology & Physiology (E.S., A.C., A.A.B., J.K.W.) and Department of Chemistry (J.K.W.), Saint Louis University School of Medicine, St. Louis, Missouri; and University of Florida Genetics Institute, Gainesville, Florida (T.P.B.)
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Hampton CS, Sitaula S, Billon C, Haynes K, Avdagic A, Wanninayake U, Adeyemi CM, Chatterjee A, Griffett K, Banerjee S, Burris SL, Schoepke E, Boehm T, Bess A, de Vera IMS, Burris TP, Walker JK. Development and pharmacological evaluation of a new chemical series of potent pan-ERR agonists, identification of SLU-PP-915. Eur J Med Chem 2023; 258:115582. [PMID: 37421886 PMCID: PMC10399613 DOI: 10.1016/j.ejmech.2023.115582] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/11/2022] [Revised: 06/13/2023] [Accepted: 06/17/2023] [Indexed: 07/10/2023]
Abstract
Estrogen-related receptors (ERR) are an orphan nuclear receptor sub-family that play a critical role in regulating gene transcription for several physiological processes including mitochondrial function, cellular energy utilization and homeostasis. They have also been implicated to play a role in several pathological conditions. Herein, we report the identification, synthesis, structure-activity relationships and pharmacological evaluation of a new chemical series of potent pan-ERR agonists. This template was designed for ERRγ starting from the known acyl hydrazide template and compounds such as agonist GSK-4716 employing a structure-based drug design approach. This led to the preparation of a series of 2,5-disubstituted thiophenes from which several were found to be potent agonists of ERRγ in cell-based co-transfection assays. Additionally, direct binding to ERRγ was established through 1H NMR protein-ligand binding experiments. Compound optimization revealed that the phenolic or aniline groups could be replaced with a boronic acid moiety, which was able to maintain activity and demonstrated improved metabolic stability in microsomal in vitro assays. Further pharmacological evaluation of these compounds showed that they had roughly equivalent agonist activity on ERR isoforms α and β representing an ERR pan-agonist profile. One potent agonist, SLU-PP-915 (10s), which contained a boronic acid moiety was profiled in gene expression assays and found to significantly upregulate the expression of ERR target genes such as peroxisome-proliferator activated receptor γ co-activators-1α, lactate dehydrogenase A, DNA damage inducible transcript 4 and pyruvate dehydrogenase kinase 4 both in vitro and in vivo.
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Affiliation(s)
- Carissa S Hampton
- Department of Pharmacology and Physiology, Saint Louis University School of Medicine, Saint Louis, Missouri, 63104, United States
| | - Sadichha Sitaula
- Center for Clinical Pharmacology, St. Louis College of Pharmacy, Saint Louis, Missouri, 63110, United States
| | - Cyrielle Billon
- Center for Clinical Pharmacology, St. Louis College of Pharmacy, Saint Louis, Missouri, 63110, United States
| | - Keith Haynes
- Department of Pharmacology and Physiology, Saint Louis University School of Medicine, Saint Louis, Missouri, 63104, United States
| | - Amer Avdagic
- Department of Pharmacology and Physiology, Saint Louis University School of Medicine, Saint Louis, Missouri, 63104, United States
| | - Udayanga Wanninayake
- Department of Pharmacology and Physiology, Saint Louis University School of Medicine, Saint Louis, Missouri, 63104, United States
| | - Christiana M Adeyemi
- Department of Pharmacology and Physiology, Saint Louis University School of Medicine, Saint Louis, Missouri, 63104, United States
| | - Arindam Chatterjee
- Department of Pharmacology and Physiology, Saint Louis University School of Medicine, Saint Louis, Missouri, 63104, United States
| | - Kristine Griffett
- Center for Clinical Pharmacology, St. Louis College of Pharmacy, Saint Louis, Missouri, 63110, United States
| | - Subhashis Banerjee
- Department of Pharmacology and Physiology, Saint Louis University School of Medicine, Saint Louis, Missouri, 63104, United States
| | - Sheryl L Burris
- Center for Clinical Pharmacology, St. Louis College of Pharmacy, Saint Louis, Missouri, 63110, United States
| | - Emmalie Schoepke
- Department of Pharmacology and Physiology, Saint Louis University School of Medicine, Saint Louis, Missouri, 63104, United States
| | - Terri Boehm
- Department of Pharmacology and Physiology, Saint Louis University School of Medicine, Saint Louis, Missouri, 63104, United States
| | - Alex Bess
- Department of Pharmacology and Physiology, Saint Louis University School of Medicine, Saint Louis, Missouri, 63104, United States
| | - Ian Mitchelle S de Vera
- Department of Pharmacology and Physiology, Saint Louis University School of Medicine, Saint Louis, Missouri, 63104, United States
| | - Thomas P Burris
- University of Florida Genetics Institute, Gainesville, FL, 32310, USA
| | - John K Walker
- Department of Pharmacology and Physiology, Saint Louis University School of Medicine, Saint Louis, Missouri, 63104, United States; Institute for Translational Neuroscience, Saint Louis University, St. Louis MO, 63110, United States.
