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Christensen S, Gjelstad A, Björnsdottir I, Lauritzen F. Medicalization of Sport? A Mixed-Method Study on the Use of Medications in Elite Ice Hockey. Sports (Basel) 2024; 12:19. [PMID: 38251293 PMCID: PMC10818849 DOI: 10.3390/sports12010019] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/30/2023] [Revised: 12/20/2023] [Accepted: 12/25/2023] [Indexed: 01/23/2024] Open
Abstract
Ice hockey is a high-risk sport known for its dominant macho culture. The purpose of this study was to examine experiences surrounding medication use among male, elite ice hockey players in Norway. A mixed-method design was employed, which first examined medications registered on doping control forms (DCFs) (n = 177) and then involved semi-structured focus group interviews (n = 5) with elite athletes (n = 25). Overall, 68% of the DCFs contained information about ≥1 medication. Among the most registered medications were NSAIDs and hypnotics (20% and 19% of all DCFs, respectively). During the interviews, numerous athletes reported using analgesics to manage injuries and pain caused by the sport, often being motivated by sacrificing themselves for the team during important matches and playoffs. Hypnotics were used due to high cumulative stress due to heavy training and competition load, late-night matches, and playing in a semi-professional league. Athlete support personnel (ASP), including physicians and trainers, were the athletes' main sources of information. The athletes often displayed a profound and non-critical trust in the advice and products provided to them by their team physician. The findings indicate that male, elite ice hockey players, through their excessive and somewhat ignorant use of medications, expose themselves to health risks and inadvertent doping.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sofie Christensen
- Science and Medicine, Anti-Doping Norway, 0855 Oslo, Norway (A.G.)
- Department of Pharmaceutics and Social Pharmacy, School of Pharmacy, University of Oslo, 0316 Oslo, Norway;
| | - Astrid Gjelstad
- Science and Medicine, Anti-Doping Norway, 0855 Oslo, Norway (A.G.)
- Department of Pharmaceutical Chemistry, School of Pharmacy, University of Oslo, 0316 Oslo, Norway
| | - Ingunn Björnsdottir
- Department of Pharmaceutics and Social Pharmacy, School of Pharmacy, University of Oslo, 0316 Oslo, Norway;
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Gjelstad A, Herlofsen TM, Bjerke AL, Lauritzen F, Björnsdottir I. Use of pharmaceuticals amongst athletes tested by Anti-Doping Norway in a five-year period. Front Sports Act Living 2023; 5:1260806. [PMID: 37860156 PMCID: PMC10582642 DOI: 10.3389/fspor.2023.1260806] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/18/2023] [Accepted: 09/22/2023] [Indexed: 10/21/2023] Open
Abstract
Introduction The aim of the study was to map the use of pharmaceuticals by Norwegian athletes registered on doping control forms (DCFs) in a five-year period to examine general and some class specific use of pharmaceuticals across sports and athlete levels. Method Anonymous data from DCFs collected in 2015-2019 were manually entered into a database using the Anatomical Therapeutic Chemical (ATC) system for classification of the pharmaceuticals. Variables entered were year of control, gender, age group, athlete level, sport, test type, nationality, and pharmaceuticals (and dietary supplements) used. Results Pain killers in the ATC groups M01 A (Nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs - NSAIDs) and N02 B (other analgesics), and anti-asthmatics in ATC groups R03 A and R03 B were the most frequently used pharmaceuticals. National level athletes reported more use of pharmaceuticals (1.4 ± 1.7 pharmaceuticals per form) than recreational level athletes (0.9 ± 1.2). The highest proportion of DCFs containing information about at least one pharmaceutical were found in speed skating (79.1%), alpine skiing (74.0%), rowing (72.4%) and cross-country skiing (71.7%). Painkillers were most frequently used in muscular endurance sports (30.4% and 21.2 % for M01A and N02 B, respectively) and ball and team sports (17.9% and 17.0%). Use of hypnotics was reported from ice-hockey players and alpine skiers in around 8% of the cases. Coclusion Use of anti-asthmatics was most often reported amongst athletes specially exposed to cold, chemicals and heavy endurance training. Athletes in specialized sports requiring high levels of strength and/or endurance reported a higher use of pharmaceuticals out-of-competition compared to in-competition, while there was no such difference in complex sports, such as team, gymnastic, aiming and combat sports.
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Affiliation(s)
- Astrid Gjelstad
- Science and Medicine, Anti-Doping Norway, Oslo, Norway
- Department of Pharmaceutical Chemistry, School of Pharmacy, University of Oslo, Oslo, Norway
| | - Tine Marie Herlofsen
- Department of Pharmaceutics and Social Pharmacy, School of Pharmacy, University of Oslo, Oslo, Norway
| | - Anne-Linn Bjerke
- Department of Pharmaceutics and Social Pharmacy, School of Pharmacy, University of Oslo, Oslo, Norway
| | | | - Ingunn Björnsdottir
- Department of Pharmaceutics and Social Pharmacy, School of Pharmacy, University of Oslo, Oslo, Norway
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Lorenzo-Parodi N, Kaziur-Cegla W, Gjelstad A, Schmidt TC. Liquid-phase microextraction of aromatic amines: hollow fiber-liquid-phase microextraction and parallel artificial liquid membrane extraction comparison. Anal Bioanal Chem 2023; 415:1765-1776. [PMID: 36820909 PMCID: PMC9992073 DOI: 10.1007/s00216-023-04579-w] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/03/2022] [Revised: 01/09/2023] [Accepted: 01/31/2023] [Indexed: 02/24/2023]
Abstract
Aromatic amines (AA) are carcinogenic compounds that can enter the human body through many sources, one of the most important being tobacco smoke. They are excreted with the urine, from which they can be extracted and measured. To that end, hollow fiber-liquid-phase microextraction (HF-LPME) and parallel artificial liquid membrane extraction (PALME) were optimized for the analysis of representative aromatic amines, as alternatives to liquid-liquid extraction (LLE). Relevant extraction parameters, namely organic solvent, extraction time, agitation speed, and acceptor solution pH, were studied, and the two optimized techniques-HF-LPME: dihexyl ether, 45 min, 250 rpm, and pH 1; PALME: undecane, 20 min, 250 rpm and pH 1-were compared. Comparison of the optimized methods showed that significantly higher recoveries could be obtained with PALME than with HF-LPME. Therefore, PALME was further validated. The results were successful for nine different AA, with regression coefficients (R2) of at least 0.991, limits of detection (LOD) of 45-75 ng/L, and repeatability and peak area relative standard deviations (RSD) below 20%. Furthermore, two urine samples from smokers were measured as proof of concept, and 2-methylaniline was successfully quantified in one of them. These results show that PALME is a great green alternative to LLE. Not only does it use much smaller volumes of toxic organic solvents, and sample-enabling the study of samples with limited available volumes-but it is also less time consuming and labor intensive, and it can be automated.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nerea Lorenzo-Parodi
- Instrumental Analytical Chemistry, University of Duisburg-Essen, Universitätsstrasse 5, 45141, Essen, Germany
| | - Wiebke Kaziur-Cegla
- Instrumental Analytical Chemistry, University of Duisburg-Essen, Universitätsstrasse 5, 45141, Essen, Germany
| | - Astrid Gjelstad
- Department of Pharmacy, University of Oslo, Blindern, P.O. Box 1068, 0316, Oslo, Norway
| | - Torsten C Schmidt
- Instrumental Analytical Chemistry, University of Duisburg-Essen, Universitätsstrasse 5, 45141, Essen, Germany. .,Centre for Water and Environmental Research, University of Duisburg-Essen, Universitätsstrasse 5, 45141, Essen, Germany. .,IWW Water Centre, Moritzstrasse 26, 45476, Mülheim an der Ruhr, Germany.
