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Brusentsov II, Gordeev MI, Yurchenko AA, Karagodin DA, Moskaev AV, Hodge JM, Burlak VA, Artemov GN, Sibataev AK, Becker N, Sharakhov IV, Baricheva EM, Sharakhova MV. Patterns of genetic differentiation imply distinct phylogeographic history of the mosquito species Anopheles messeae and Anopheles daciae in Eurasia. Mol Ecol 2023; 32:5609-5625. [PMID: 37702976 DOI: 10.1111/mec.17127] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/01/2022] [Revised: 08/17/2023] [Accepted: 08/24/2023] [Indexed: 09/14/2023]
Abstract
Detailed knowledge of phylogeography is important for control of mosquito species involved in the transmission of human infectious diseases. Anopheles messeae is a geographically widespread and genetically diverse dominant vector of malaria in Eurasia. A closely related species, An. daciae, was originally distinguished from An. messeae based on five nucleotide substitutions in its ribosomal DNA (rDNA). However, the patterns of phylogeographic history of these species in Eurasia remain poorly understood. Here, using internal transcribed spacer 2 (ITS2) of rDNA and karyotyping for the species identification we determined the composition of five Anopheles species in 28 locations in Eurasia. Based on the frequencies of 11 polymorphic chromosomal inversions used as genetic markers, a large-scale population genetics analysis was performed of 1932 mosquitoes identified as An. messeae, An. daciae and their hybrids. The largest genetic differences between the species were detected in the X sex chromosome suggesting a potential involvement of this chromosome in speciation. The frequencies of autosomal inversions in the same locations differed by 13%-45% between the species demonstrating a restricted gene flow between the species. Overall, An. messeae was identified as a diverse species with a more complex population structure than An. daciae. The clinal gradients in frequencies of chromosomal inversions were determined in both species implicating their possible involvement in climate adaptations. The frequencies of hybrids were low ~1% in northern Europe but high up to 50% in south-eastern populations. Thus, our study revealed critical differences in patterns of phylogeographic history between An. messeae and An. daciae in Eurasia. This knowledge will help to predict the potential of the malaria transmission in the northern territories of the continent.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ilya I Brusentsov
- Department of Entomology, Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University and Fralin Life Sciences Institute, Blacksburg, Virginia, USA
- Laboratory of Cell Differentiation Mechanisms, Institute of Cytology and Genetics, Novosibirsk, Russia
| | | | - Andrey A Yurchenko
- Department of Entomology, Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University and Fralin Life Sciences Institute, Blacksburg, Virginia, USA
- Laboratory of Cell Differentiation Mechanisms, Institute of Cytology and Genetics, Novosibirsk, Russia
| | - Dimitriy A Karagodin
- Laboratory of Cell Differentiation Mechanisms, Institute of Cytology and Genetics, Novosibirsk, Russia
| | | | - James M Hodge
- Department of Entomology, Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University and Fralin Life Sciences Institute, Blacksburg, Virginia, USA
| | - Vladimir A Burlak
- Laboratory of Ecology, Genetics, and Environmental Protection, Tomsk State University, Tomsk, Russia
| | - Gleb N Artemov
- Laboratory of Ecology, Genetics, and Environmental Protection, Tomsk State University, Tomsk, Russia
| | - Anuarbek K Sibataev
- Department of General Biology and Genomics, L.N. Gumilyov Eurasian National University, Nur-Sultan, Kazakhstan
- Department of Agricultural Biology, Tomsk State University, Tomsk, Russia
| | - Norbert Becker
- Center for Organismal Studies, University of Heidelberg, Heidelberg, Germany
- German Mosquito Control Association, Speyer, Germany