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Welch RD, Billon C, Losby M, Bedia-Diaz G, Fang Y, Avdagic A, Elgendy B, Burris TP, Griffett K. Emerging Role of Nuclear Receptors for the Treatment of NAFLD and NASH. Metabolites 2022; 12:metabo12030238. [PMID: 35323681 PMCID: PMC8953348 DOI: 10.3390/metabo12030238] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/08/2022] [Revised: 03/08/2022] [Accepted: 03/09/2022] [Indexed: 02/04/2023] Open
Abstract
Non-alcoholic fatty liver (NAFLD) over the past years has become a metabolic pandemic linked to a collection of metabolic diseases. The nuclear receptors ERRs, REV-ERBs, RORs, FXR, PPARs, and LXR are master regulators of metabolism and liver physiology. The characterization of these nuclear receptors and their biology has promoted the development of synthetic ligands. The possibility of targeting these receptors to treat NAFLD is promising, as several compounds including Cilofexor, thiazolidinediones, and Saroglitazar are currently undergoing clinical trials. This review focuses on the latest development of the pharmacology of these metabolic nuclear receptors and how they may be utilized to treat NAFLD and subsequent comorbidities.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ryan D. Welch
- Biology and Chemistry Department, Blackburn College, Carlinville, IL 62626, USA;
| | - Cyrielle Billon
- Center for Clinical Pharmacology, University of Health Sciences and Pharmacy and Washington University in St. Louis, St. Louis, MO 63110, USA; (C.B.); (G.B.-D.); (Y.F.); (A.A.); (B.E.)
| | - McKenna Losby
- Biochemistry, Biophysics and Structural Biology, School of Medicine, Washington University in St. Louis, St. Louis, MO 63110, USA;
| | - Gonzalo Bedia-Diaz
- Center for Clinical Pharmacology, University of Health Sciences and Pharmacy and Washington University in St. Louis, St. Louis, MO 63110, USA; (C.B.); (G.B.-D.); (Y.F.); (A.A.); (B.E.)
| | - Yuanying Fang
- Center for Clinical Pharmacology, University of Health Sciences and Pharmacy and Washington University in St. Louis, St. Louis, MO 63110, USA; (C.B.); (G.B.-D.); (Y.F.); (A.A.); (B.E.)
| | - Amer Avdagic
- Center for Clinical Pharmacology, University of Health Sciences and Pharmacy and Washington University in St. Louis, St. Louis, MO 63110, USA; (C.B.); (G.B.-D.); (Y.F.); (A.A.); (B.E.)
| | - Bahaa Elgendy
- Center for Clinical Pharmacology, University of Health Sciences and Pharmacy and Washington University in St. Louis, St. Louis, MO 63110, USA; (C.B.); (G.B.-D.); (Y.F.); (A.A.); (B.E.)
- Department of Anesthesiology, School of Medicine, Washington University in St. Louis, St. Louis, MO 63110, USA
| | - Thomas P. Burris
- UF Genetics Institute, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL 32611, USA;
| | - Kristine Griffett
- Department of Anatomy, Physiology and Pharmacology, College of Veterinary Medicine, Auburn University, Auburn, AL 36849, USA
- Correspondence: ; Tel.: +1-344-844-5416
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Schoepke E, Billon C, Haynes KM, Avdagic A, Sitaula S, Sanders R, Adeyemi CM, Walker JK, Burris TP. A Selective ERRα/γ Inverse Agonist, SLU-PP-1072, Inhibits the Warburg Effect and Induces Apoptosis in Prostate Cancer Cells. ACS Chem Biol 2020; 15:2338-2345. [PMID: 32897058 DOI: 10.1021/acschembio.0c00670] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
Abstract
The estrogen related receptors (ERRs) are a subgroup of nuclear receptors that play a role in regulation of cellular metabolism. Prostate cancer (PCa) cells display altered metabolic signatures, such as the Warburg effect, and the ERRs have been implicated in driving this phenotype. Despite the lack of a known endogenous ligand, synthetic ligands that target the ERRs have been discovered. For example, the ERRα inverse agonist XCT790 modulates metabolic pathways in PCa cells, but it also functions as a mitochondrial uncoupler independent of targeting ERRα. Here, we describe a novel dual ERRα/γ inverse agonist, SLU-PP-1072, derived from the GSK4716 ERRγ agonist scaffold that is distinct from the XCT790 scaffold. SLU-PP-1072 alters PCa cell metabolism and gene expression, resulting in cell cycle dysregulation and increased apoptosis without acute mitochondrial uncoupling activity. Our data suggest that inhibition of ERRα/γ may be beneficial in treatment of PCa, and SLU-PP-1072 provides a unique chemical tool to evaluate the pharmacology of ERRα and ERRγ.