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Lauritzen F, Gjelstad A. Trends in dietary supplement use among athletes selected for doping controls. Front Nutr 2023; 10:1143187. [PMID: 37006918 PMCID: PMC10050343 DOI: 10.3389/fnut.2023.1143187] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/12/2023] [Accepted: 02/27/2023] [Indexed: 03/17/2023] Open
Abstract
BackgroundDietary supplements (DS) may be beneficial for athletes in certain situations, whereas incorrect or excessive use may impair performance, pose a risk to the athlete's health and cause positive doping tests by containing prohibited substances. To provide athletes with relevant and tailored information on safe supplement use, a better knowledge about DS trends over time and between sport disciplines are needed.MethodsThis study examines the use of DS among athletes who have participated in doping controls by extracting information derived from 10,418 doping control forms (DCF) collected by Anti-Doping Norway from 2015 to 2019.ResultsOverall, 51% of the DCFs contained information about at least one DS. National level athletes (NLA) more often reported using DS than recreational athletes (RA) (53 vs. 47%, p < 0.001). Athletes in strength and power (71%), VO2max endurance (56%) and muscular endurance sports (55%) had the highest proportion of DCFs with information about DS. Medical supplements were the most used supplement category for both genders and across all sports. Dietary supplements with a high risk of containing doping substances were most common among male, RA in strength and power sports. There were small and non-significant year-to-year variations in the prevalence of athletes using DS, while the number of products used concomitantly peaked in 2017 before declining in 2019 (2.30 vs. 2.08, p < 0.01). The use of medical supplements and ergogenic substances increased slightly for both NLA and RA from 2015 to 2019, while the use of all other supplement categories declined.ConclusionHalf of the 10,418 DCFs contained information about DS, with variations within the athlete population. DS with high risk of containing prohibited substances were mostly seen in sport disciplines requiring a high degree of specialization in strength/power, including powerlifting and weightlifting, as well as in some team sports, such as cheerleading and american football.
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Affiliation(s)
- Fredrik Lauritzen
- Science and Medicine, Anti-Doping Norway, Oslo, Norway
- *Correspondence: Fredrik Lauritzen
| | - Astrid Gjelstad
- Science and Medicine, Anti-Doping Norway, Oslo, Norway
- Department of Pharmacy, The Faculty of Mathematics and Natural Sciences, University of Oslo, Oslo, Norway
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Bækken LV, Holden G, Gjelstad A, Lauritzen F. Ten years of collecting hematological athlete biological passport samples—perspectives from a National Anti-doping Organization. Front Sports Act Living 2022; 4:954479. [PMID: 35928963 PMCID: PMC9343672 DOI: 10.3389/fspor.2022.954479] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/27/2022] [Accepted: 06/27/2022] [Indexed: 11/26/2022] Open
Abstract
The hematological module of the Athlete Biological Passport (ABP) aims to reveal blood doping indirectly by looking at selected biomarkers of doping over time. For Anti-Doping Organizations (ADOs), the ABP is a vital tool in the fight against doping in sports through improved target testing and analysis, investigations, deterrence, and as indirect evidence for use of prohibited methods or substances. The physiological characteristics of sport disciplines is an important risk factor in the overall risk assessment and when implementing the hematological module. Sharing of experiences with implementing the hematological ABP between ADOs is key to further strengthen and extend its use. In this study, we present 10 years of experience with the hematological ABP program from the perspectives of a National ADO with special attention to sport disciplines' physiological characteristics as a potential risk factor for blood doping. Not surprisingly, most samples were collected in sport disciplines where the aerobic capacity is vital for performance. The study highlights strengths in Anti-Doping Norway's testing program but also areas that could be improved. For example, it was shown that samples were collected both in and out of season in a subset of the data material that included three popular sports in Norway (Cross-Country Skiing, Nordic Combined, and Biathlon), however, from the total data material it was clear that athletes were more likely to be tested out of competition and on certain days of the week and times of the day. The use of doping control officers with a flexible time schedule and testing outside an athlete's 60 min time-slot could help with a more even distribution during the week and day, and thus reduce the predictability of testing. In addition to promoting a discussion on testing strategies, the study can be used as a starting point for other ADOs on how to examine their own testing program.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lasse V. Bækken
- Nordic Athlete Passport Management Unit, Norwegian Doping Control Laboratory, Department of Pharmacology, Oslo University Hospital, Oslo, Norway
- *Correspondence: Lasse V. Bækken
| | - Geir Holden
- Department of Testing, Investigations and Legal, Anti-doping Norway, Oslo, Norway
| | - Astrid Gjelstad
- Science and Medicine, Anti-doping Norway, Oslo, Norway
- Section of Pharmaceutical Chemistry, Department of Pharmacy, University of Oslo, Oslo, Norway
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Thorsby PM, Gjelstad A. When the patient is an athlete. Tidsskr Nor Laegeforen 2021; 141:21-0074. [PMID: 33950644 DOI: 10.4045/tidsskr.21.0074] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/02/2022] Open
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Ask KS, Lid M, Øiestad EL, Pedersen-Bjergaard S, Gjelstad A. Liquid-phase microextraction in 96-well plates - calibration and accurate quantification of pharmaceuticals in human plasma samples. J Chromatogr A 2019; 1602:117-123. [DOI: 10.1016/j.chroma.2019.06.013] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/16/2019] [Revised: 06/03/2019] [Accepted: 06/05/2019] [Indexed: 12/24/2022]