| | - Igor V Sharakhov
- Department of Entomology, Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University and Fralin Life Sciences Institute, Blacksburg, Virginia, USA
- Laboratory of Ecology, Genetics, and Environmental Protection, Tomsk State University, Tomsk, Russia
| | - Elina M Baricheva
- Laboratory of Cell Differentiation Mechanisms, Institute of Cytology and Genetics, Novosibirsk, Russia
| | - Maria V Sharakhova
- Department of Entomology, Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University and Fralin Life Sciences Institute, Blacksburg, Virginia, USA
- Laboratory of Cell Differentiation Mechanisms, Institute of Cytology and Genetics, Novosibirsk, Russia
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Yurchenko AA, Naumenko AN, Artemov GN, Karagodin DA, Hodge JM, Velichevskaya AI, Kokhanenko AA, Bondarenko SM, Abai MR, Kamali M, Gordeev MI, Moskaev AV, Caputo B, Aghayan SA, Baricheva EM, Stegniy VN, Sharakhova MV, Sharakhov IV. Phylogenomics revealed migration routes and adaptive radiation timing of Holarctic malaria mosquito species of the Maculipennis Group. BMC Biol 2023; 21:63. [PMID: 37032389 PMCID: PMC10084679 DOI: 10.1186/s12915-023-01538-w] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/10/2022] [Accepted: 02/08/2023] [Indexed: 04/11/2023] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Phylogenetic analyses of closely related species of mosquitoes are important for better understanding the evolution of traits contributing to transmission of vector-borne diseases. Six out of 41 dominant malaria vectors of the genus Anopheles in the world belong to the Maculipennis Group, which is subdivided into two Nearctic subgroups (Freeborni and Quadrimaculatus) and one Palearctic (Maculipennis) subgroup. Although previous studies considered the Nearctic subgroups as ancestral, details about their relationship with the Palearctic subgroup, and their migration times and routes from North America to Eurasia remain controversial. The Palearctic species An. beklemishevi is currently included in the Nearctic Quadrimaculatus subgroup adding to the uncertainties in mosquito systematics. RESULTS To reconstruct historic relationships in the Maculipennis Group, we conducted a phylogenomic analysis of 11 Palearctic and 2 Nearctic species based on sequences of 1271 orthologous genes. The analysis indicated that the Palearctic species An. beklemishevi clusters together with other Eurasian species and represents a basal lineage among them. Also, An. beklemishevi is related more closely to An. freeborni, which inhabits the Western United States, rather than to An. quadrimaculatus, a species from the Eastern United States. The time-calibrated tree suggests a migration of mosquitoes in the Maculipennis Group from North America to Eurasia about 20-25 million years ago through the Bering Land Bridge. A Hybridcheck analysis demonstrated highly significant signatures of introgression events between allopatric species An. labranchiae and An. beklemishevi. The analysis also identified ancestral introgression events between An. sacharovi and its Nearctic relative An. freeborni despite their current geographic isolation. The reconstructed phylogeny suggests that vector competence and the ability to enter complete diapause during winter evolved independently in different lineages of the Maculipennis Group. CONCLUSIONS Our phylogenomic analyses reveal migration routes and adaptive radiation timing of Holarctic malaria vectors and strongly support the inclusion of An. beklemishevi into the Maculipennis Subgroup. Detailed knowledge of the evolutionary history of the Maculipennis Subgroup provides a framework for examining the genomic changes related to ecological adaptation and susceptibility to human pathogens. These genomic variations may inform researchers about similar changes in the future providing insights into the patterns of disease transmission in Eurasia.