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Affiliation(s)
- Emmalie Schoepke
- Department of Pharmacology and Physiology, Saint Louis University School of Medicine, St. Louis, Missouri 63104, United States
- Center for Clinical Pharmacology, Washington University School of Medicine and St. Louis College of Pharmacy, St. Louis, Missouri 63110, United States
| | - Cyrielle Billon
- Center for Clinical Pharmacology, Washington University School of Medicine and St. Louis College of Pharmacy, St. Louis, Missouri 63110, United States
| | - Keith M Haynes
- Department of Pharmacology and Physiology, Saint Louis University School of Medicine, St. Louis, Missouri 63104, United States
| | - Amer Avdagic
- Department of Pharmacology and Physiology, Saint Louis University School of Medicine, St. Louis, Missouri 63104, United States
| | - Sadichha Sitaula
- Department of Pharmacology and Physiology, Saint Louis University School of Medicine, St. Louis, Missouri 63104, United States
| | - Ryan Sanders
- Center for Clinical Pharmacology, Washington University School of Medicine and St. Louis College of Pharmacy, St. Louis, Missouri 63110, United States
| | - Christiana M Adeyemi
- Department of Pharmacology and Physiology, Saint Louis University School of Medicine, St. Louis, Missouri 63104, United States
| | - John K Walker
- Department of Pharmacology and Physiology, Saint Louis University School of Medicine, St. Louis, Missouri 63104, United States
- Department of Chemistry, Saint Louis University, St. Louis, Missouri 63103, United States
| | - Thomas P Burris
- Center for Clinical Pharmacology, Washington University School of Medicine and St. Louis College of Pharmacy, St. Louis, Missouri 63110, United States
- Department of Chemistry, Saint Louis University, St. Louis, Missouri 63103, United States
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Shahien M, Elagawany M, Sitaula S, Goher SS, Burris SL, Sanders R, Avdagic A, Billon C, Hegazy L, Burris TP, Elgendy B. Modulation of estrogen-related receptors subtype selectivity: Conversion of an ERRβ/γ selective agonist to ERRα/β/γ pan agonists. Bioorg Chem 2020; 102:104079. [PMID: 32683181 PMCID: PMC9137328 DOI: 10.1016/j.bioorg.2020.104079] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/07/2020] [Revised: 06/30/2020] [Accepted: 07/04/2020] [Indexed: 12/27/2022]
Abstract
Estrogen Related Receptors (ERRs) are key regulators of energy homeostasis and play important role in the etiology of metabolic disorders, skeletal muscle related disorders, and neurodegenerative diseases. Among the three ERR isoforms, ERRα emerged as a potential drug target for metabolic and neurodegenerative diseases. Although ERRβ/γ selective agonist chemical tools have been identified, there are no chemical tools that effectively target ERRα agonism. We successfully engineered high affinity ERRα agonism into a chemical scaffold that displays selective ERRβ/γ agonist activity (GSK4716), providing novel ERRα/β/γ pan agonists that can be used as tools to probe the physiological roles of these nuclear receptors. We identified the structural requirements to enhance selectivity toward ERRα. Molecular modeling shows that our novel modulators have favorable binding modes in the LBP of ERRα and can induce conformational changes where Phe328 that originally occupies the pocket is dislocated to accommodate the ligands in a rather small cavity. The best agonists up-regulated the expression of target genes PGC-1α and PGC-1β, which are necessary to achieve maximal mitochondrial biogenesis. Moreover, they increased the mRNA levels of PDK4, which play an important role in energy homeostasis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mohamed Shahien
- Chemistry Department, Faculty of Science, Benha University, Benha 13518, Egypt
| | - Mohamed Elagawany
- Department of Pharmaceutical and Administrative Sciences, St. Louis College of Pharmacy, St. Louis, MO 63110, USA; Center for Clinical Pharmacology, Washington University School of Medicine and St. Louis College of Pharmacy, St. Louis, MO 63110, USA; Department of Pharmaceutical Chemistry, Faculty of Pharmacy, Damanhour University, Damanhour, Egypt
| | - Sadichha Sitaula
- Center for Clinical Pharmacology, Washington University School of Medicine and St. Louis College of Pharmacy, St. Louis, MO 63110, USA
| | - Shaimaa S Goher
- Chemistry Department, Faculty of Science, Benha University, Benha 13518, Egypt
| | - Sheryl L Burris