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Andersen IKL, Rosting C, Gjelstad A, Halvorsen TG. Volumetric absorptive MicroSampling vs. other blood sampling materials in LC–MS-based protein analysis – preliminary investigations. J Pharm Biomed Anal 2018; 156:239-246. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jpba.2018.04.036] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/22/2017] [Revised: 04/20/2018] [Accepted: 04/22/2018] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
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Vårdal L, Wong G, Øiestad ÅML, Pedersen-Bjergaard S, Gjelstad A, Øiestad EL. Rapid determination of designer benzodiazepines, benzodiazepines, and Z-hypnotics in whole blood using parallel artificial liquid membrane extraction and UHPLC-MS/MS. Anal Bioanal Chem 2018; 410:4967-4978. [PMID: 29947895 DOI: 10.1007/s00216-018-1147-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/07/2018] [Revised: 05/07/2018] [Accepted: 05/16/2018] [Indexed: 12/30/2022]
Abstract
Benzodiazepines (BZD) and Z-hypnotics are frequently analyzed in forensic laboratories, and in 2012, the designer benzodiazepines (DBZD) emerged on the illegal drug scene. DBZD represent a particular challenge demanding new analytical methods. In this work, parallel artificial liquid membrane extraction (PALME) is used for sample preparation of DBZD, BZD, and Z-hypnotics in whole blood prior to UHPLC-MS/MS analysis. PALME of BZD, DBZD, and Z-hypnotics was performed from whole blood samples, and the analytes were extracted across a supported liquid membrane (SLM) and into an acceptor solution of dimethyl sulfoxide and 200 mM formic acid (75:25, v/v). The method was validated according to EMA guidelines. The method was linear throughout the calibration range (R2 > 0.99). Intra- and inter-day accuracy and precision, as well as matrix effects, were within the guideline limit of ± 15%. LOD and LLOQ ranged from 0.10 to 5.0 ng mL-1 and 3.2 to 160 ng mL-1, respectively. Extraction recoveries were reproducible and above 52%. The method was specific, and the analytes were stable in the PALME extracts for 4 and 10 days at 10 and - 20 °C. No carry-over was observed within the calibration range. PALME and UHPLC-MS/MS for the determination of DBZD, BZD, and Z-hypnotics in whole blood are a green and low-cost alternative that provides high sample throughput (96-well format), extensive sample clean-up, good sensitivity, and high reproducibility. The presented method is also the first method incorporating analysis of DBZD, BZD, and Z-hypnotics in whole blood in one efficient analysis. Graphical abstract.
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Affiliation(s)
- Linda Vårdal
- School of Pharmacy, University of Oslo, P.O. Box 1068, Blindern, 0316, Oslo, Norway
| | - Gladys Wong
- School of Pharmacy, University of Oslo, P.O. Box 1068, Blindern, 0316, Oslo, Norway
| | - Åse Marit Leere Øiestad
- Department of Forensic Sciences, Oslo University Hospital, P.O. Box 4950, Nydalen, 0424, Oslo, Norway
| | - Stig Pedersen-Bjergaard
- School of Pharmacy, University of Oslo, P.O. Box 1068, Blindern, 0316, Oslo, Norway
- Faculty of Health and Medical Sciences, School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Copenhagen, Universitetsparken 2, 2100, Copenhagen, Denmark
| | - Astrid Gjelstad
- School of Pharmacy, University of Oslo, P.O. Box 1068, Blindern, 0316, Oslo, Norway
| | - Elisabeth Leere Øiestad
- School of Pharmacy, University of Oslo, P.O. Box 1068, Blindern, 0316, Oslo, Norway.
- Department of Forensic Sciences, Oslo University Hospital, P.O. Box 4950, Nydalen, 0424, Oslo, Norway.
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Ask KS, Øiestad EL, Pedersen-Bjergaard S, Gjelstad A. Dried blood spots and parallel artificial liquid membrane extraction–A simple combination of microsampling and microextraction. Anal Chim Acta 2018; 1009:56-64. [DOI: 10.1016/j.aca.2018.01.024] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/12/2017] [Revised: 01/11/2018] [Accepted: 01/12/2018] [Indexed: 01/12/2023]
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Huang C, Shen X, Gjelstad A, Pedersen-Bjergaard S. Investigation of alternative supported liquid membranes in electromembrane extraction of basic drugs from human plasma. J Memb Sci 2018. [DOI: 10.1016/j.memsci.2017.11.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/23/2022]
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Restan MS, Jensen H, Shen X, Huang C, Martinsen ØG, Kubáň P, Gjelstad A, Pedersen-Bjergaard S. Comprehensive study of buffer systems and local pH effects in electromembrane extraction. Anal Chim Acta 2017; 984:116-123. [DOI: 10.1016/j.aca.2017.06.049] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/20/2017] [Revised: 06/26/2017] [Accepted: 06/28/2017] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
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Pedersen-Bjergaard S, Huang C, Gjelstad A. Electromembrane extraction-Recent trends and where to go. J Pharm Anal 2017; 7:141-147. [PMID: 29404030 PMCID: PMC5790682 DOI: 10.1016/j.jpha.2017.04.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 66] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/16/2017] [Revised: 04/06/2017] [Accepted: 04/10/2017] [Indexed: 11/28/2022] Open
Abstract
Electromembrane extraction (EME) is an analytical microextraction technique, where charged analytes (such as drug substances) are extracted from an aqueous sample (such as a biological fluid), through a supported liquid membrane (SLM) comprising a water immiscible organic solvent, and into an aqueous acceptor solution. The driving force for the extraction is an electrical potential (dc) applied across the SLM. In this paper, EME is reviewed. First, the principle for EME is explained with focus on extraction of cationic and anionic analytes, and typical performance data are presented. Second, papers published in 2016 are reviewed and discussed with focus on (a) new SLMs, (b) new support materials for the SLM, (c) new sample additives improving extraction, (d) new technical configurations, (e) improved theoretical understanding, and (f) pharmaceutical new applications. Finally, important future research objectives and directions are defined for further development of EME, with the aim of establishing EME in the toolbox of future analytical laboratories.