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Affiliation(s)
- Andrey A Yurchenko
- Department of Entomology, the Fralin Life Sciences Institute, Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University, Blacksburg, VA, USA
- Kurchatov Genomics Center, the Federal Research Center, Institute of Cytology and Genetics, Novosibirsk, Russia
- Current Address: INSERM U981, Gustave Roussy Institute, Université Paris-Saclay, Villejuif, France
| | - Anastasia N Naumenko
- Department of Entomology, the Fralin Life Sciences Institute, Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University, Blacksburg, VA, USA
| | - Gleb N Artemov
- Department of Genetics and Cell Biology and the Laboratory of Ecology, Genetics and Environmental Protection, Tomsk State University, Tomsk, Russia
| | - Dmitry A Karagodin
- Laboratory of Cell Differentiation Mechanisms, the Federal Research Center, Institute of Cytology and Genetics, Novosibirsk, Russia
| | - James M Hodge
- Department of Entomology, the Fralin Life Sciences Institute, Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University, Blacksburg, VA, USA
| | - Alena I Velichevskaya
- Department of Genetics and Cell Biology and the Laboratory of Ecology, Genetics and Environmental Protection, Tomsk State University, Tomsk, Russia
| | - Alina A Kokhanenko
- Department of Genetics and Cell Biology and the Laboratory of Ecology, Genetics and Environmental Protection, Tomsk State University, Tomsk, Russia
| | - Semen M Bondarenko
- Department of Entomology, the Fralin Life Sciences Institute, Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University, Blacksburg, VA, USA
- Department of Genetics and Cell Biology and the Laboratory of Ecology, Genetics and Environmental Protection, Tomsk State University, Tomsk, Russia
| | - Mohammad R Abai
- Department of Medical Entomology and Vector Control, Tehran University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran
| | - Maryam Kamali
- Department of Medical Entomology and Parasitology, Tarbiat Modares University, Tehran, Iran
| | - Mikhail I Gordeev
- Department of General Biology and Ecology, State University of Education, Mytishchi, Russia
| | - Anton V Moskaev
- Department of General Biology and Ecology, State University of Education, Mytishchi, Russia
| | - Beniamino Caputo
- Dipartimento Di Sanità Pubblica E Malattie Infettive, Università Sapienza, Rome, Italy
| | - Sargis A Aghayan
- Scientific Center of Zoology and Hydroecology, National Academy of Sciences of the Republic of Armenia, Yerevan, Armenia
- Department of Zoology, Yerevan State University, Yerevan, Armenia
| | - Elina M Baricheva
- Laboratory of Cell Differentiation Mechanisms, the Federal Research Center, Institute of Cytology and Genetics, Novosibirsk, Russia
| | - Vladimir N Stegniy
- Department of Genetics and Cell Biology and the Laboratory of Ecology, Genetics and Environmental Protection, Tomsk State University, Tomsk, Russia
| | - Maria V Sharakhova
- Department of Entomology, the Fralin Life Sciences Institute, Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University, Blacksburg, VA, USA.
- Laboratory of Cell Differentiation Mechanisms, the Federal Research Center, Institute of Cytology and Genetics, Novosibirsk, Russia.
| | - Igor V Sharakhov
- Department of Entomology, the Fralin Life Sciences Institute, Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University, Blacksburg, VA, USA.
- Department of Genetics and Cell Biology and the Laboratory of Ecology, Genetics and Environmental Protection, Tomsk State University, Tomsk, Russia.