- Center for Clinical Pharmacology, Washington University School of Medicine and St. Louis College of Pharmacy, St. Louis, MO 63110, USA
| | - Ryan Sanders
- Center for Clinical Pharmacology, Washington University School of Medicine and St. Louis College of Pharmacy, St. Louis, MO 63110, USA
| | - Amer Avdagic
- Center for Clinical Pharmacology, Washington University School of Medicine and St. Louis College of Pharmacy, St. Louis, MO 63110, USA
| | - Cyrielle Billon
- Department of Pharmaceutical and Administrative Sciences, St. Louis College of Pharmacy, St. Louis, MO 63110, USA; Center for Clinical Pharmacology, Washington University School of Medicine and St. Louis College of Pharmacy, St. Louis, MO 63110, USA
| | - Lamees Hegazy
- Department of Pharmaceutical and Administrative Sciences, St. Louis College of Pharmacy, St. Louis, MO 63110, USA; Center for Clinical Pharmacology, Washington University School of Medicine and St. Louis College of Pharmacy, St. Louis, MO 63110, USA
| | - Thomas P Burris
- Department of Pharmaceutical and Administrative Sciences, St. Louis College of Pharmacy, St. Louis, MO 63110, USA; Center for Clinical Pharmacology, Washington University School of Medicine and St. Louis College of Pharmacy, St. Louis, MO 63110, USA
| | - Bahaa Elgendy
- Chemistry Department, Faculty of Science, Benha University, Benha 13518, Egypt; Department of Pharmaceutical and Administrative Sciences, St. Louis College of Pharmacy, St. Louis, MO 63110, USA; Center for Clinical Pharmacology, Washington University School of Medicine and St. Louis College of Pharmacy, St. Louis, MO 63110, USA
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Goher SS, Griffett K, Hegazy L, Elagawany M, Arief MM, Avdagic A, Banerjee S, Burris TP, Elgendy B. Development of novel liver X receptor modulators based on a 1,2,4-triazole scaffold. Bioorg Med Chem Lett 2019; 29:449-453. [DOI: 10.1016/j.bmcl.2018.12.025] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/26/2018] [Revised: 11/30/2018] [Accepted: 12/12/2018] [Indexed: 02/02/2023]
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Abstract
RAR-related orphan receptor γ (RORγ) is a nuclear receptor that plays an essential role in the development of T helper 17 (Th17) cells of the adaptive immune system. The NLRP3 inflammasome is a component of the innate immune system that processes interleukin (IL)-1β into a mature cytokine. Elevated activity of the NLRP3 inflammasome contributes to the progression of an array of inflammatory diseases. Bone marrow-derived macrophages (BMDMs) isolated from RORγ-null mice displayed reduced capacity to secrete IL-1β, and they also displayed a reduction in Nlrp3 and Il1b gene expression. Examination of the promoters of the Il1b and Nlrp3 genes revealed multiple putative ROR response elements (ROREs) that were occupied by RORγ. RORγ inverse agonists were effective inhibitors of the inflammasome. RORγ inverse agonists suppressed lipopolysaccharide (LPS)/ATP-stimulated IL-1β secretion and expression of Il1b and Nlrp3 in BMDMs. Additionally, the ability of the RORγ inverse agonists to suppress IL-1β secretion was lost in Nlrp3-null macrophages. The potential for targeting the NLRP3 inflammasome in vivo using RORγ inverse agonists was examined in two models: LPS-induced sepsis and fulminant hepatitis. Pharmacological inhibition of RORγ activity reduced plasma IL-1β as well as IL-1β production by peritoneal macrophages in a model of LPS-induced sepsis. Additionally, RORγ inverse agonists reduced mortality in an LPS/d-galactosamine-induced fulminant hepatitis mouse model. These results illustrate a major role for RORγ in regulation of innate immunity via modulation of NLRP3 inflammasome activity. Furthermore, these data suggest that inhibiting the NLRP3 inflammasome with RORγ inverse agonists may be an effective method to treat NLRP3-associated diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Cyrielle Billon
- Center for Clinical Pharmacology, Washington University School of Medicine and St. Louis College of Pharmacy, St. Louis, Missouri 63110
| | - Meghan H Murray
- Department of Pharmacology and Physiology, Saint Louis University School of Medicine, St. Louis, Missouri 63104
| | - Amer Avdagic
- Center for Clinical Pharmacology, Washington University School of Medicine and St. Louis College of Pharmacy, St. Louis, Missouri 63110
| | - Thomas P Burris
- Center for Clinical Pharmacology, Washington University School of Medicine and St. Louis College of Pharmacy, St. Louis, Missouri 63110.
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