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Affiliation(s)
- Stig Pedersen-Bjergaard
- School of Pharmacy, University of Oslo, P.O. Box 1068 Blindern, 0316 Oslo, Norway.,Faculty of Health and Medical Sciences, School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Copenhagen, Universitetsparken 2, 2100 Copenhagen, Denmark
| | - Chuixiu Huang
- School of Pharmacy, University of Oslo, P.O. Box 1068 Blindern, 0316 Oslo, Norway
| | - Astrid Gjelstad
- School of Pharmacy, University of Oslo, P.O. Box 1068 Blindern, 0316 Oslo, Norway
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Rosting C, Gjelstad A, Halvorsen TG. Expanding the knowledge on dried blood spots and LC-MS-based protein analysis: two different sampling materials and six protein targets. Anal Bioanal Chem 2017; 409:3383-3392. [PMID: 28299418 DOI: 10.1007/s00216-017-0280-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/21/2016] [Revised: 02/03/2017] [Accepted: 02/24/2017] [Indexed: 12/19/2022]
Abstract
The combination of dried blood spots (DBS) and bottom-up LC-MS-based protein analysis was investigated in the present paper using six model proteins (1 mg/mL of each protein) with different physicochemical properties. Two different materials for DBS were examined: a water-soluble DBS material (carboxymethyl cellulose, (CMC)) and a commercially available (non-soluble) material (DMPK-C). The sample preparation was optimised regarding the water-soluble material and achieving acceptable repeatability of the signal was emphasised. Five microlitres of whole blood were deposited and dried on either CMC or DMPK-C. The samples were dissolved (CMC) or extracted (DMPK-C) prior to tryptic digest and matrix precipitation. The optimization of the sample preparation showed that an increased buffer concentration (100 mM ammonium bicarbonate) for dissolving the DBS samples gave better repeatability combined with a decrease in analyte signal. CMC seemed to add extra variability (RSD 8-60%) into the analysis compared to sample prepared without CMC (RSD 6-36%), although equal performance compared to DMPK-C material (RSD 13-60%) was demonstrated. The stability of the analytes was examined for different storage periods (1 and 4 weeks) and different storage temperatures (-25, 25, and 40 °C). The stability on both CMC (> 70% compared to reference) and DMPK-C (> 50% compared to reference) was acceptable for most of the peptides. This paper shows that both DBS materials can be used in targeted LC-MS-based protein analysis of proteins with different physicochemical properties. Graphical Abstract Overview of the experimental set-up for expanding the knowledge of dried blood spots in LC-MS-based protein anaysis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Cecilie Rosting
- Department of Pharmaceutical Chemistry, School of Pharmacy, University of Oslo, P.O. Box 1068, Blindern, 0316, Oslo, Norway
| | - Astrid Gjelstad
- Department of Pharmaceutical Chemistry, School of Pharmacy, University of Oslo, P.O. Box 1068, Blindern, 0316, Oslo, Norway
| | - Trine Grønhaug Halvorsen
- Department of Pharmaceutical Chemistry, School of Pharmacy, University of Oslo, P.O. Box 1068, Blindern, 0316, Oslo, Norway.
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Huang C, Gjelstad A, Pedersen-Bjergaard S. Electromembrane extraction with alkylated phosphites and phosphates as supported liquid membranes. J Memb Sci 2017. [DOI: 10.1016/j.memsci.2016.11.049] [Citation(s) in RCA: 39] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
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Vårdal L, Askildsen HM, Gjelstad A, Øiestad EL, Edvardsen HME, Pedersen-Bjergaard S. Parallel artificial liquid membrane extraction of new psychoactive substances in plasma and whole blood. J Chromatogr B Analyt Technol Biomed Life Sci 2017; 1048:77-84. [PMID: 28226266 DOI: 10.1016/j.jchromb.2017.02.010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/15/2016] [Revised: 02/08/2017] [Accepted: 02/10/2017] [Indexed: 01/26/2023]
Abstract
Parallel artificial liquid membrane extraction (PALME) was combined with ultra-high performance liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry (UHPLC-MS) and the potential for screening of new psychoactive substances (NPS) was investigated for the first time. PALME was performed in 96-well format comprising a donor plate, a supported liquid membrane (SLM), and an acceptor plate. Uncharged NPS were extracted from plasma or whole blood, across an organic SLM, and into an aqueous acceptor solution, facilitated by a pH gradient. MDAI (5,6-methylenedioxy-2-aminoindane), methylone, PFA (para-fluoroamphetamine), mCPP (meta-chlorophenylpiperazine), pentedrone, methoxetamine, MDPV (methylenedioxypyrovalerone), ethylphenidate, 2C-E (2,5-dimethoxy-4-ethylphenethylamine), bromo-dragonfly, and AH-7921 (3,4-dichloro-N-{[1-(dimethylamino)cyclohexyl]methyl}benzamide) were selected as representative NPS. Optimization of operational parameters was necessary as the NPS were novel to PALME, and because PALME was performed from whole blood for the very first time. In the PALME method developed for plasma, NPS were extracted from a 250μL alkalized donor solution consisting of 125μL plasma sample, 115μL 40mM NaOH, and 10μL internal standard. In the PALME method from whole blood, the 250μL alkalized donor solution consisted of 100μL whole blood, 50μL deionized water, 75μL 80mM NaOH, and 25μL internal standard. In both methods, extraction was accomplished across an SLM of 5μL dodecyl acetate with 1% trioctylamine (w/w), and further into an acidic acceptor solution of 50μL 20mM formic acid. The extraction was promoted by agitation at 900rpm and was carried out for 120min. Method validation was performed and the following parameters were considered: linearity, limits of quantification (LOQ), intra- and inter-day precision, accuracy, extraction recoveries, carry-over, and matrix effects. The validation results were in accordance with FDA guidelines.