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Naumenko AN, Karagodin DA, Yurchenko AA, Moskaev AV, Martin OI, Baricheva EM, Sharakhov IV, Gordeev MI, Sharakhova MV. Chromosome and Genome Divergence between the Cryptic Eurasian Malaria Vector-Species Anopheles messeae and Anopheles daciae. Genes (Basel) 2020; 11:E165. [PMID: 32033356 PMCID: PMC7074279 DOI: 10.3390/genes11020165] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/31/2019] [Revised: 01/31/2020] [Accepted: 02/02/2020] [Indexed: 01/06/2023] Open
Abstract
Chromosomal inversions are important drivers of genome evolution. The Eurasian malaria vector Anophelesmesseae has five polymorphic inversions. A cryptic species, An. daciae, has been discriminated from An. messeae based on five fixed nucleotide substitutions in the internal transcribed spacer 2 (ITS2) of ribosomal DNA. However, the inversion polymorphism in An. daciae and the genome divergence between these species remain unexplored. In this study, we sequenced the ITS2 region and analyzed the inversion frequencies of 289 Anopheles larvae specimens collected from three locations in the Moscow region. Five individual genomes for each of the two species were sequenced. We determined that An. messeae and An. daciae differ from each other by the frequency of polymorphic inversions. Inversion X1 was fixed in An. messeae but polymorphic in An. daciae populations. The genome sequence comparison demonstrated genome-wide divergence between the species, especially pronounced on the inversion-rich X chromosome (mean Fst = 0.331). The frequency of polymorphic autosomal inversions was higher in An. messeae than in An. daciae. We conclude that the X chromosome inversions play an important role in the genomic differentiation between the species. Our study determined that An. messeae and An. daciae are closely related species with incomplete reproductive isolation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anastasia N. Naumenko
- Department of Entomology and the Fralin Life Science Institute, Virginia Polytechnic and State University, 360 West Campus Drive, Blacksburg, VA 24061, USA; (A.N.N.); (A.A.Y.); (O.I.M.); (I.V.S.)
| | - Dmitriy A. Karagodin
- Laboratory of Evolutionary Genomics of Insects, the Federal Research Center Institute of Cytology and Genetics, Siberian Branch of the Russian Academy of Sciences, 10 Prospekt Lavrentyeva, 630090 Novosibirsk, Russia;
| | - Andrey A. Yurchenko
- Department of Entomology and the Fralin Life Science Institute, Virginia Polytechnic and State University, 360 West Campus Drive, Blacksburg, VA 24061, USA; (A.N.N.); (A.A.Y.); (O.I.M.); (I.V.S.)
- Laboratory of Evolutionary Genomics of Insects, the Federal Research Center Institute of Cytology and Genetics, Siberian Branch of the Russian Academy of Sciences, 10 Prospekt Lavrentyeva, 630090 Novosibirsk, Russia;
| | - Anton V. Moskaev
- Department of General Biology and Ecology, Moscow Regional State University, 10a Radio Street, 105005 Moscow, Russia; (A.V.M.); (M.I.G.)
| | - Olga I. Martin
- Department of Entomology and the Fralin Life Science Institute, Virginia Polytechnic and State University, 360 West Campus Drive, Blacksburg, VA 24061, USA; (A.N.N.); (A.A.Y.); (O.I.M.); (I.V.S.)
| | - Elina M. Baricheva
- Laboratory of Cell Differentiation Mechanisms, the Federal Research Center Institute of Cytology and Genetics, Siberian Branch of the Russian Academy of Sciences, 10 Prospekt Lavrentyeva, 630090 Novosibirsk, Russia;
| | - Igor V. Sharakhov
- Department of Entomology and the Fralin Life Science Institute, Virginia Polytechnic and State University, 360 West Campus Drive, Blacksburg, VA 24061, USA; (A.N.N.); (A.A.Y.); (O.I.M.); (I.V.S.)
- Laboratory of Evolutionary Genomics of Insects, the Federal Research Center Institute of Cytology and Genetics, Siberian Branch of the Russian Academy of Sciences, 10 Prospekt Lavrentyeva, 630090 Novosibirsk, Russia;
- Laboratory of Ecology, Genetics and Environment Protection, Tomsk State University, 36 Lenina Street, 634041 Tomsk, Russia
| | - Mikhail I. Gordeev
- Department of General Biology and Ecology, Moscow Regional State University, 10a Radio Street, 105005 Moscow, Russia; (A.V.M.); (M.I.G.)
| | - Maria V. Sharakhova
- Department of Entomology and the Fralin Life Science Institute, Virginia Polytechnic and State University, 360 West Campus Drive, Blacksburg, VA 24061, USA; (A.N.N.); (A.A.Y.); (O.I.M.); (I.V.S.)