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Affiliation(s)
- Linda Vårdal
- School of Pharmacy, University of Oslo, P.O. Box 1068, Blindern, 0316 Oslo, Norway
| | | | - Astrid Gjelstad
- School of Pharmacy, University of Oslo, P.O. Box 1068, Blindern, 0316 Oslo, Norway
| | - Elisabeth Leere Øiestad
- School of Pharmacy, University of Oslo, P.O. Box 1068, Blindern, 0316 Oslo, Norway; Norwegian Institute of Public Health (NIPH), Department of Forensic Sciences, Oslo University Hospital, Oslo, Norway
| | - Hilde Marie Erøy Edvardsen
- Norwegian Institute of Public Health (NIPH), Department of Forensic Sciences, Oslo University Hospital, Oslo, Norway
| | - Stig Pedersen-Bjergaard
- School of Pharmacy, University of Oslo, P.O. Box 1068, Blindern, 0316 Oslo, Norway; Faculty of Health and Medical Sciences, School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Copenhagen, Universitetsparken 2, 2100 Copenhagen, Denmark.
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Pilařová V, Sultani M, Ask KS, Nováková L, Pedersen-Bjergaard S, Gjelstad A. One-step extraction of polar drugs from plasma by parallel artificial liquid membrane extraction. J Chromatogr B Analyt Technol Biomed Life Sci 2017; 1043:25-32. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jchromb.2016.09.019] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/31/2016] [Revised: 09/06/2016] [Accepted: 09/13/2016] [Indexed: 01/04/2023]
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20
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Kubáň P, Seip KF, Gjelstad A, Pedersen-Bjergaard S. Micro-electromembrane extraction using multiple free liquid membranes and acceptor solutions – Towards selective extractions of analytes based on their acid-base strength. Anal Chim Acta 2016; 943:64-73. [DOI: 10.1016/j.aca.2016.09.022] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/16/2016] [Revised: 09/13/2016] [Accepted: 09/14/2016] [Indexed: 11/15/2022]
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21
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Ask KS, Bardakci T, Parmer MP, Halvorsen TG, Øiestad EL, Pedersen-Bjergaard S, Gjelstad A. Parallel artificial liquid membrane extraction as an efficient tool for removal of phospholipids from human plasma. J Pharm Biomed Anal 2016; 129:229-236. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jpba.2016.07.011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/18/2016] [Revised: 07/07/2016] [Accepted: 07/08/2016] [Indexed: 01/01/2023]
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22
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Huang C, Seip KF, Gjelstad A, Pedersen-Bjergaard S. Electromembrane extraction of polar basic drugs from plasma with pure bis(2-ethylhexyl) phosphite as supported liquid membrane. Anal Chim Acta 2016; 934:80-7. [DOI: 10.1016/j.aca.2016.06.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 39] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/18/2016] [Revised: 05/30/2016] [Accepted: 06/01/2016] [Indexed: 12/27/2022]
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23
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Huang C, Gjelstad A, Seip KF, Jensen H, Pedersen-Bjergaard S. Exhaustive and stable electromembrane extraction of acidic drugs from human plasma. J Chromatogr A 2015; 1425:81-7. [DOI: 10.1016/j.chroma.2015.11.052] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/23/2015] [Revised: 11/06/2015] [Accepted: 11/16/2015] [Indexed: 10/22/2022]
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24
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Huang C, Jensen H, Seip KF, Gjelstad A, Pedersen-Bjergaard S. Mass transfer in electromembrane extraction-The link between theory and experiments. J Sep Sci 2015; 39:188-97. [DOI: 10.1002/jssc.201500905] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/14/2015] [Revised: 09/18/2015] [Accepted: 09/19/2015] [Indexed: 11/11/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Chuixiu Huang
- School of Pharmacy; University of Oslo; Oslo Norway
- G&T Septech AS; Ytre Enebakk Norway
| | - Henrik Jensen
- Department of Pharmacy, Faculty of Health and Medical Sciences; University of Copenhagen; Copenhagen Denmark
| | | | | | - Stig Pedersen-Bjergaard
- School of Pharmacy; University of Oslo; Oslo Norway
- Department of Pharmacy, Faculty of Health and Medical Sciences; University of Copenhagen; Copenhagen Denmark
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Huang C, Seip KF, Gjelstad A, Pedersen-Bjergaard S. Electromembrane extraction for pharmaceutical and biomedical analysis – Quo vadis. J Pharm Biomed Anal 2015; 113:97-107. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jpba.2015.01.038] [Citation(s) in RCA: 63] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/24/2014] [Revised: 01/15/2015] [Accepted: 01/18/2015] [Indexed: 01/26/2023]
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26
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Affiliation(s)
- Cecilie Rosting
- Department of Pharmaceutical
Chemistry, School of Pharmacy, University of Oslo, 0316 Oslo, Norway
| | - Astrid Gjelstad
- Department of Pharmaceutical
Chemistry, School of Pharmacy, University of Oslo, 0316 Oslo, Norway
| | - Trine Grønhaug Halvorsen
- Department of Pharmaceutical
Chemistry, School of Pharmacy, University of Oslo, 0316 Oslo, Norway
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27
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Huang C, Seip KF, Gjelstad A, Shen X, Pedersen-Bjergaard S. Combination of Electromembrane Extraction and Liquid-Phase Microextraction in a Single Step: Simultaneous Group Separation of Acidic and Basic Drugs. Anal Chem 2015; 87:6951-7. [DOI: 10.1021/acs.analchem.5b01610] [Citation(s) in RCA: 43] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Chuixiu Huang
- School
of Pharmacy, University of Oslo, PO Box 1068, Blindern, 0316 Oslo, Norway
- G&T Septech AS, PO Box 33, 1917 Ytre Enebakk, Norway
| | - Knut Fredrik Seip
- School
of Pharmacy, University of Oslo, PO Box 1068, Blindern, 0316 Oslo, Norway
| | - Astrid Gjelstad
- School
of Pharmacy, University of Oslo, PO Box 1068, Blindern, 0316 Oslo, Norway
| | - Xiantao Shen
- Key Laboratory of Environment and Health, Ministry of Education & Ministry of Environmental Protection, State Key Laboratory of Environmental Health (Incubation), School of Public Health, Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Hangkong Road #13, Wuhan, Hubei 430030, China
- G&T Septech AS, PO Box 33, 1917 Ytre Enebakk, Norway
| | - Stig Pedersen-Bjergaard
- School
of Pharmacy, University of Oslo, PO Box 1068, Blindern, 0316 Oslo, Norway
- Department
of Pharmacy, Faculty of Health and Medical Sciences, Faculty of Pharmaceutical
Sciences, University of Copenhagen, DK-2100 Copenhagen, Denmark
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Roldán-Pijuán M, Pedersen-Bjergaard S, Gjelstad A. Parallel artificial liquid membrane extraction of acidic drugs from human plasma. Anal Bioanal Chem 2015; 407:2811-9. [DOI: 10.1007/s00216-015-8505-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/18/2014] [Revised: 01/15/2015] [Accepted: 01/20/2015] [Indexed: 10/24/2022]
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Gjelstad A, Pedersen-Bjergaard S. Electromembrane extraction--three-phase electrophoresis for future preparative applications. Electrophoresis 2014; 35:2421-8. [PMID: 24810105 DOI: 10.1002/elps.201400127] [Citation(s) in RCA: 41] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/12/2014] [Revised: 04/25/2014] [Accepted: 04/25/2014] [Indexed: 11/07/2022]
Abstract
The purpose of this article is to discuss the principle and the future potential for electromembrane extraction (EME). EME was presented in 2006 as a totally new sample preparation technique for ionized target analytes, based on electrokinetic migration across a supported liquid membrane under the influence of an external electrical field. The principle of EME is presented, and typical performance data for EME are discussed. Most work with EME up to date has been performed with low-molecular weight pharmaceutical substances as model analytes, but the principles of EME should be developed in other directions in the future to fully explore the potential. Recent research in new directions is critically reviewed, with focus on extraction of different types of chemical and biochemical substances, new separation possibilities, new approaches, and challenges related to mass transfer and background current. The intention of this critical review is to give a flavor of EME and to stimulate into more research in the area of EME. Unlike other review articles, the current one is less comprehensive, but put more emphasis on new directions for EME.
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Affiliation(s)
- Astrid Gjelstad
- School of Pharmacy, University of Oslo, Blindern, Oslo, Norway
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30
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Eibak LEE, Rasmussen KE, Øiestad EL, Pedersen-Bjergaard S, Gjelstad A. Parallel electromembrane extraction in the 96-well format. Anal Chim Acta 2014; 828:46-52. [DOI: 10.1016/j.aca.2014.04.038] [Citation(s) in RCA: 38] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/14/2014] [Revised: 04/16/2014] [Accepted: 04/18/2014] [Indexed: 01/12/2023]
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31
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Huang C, Eibak LEE, Gjelstad A, Shen X, Trones R, Jensen H, Pedersen-Bjergaard S. Development of a flat membrane based device for electromembrane extraction: A new approach for exhaustive extraction of basic drugs from human plasma. J Chromatogr A 2014; 1326:7-12. [DOI: 10.1016/j.chroma.2013.12.028] [Citation(s) in RCA: 65] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/11/2013] [Revised: 12/06/2013] [Accepted: 12/09/2013] [Indexed: 10/25/2022]
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32
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Seip KF, Faizi M, Vergel C, Gjelstad A, Pedersen-Bjergaard S. Erratum to: Stability and efficiency of supported liquid membranes in electromembrane extraction—a link to solvent properties. Anal Bioanal Chem 2013. [DOI: 10.1007/s00216-013-7579-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
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33
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Eibak LEE, Parmer MP, Rasmussen KE, Pedersen-Bjergaard S, Gjelstad A. Parallel electromembrane extraction in a multiwell plate. Anal Bioanal Chem 2013; 406:431-40. [DOI: 10.1007/s00216-013-7345-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/03/2013] [Revised: 09/02/2013] [Accepted: 09/04/2013] [Indexed: 12/28/2022]
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34
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Seip KF, Gjelstad A, Pedersen-Bjergaard S. Electromembrane extraction from aqueous samples containing polar organic solvents. J Chromatogr A 2013; 1308:37-44. [DOI: 10.1016/j.chroma.2013.07.105] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/15/2013] [Revised: 06/18/2013] [Accepted: 07/31/2013] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
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35
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Seip KF, Jensen H, Sønsteby MH, Gjelstad A, Pedersen-Bjergaard S. Electromembrane extraction: Distribution or electrophoresis? Electrophoresis 2013; 34:792-9. [DOI: 10.1002/elps.201200587] [Citation(s) in RCA: 56] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/30/2012] [Revised: 12/06/2012] [Accepted: 12/07/2012] [Indexed: 11/06/2022]
Affiliation(s)
| | - Henrik Jensen
- Department of Pharmacy, Faculty of Health and Medical Sciences; University of Copenhagen; Copenhagen; Denmark
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36
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Gjelstad A, Pedersen-Bjergaard S. Perspective: Hollow fibre liquid-phase microextraction - principles, performance, applicability, and future directions. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2013. [DOI: 10.4322/sc.2014.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/23/2022]
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37
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Eibak LEE, Hegge AB, Rasmussen KE, Pedersen-Bjergaard S, Gjelstad A. Alginate and Chitosan Foam Combined with Electromembrane Extraction for Dried Blood Spot Analysis. Anal Chem 2012; 84:8783-9. [DOI: 10.1021/ac301996n] [Citation(s) in RCA: 40] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Lars Erik Eng Eibak