- Laboratory of Evolutionary Genomics of Insects, the Federal Research Center Institute of Cytology and Genetics, Siberian Branch of the Russian Academy of Sciences, 10 Prospekt Lavrentyeva, 630090 Novosibirsk, Russia;
- Laboratory of Ecology, Genetics and Environment Protection, Tomsk State University, 36 Lenina Street, 634041 Tomsk, Russia
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Artemov GN, Gordeev MI, Kokhanenko AA, Moskaev AV, Velichevskaya AI, Stegniy VN, Sharakhov IV, Sharakhova MV. A standard photomap of ovarian nurse cell chromosomes and inversion polymorphism in Anopheles beklemishevi. Parasit Vectors 2018; 11:211. [PMID: 29587834 PMCID: PMC5870207 DOI: 10.1186/s13071-018-2657-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/19/2017] [Accepted: 01/17/2018] [Indexed: 11/23/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Anopheles beklemishevi is a member of the Maculipennis group of malaria mosquitoes that has the most northern distribution among other members of the group. Although a cytogenetic map for the larval salivary gland chromosomes of this species has been developed, a high-quality standard cytogenetic photomap that enables genomics and population genetics studies of this mosquito at the adult stage is still lacking. Methods In this study, a cytogenetic map for the polytene chromosomes of An. beklemishevi from ovarian nurse cells was developed using high-resolution digital imaging from field collected mosquitoes. PCR-amplified DNA probes for fluorescence in situ hybridization (FISH) were designed based on the genome of An. atroparvus. The DNA probe obtained by microdissection procedures from the breakpoint region was labelled in a DOP-PCR reaction. Population analysis was performed on 371 specimens collected in 18 locations. Results We report the development of a high-quality standard photomap for the polytene chromosomes from ovarian nurse cells of An. beklemishevi. To confirm the suitability of the map for physical mapping, several PCR-amplified probes were mapped to the chromosomes of An. beklemishevi using FISH. In addition, we identified and mapped DNA probes to flanking regions of the breakpoints of two inversions on chromosome X of this species. Inversion polymorphism was determined in 13 geographically distant populations of An. beklemishevi. Four polymorphic inversions were detected. The positions of common chromosomal inversions were indicated on the map. Conclusions The study constructed a standard photomap for ovarian nurse cell chromosomes of An. beklemishevi and tested its suitability for physical genome mapping and population studies. Cytogenetic analysis determined inversion polymorphism in natural populations of An. beklemishevi related to this species’ adaptation. Electronic supplementary material The online version of this article (10.1186/s13071-018-2657-3) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gleb N Artemov
- Laboratory of Ecology, Genetics and Environmental Protection, Tomsk State University, Tomsk, Russia
| | - Mikhail I Gordeev
- Department of General Biology and Ecology, Moscow Regional State University, Moscow, Russia
| | - Alina A Kokhanenko
- Laboratory of Ecology, Genetics and Environmental Protection, Tomsk State University, Tomsk, Russia
| | - Anton V Moskaev
- Department of General Biology and Ecology, Moscow Regional State University, Moscow, Russia
| | - Alena I Velichevskaya
- Laboratory of Ecology, Genetics and Environmental Protection, Tomsk State University, Tomsk, Russia
| | - Vladimir N Stegniy
- Laboratory of Ecology, Genetics and Environmental Protection, Tomsk State University, Tomsk, Russia
| | - Igor V Sharakhov
- Laboratory of Ecology, Genetics and Environmental Protection, Tomsk State University, Tomsk, Russia. .,Virginia Tech, Department of Entomology, Fralin Life Science Institute, Blacksburg, VA, USA.
| | - Maria V Sharakhova
- Laboratory of Ecology, Genetics and Environmental Protection, Tomsk State University, Tomsk, Russia. .,Virginia Tech, Department of Entomology, Fralin Life Science Institute, Blacksburg, VA, USA.