- School of Pharmacy, University of Oslo, P.O. Box 1068 Blindern, 0316 Oslo,
Norway
| | - Anne Bee Hegge
- School of Pharmacy, University of Oslo, P.O. Box 1068 Blindern, 0316 Oslo,
Norway
| | - Knut Einar Rasmussen
- School of Pharmacy, University of Oslo, P.O. Box 1068 Blindern, 0316 Oslo,
Norway
| | - Stig Pedersen-Bjergaard
- School of Pharmacy, University of Oslo, P.O. Box 1068 Blindern, 0316 Oslo,
Norway
- Department of Pharmaceutics
and Analytical Chemistry, Faculty of Health and Medical Sciences, University of Copenhagen, Universitetsparken 2, DK-2100
Copenhagen, Denmark
| | - Astrid Gjelstad
- School of Pharmacy, University of Oslo, P.O. Box 1068 Blindern, 0316 Oslo,
Norway
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38
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Domínguez NC, Gjelstad A, Nadal AM, Jensen H, Petersen NJ, Hansen SH, Rasmussen KE, Pedersen-Bjergaard S. Selective electromembrane extraction at low voltages based on analyte polarity and charge. J Chromatogr A 2012; 1248:48-54. [DOI: 10.1016/j.chroma.2012.05.092] [Citation(s) in RCA: 55] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/07/2012] [Revised: 04/30/2012] [Accepted: 05/26/2012] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
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39
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Jamt REG, Gjelstad A, Eibak LEE, Øiestad EL, Christophersen AS, Rasmussen KE, Pedersen-Bjergaard S. Electromembrane extraction of stimulating drugs from undiluted whole blood. J Chromatogr A 2012; 1232:27-36. [DOI: 10.1016/j.chroma.2011.08.058] [Citation(s) in RCA: 56] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/14/2011] [Revised: 08/11/2011] [Accepted: 08/12/2011] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
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40
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Eibak LEE, Gjelstad A, Rasmussen KE, Pedersen-Bjergaard S. Exhaustive electromembrane extraction of some basic drugs from human plasma followed by liquid chromatography–mass spectrometry. J Pharm Biomed Anal 2012; 57:33-8. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jpba.2011.08.026] [Citation(s) in RCA: 68] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/24/2011] [Revised: 08/04/2011] [Accepted: 08/13/2011] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
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41
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Seip KF, Stigsson J, Gjelstad A, Balchen M, Pedersen-Bjergaard S. Electromembrane extraction of peptides - Fundamental studies on the supported liquid membrane. J Sep Sci 2011; 34:3410-7. [DOI: 10.1002/jssc.201100558] [Citation(s) in RCA: 44] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/29/2011] [Revised: 08/08/2011] [Accepted: 09/09/2011] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
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42
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Gjelstad A, Rasmussen KE, Pedersen-Bjergaard S. Electromembrane extraction of basic drugs from untreated human plasma and whole blood under physiological pH conditions. Anal Bioanal Chem 2008; 393:921-8. [DOI: 10.1007/s00216-008-2344-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 123] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/26/2008] [Revised: 08/06/2008] [Accepted: 08/08/2008] [Indexed: 12/01/2022]
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43
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Middelthon-Bruer TM, Gjelstad A, Rasmussen KE, Pedersen-Bjergaard S. Parameters affecting electro membrane extraction of basic drugs. J Sep Sci 2008; 31:753-9. [DOI: 10.1002/jssc.200700502] [Citation(s) in RCA: 132] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
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44
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Kjelsen IJØ, Gjelstad A, Rasmussen KE, Pedersen-Bjergaard S. Low-voltage electromembrane extraction of basic drugs from biological samples. J Chromatogr A 2008; 1180:1-9. [DOI: 10.1016/j.chroma.2007.12.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 134] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/15/2007] [Revised: 11/28/2007] [Accepted: 12/03/2007] [Indexed: 10/22/2022]
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45
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Gjelstad A, Rasmussen KE, Pedersen-Bjergaard S. Simulation of flux during electro-membrane extraction based on the Nernst–Planck equation. J Chromatogr A 2007; 1174:104-11. [PMID: 17850807 DOI: 10.1016/j.chroma.2007.08.057] [Citation(s) in RCA: 176] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/13/2007] [Revised: 08/23/2007] [Accepted: 08/27/2007] [Indexed: 10/22/2022]
Abstract
The present work has for the first time described and verified a theoretical model of the analytical extraction process electro-membrane extraction (EME), where target analytes are extracted from an aqueous sample, through a thin layer of 2-nitrophenyl octylether immobilized as a supported liquid membrane (SLM) in the pores in the wall of a porous hollow fibre, and into an acceptor solution present inside the lumen of the hollow fibre by the application of an electrical potential difference. The mathematical model was based on the Nernst-Planck equation, and described the flux over the SLM. The model demonstrated that the magnitude of the electrical potential difference, the ion balance of the system, and the absolute temperature influenced the flux of analyte across the SLM. These conclusions were verified by experimental data with five basic drugs. The flux was strongly dependent of the potential difference over the SLM, and increased potential difference resulted in an increase in the flux. The ion balance, defined as the sum of ions in the donor solution divided by the sum of ions in the acceptor solution, was shown to influence the flux, and high ionic concentration in the acceptor solution relative to the sample solution was advantageous for high flux. Different temperatures also led to changes in the flux in the EME system.
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46
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Gjelstad A, Andersen TM, Rasmussen KE, Pedersen-Bjergaard S. Microextraction across supported liquid membranes forced by pH gradients and electrical fields. J Chromatogr A 2007; 1157:38-45. [PMID: 17521660 DOI: 10.1016/j.chroma.2007.05.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 141] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/26/2007] [Revised: 04/30/2007] [Accepted: 05/02/2007] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
Abstract
The present work has for the first time compared extraction of basic analytes across a supported liquid membrane (SLM) based on (1) passive diffusion in a pH gradient sustained over the SLM and (2) electrokinetic migration in an electrical field sustained over the SLM. For the passive diffusion experiments, performed as liquid-phase microextraction (LPME), five basic drugs were extracted under strong agitation from alkaline samples (10mM NaOH), through 2-nitrophenyl octylether immobilized in the pores of a porous hollow fibre of polypropylene (SLM), and into 25 microl of 10mM HCl as the acceptor solution. The experiments based on electrokinetic migration, performed as electro membrane isolation (EMI), were conducted under strong agitation from acidic samples (10mM HCl), through the same SLM as in LPME, and into 25 microl of 10mM HCl as the acceptor solution. Whereas LPME relied on diffusion and to some extent also convection as the principal mechanisms of mass transfer, mass transfer in EMI also included a strong contribution from electrokinetic migration. Thus, extraction kinetics was improved by a factor between 6 and 17 utilizing EMI instead of LPME. This major difference in terms of speed was especially pronounced from small sample volumes (150 microl), and suggest that EMI may be a very interesting future concept for miniaturized sample preparation. In addition to improved extraction kinetics, extraction rates were strongly compound dependent in EMI, opening the possibility to control the extraction selectivity by the extraction time.
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Balchen M, Gjelstad A, Rasmussen KE, Pedersen-Bjergaard S. Electrokinetic migration of acidic drugs across a supported liquid membrane. J Chromatogr A 2007; 1152:220-5. [PMID: 17126351 DOI: 10.1016/j.chroma.2006.10.096] [Citation(s) in RCA: 205] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/08/2006] [Revised: 10/25/2006] [Accepted: 10/30/2006] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
Electrokinetic cross membrane extraction of acidic drugs was demonstrated for the first time. The acidic drugs were extracted from an alkaline aqueous donor solution (300 microl), through a thin supported liquid membrane of 1-heptanol sustained in the pores of the wall of a porous hollow fiber, and into an aqueous alkaline acceptor solution (30 microl) present inside the lumen of the hollow fiber by the application of a d.c. electrical potential. The negative electrode was placed in the donor solution, and the positive electrode was placed in the acceptor solution. Optimal extractions were accomplished with 1-heptanol as the supported liquid membrane, with 50 V as the driving force, and with pH 12.0 in both the donor and acceptor solutions, respectively (NaOH). Equilibrium extraction conditions were obtained after 5 min of operation with the whole assembly agitated at 1200 rpm. Eleven different acidic drugs were extracted with recovery values between 8 and 100%, and initial data supported that electrokinetic cross membrane extraction provided repeatable data and linear response between original donor concentration and final acceptor concentration of the acidic model compounds.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marte Balchen
- School of Pharmacy, University of Oslo, Blindern, 0316 Oslo, Norway
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48
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Gjelstad A, Rasmussen KE, Pedersen-Bjergaard S. Electrokinetic migration across artificial liquid membranes. J Chromatogr A 2006; 1124:29-34. [PMID: 16696986 DOI: 10.1016/j.chroma.2006.04.039] [Citation(s) in RCA: 193] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/10/2006] [Revised: 04/21/2006] [Accepted: 04/21/2006] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
Abstract
Twenty different basic drugs were electrokinetically extracted across a thin artificial organic liquid membrane with a 300 V d.c. electrical potential difference as the driving force. From a 300 microl aqueous sample (acidified corresponding to 10mM HCl), the drugs were extracted for 5 min through a 200 microm artificial liquid membrane of a water immiscible organic solvent immobilized in the pores of a polypropylene hollow fiber, and into a 30 microl aqueous acceptor solution of 10mM HCl inside the lumen of the hollow fiber. Hydrophobic basic drugs (logP>1.7) were effectively isolated utilizing 2-nitrophenyl octyl ether (NPOE) as the artificial liquid membrane, with recoveries up to 83%. For more hydrophilic basic drugs (logP<1.0), a mixture of NPOE and 25% (w/w) di-(2-ethylhexyl) phosphate (DEHP) was required to ensure efficient extraction, resulting in recoveries up to 75%. DEHP was expected to act as an ion-pair reagent ion-pairing the protonated hydrophilic drugs at the interface between the sample and the membrane, resulting in permeation of the interface.
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Affiliation(s)
- Astrid Gjelstad
- School of Pharmacy, University of Oslo, P.O. Box 1068, Blindern, 0316 Oslo, Norway
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49
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Reubsaet JLE, Loftheim H, Gjelstad A. Ion-pair mediated transport of angiotensin, neurotensin, and their metabolites in liquid phase microextraction under acidic conditions. J Sep Sci 2005; 28:1204-10. [PMID: 16116998 DOI: 10.1002/jssc.200500092] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/10/2022]
Abstract
This paper discusses the behaviour of angiotensin 1 and neurotensin together with their metabolites in a three-phase liquid phase microextraction under acidic conditions. Variations in donor phase, organic phase, and acceptor phase are studied with extraction recovery as response variable. It is proved that for all peptides the transport across the organic phase is mediated by heptane-1-sulphonic acid. n-Octanol gave overall best results as organic phase. A donor phase volume of 1.0 mL was chosen as a compromise between optimal recovery and robustness of the LPME device. The optimal pH of the donor phase (using acceptor phase of pH 2) was found to be different for the peptides, which opens opportunities for selective sample preparation. Decreasing the acceptor phase pH to 1.0 resulted in increased extraction recoveries. On using 1.0 mL of donor phase containing 50 mM heptane-1-sulphonic acid pH 3, n-octanol as organic phase immobilized in the pores of the fibre, and 20 microL of acceptor phase containing 0.1 mol/L HCl, extraction recoveries up to 82% (enrichment factor = 41) were achieved. To our knowledge this is the first report on liquid phase microextraction of angiotensins and neurotensins.
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Affiliation(s)
- J Léon E Reubsaet
- Department of Pharmaceutical Analysis, School of Pharmacy, University of Oslo, Oslo, Norway.
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