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Moskaev AV, Gordeev MI. THE SPECIES-SPECIFIC AND ENVIRONMENTAL CHARACTERISTICS OF THE LARVAL BIOTOPES-OF MALARIA MOSQUITOES IN THE SOUTH OF EUROPEAN RUSSIA. Med Parazitol (Mosk) 2016; 4:31-36. [PMID: 30387568] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/08/2023]
Abstract
Five Malaria mosquito species anopheles atroparvus, An.claviger, An.hyrcanus, An.maculipennis, and An.messeae were found in the study habitats in the south of European Rausia. The dominahce indices and environmental preferendes of co- inhabiting species were deterinined. The major potential malaria vectors in the south of European Russia were An messeae (in the valleys) and An.maculipennis (in the highlands and foothills). There was new evidence for chromosoml variability in the malaria mosquitoes An. atroparvus and An.maculipennis. The new inversion 3Roi (23B-27C) was identified in An.maculipennis.
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Gordeev MI, Moskaev AV. [Chromosomal polymorphism in the populations of malaria mosquito Anopheles messeae (Diptera, Culicidae) in the Volga region]. Genetika 2016; 52:685-690. [PMID: 29368498] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/07/2023]
Abstract
We studied the species composition and chromosomal variability of malaria mosquitoes in the Volga Basin (Upper, Middle, and Lower Volga regions). We investigated larvae karyotypes of sibling species of the Anopheles maculipennis group. We calculated the frequencies of chromosomal inversions in the local populations of the dominant species An. messeae. We discovered that karyotypic structure of An. messeae populations depends on landscape-climatic zones. Populations of the Upper, Middle and Lower Volga differ in frequency of chromosome inversions XL, 2R, 3R, and 3L.
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Tanygina EI, Gordeev MI, Moskaev AV, Ganushkina LA. [The species and karyotype composition of malaria mosquito larvae in different water reservoirs of the city of Moscow]. Med Parazitol (Mosk) 2014:29-33. [PMID: 25296424] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/03/2023]
Abstract
The species and karyotype composition of malaria mosquito larvae was investigated in different water reservoirs of the city of Moscow. Cytogenetic analysis identified 2 malaria mosquito species: An. maculipennis Mg and An. messeae Fall. An. messeae was predominant in all the biotopes studied. The proportion of An. maculipennis varied from 0 to 23.8% and averaged 6.27%. An. messeae larvae were found to have chromosomal polymorphism. Individual local An. messeae populations having a definite, historically established, time and space resistant karyotype structure were shown to form in Moscow. The resistance of the karyotype structure of the populations was provided by reversible fluctuations in the rate of chromosomal inversions.
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Gordeev MI, Bezzhonova OV, Moskaev AV. [Chromosomal polymorphism in the populations of malaria mosquito Anopheles messeae (Diptera, Culicidae) at the south of Russian Plain]. Genetika 2012; 48:1124-1128. [PMID: 23113341] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/01/2023]
Abstract
Zonal features of the geographic distribution of chromosomal inversions in the populations of An. messae at the south of the Russian Plain were examined. The An. messae was identified based on morphological characters and cytogenetically. The chromosomal inversions identified in populations of An. messae comprised XL1, XL4, 2R1, 3R1, and 3L1. Inversion XL4 was endemic and found with low frequency (2%) in Penza oblast and Moscow oblast. Based on the population karyotype structure similarity, on the territory of Russian Plain, three zones (southwestern, southeastern, and central) were identified. Central zone was characterized by higher levels of inversion polymorphism in all chromosomes, except arm 3L. In the two southern zones, high frequency of the XL0 inversion, along with complete absence of homo- and heterozygotes for the 2R1 inversion, and high proportion of the individuals with inversion 3L1 was observed. Specific feature of southeastern zone was the increased frequency ofhetero- and homozygotes for the 3R1 and 3L1 inversions. Zonal differences reflected adaptive character ofchromosomal polymorphism and pointed to hierarchic organization of the species population structure.
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