Hepatitis C Core Protein Induces a Genotype-Specific Susceptibility of Hepatocytes to TNF-Induced Death In Vitro and In Vivo

Hepatitis C virus (HCV) core protein is a multifunctional protein that is involved in the proliferation, inflammation, and apoptosis mechanism of hepatocytes. HCV core protein genetic variability has been implicated in various outcomes of HCV pathology and treatment. In the present study, we aimed to analyze the role of the HCV core protein in tumor necrosis factor α (TNFα)-induced death under the viewpoint of HCV genetic variability. Immortalized hepatocytes (IHH), and not the Huh 7.5 hepatoma cell line, stably expressing HCV subtype 4a and HCV subtype 4f core proteins showed that only the HCV 4a core protein could increase sensitivity to TNFα-induced death. Development of two transgenic mice expressing the two different core proteins under the liver-specific promoter of transthyretin (TTR) allowed for the in vivo assessment of the role of the core in TNFα-induced death. Using the TNFα-dependent model of lipopolysaccharide/D-galactosamine (LPS/Dgal), we were able to recapitulate the in vitro results in IHH cells in vivo. Transgenic mice expressing the HCV 4a core protein were more susceptible to the LPS/Dgal model, while mice expressing the HCV 4f core protein had the same susceptibility as their littermate controls. Transcriptome analysis in liver biopsies from these transgenic mice gave insights into HCV core molecular pathogenesis while linking HCV core protein genetic variability to differential pathology in vivo.

Targeting the YXXΦ Motifs of the SARS Coronaviruses 1 and 2 ORF3a Peptides by In Silico Analysis to Predict Novel Virus-Host Interactions

The emerging SARS-CoV and SARS-CoV-2 belong to the family of "common cold" RNA coronaviruses, and they are responsible for the 2003 epidemic and the current pandemic with over 6.3 M deaths worldwide. The ORF3a gene is conserved in both viruses and codes for the accessory protein ORF3a, with unclear functions, possibly related to viral virulence and pathogenesis. The tyrosine-based YXXΦ motif (Φ: bulky hydrophobic residue-L/I/M/V/F) was originally discovered to mediate clathrin-dependent endocytosis of membrane-spanning proteins. Many viruses employ the YXXΦ motif to achieve efficient receptor-guided internalisation in host cells, maintain the structural integrity of their capsids and enhance viral replication. Importantly, this motif has been recently identified on the ORF3a proteins of SARS-CoV and SARS-CoV-2. Given that the ORF3a aa sequence is not fully conserved between the two SARS viruses, we aimed to map in silico structural differences and putative sequence-driven alterations of regulatory elements within and adjacently to the YXXΦ motifs that could predict variations in ORF3a functions. Using robust bioinformatics tools, we investigated the presence of relevant post-translational modifications and the YXXΦ motif involvement in protein-protein interactions. Our study suggests that the predicted YXXΦ-related features may confer specific-yet to be discovered-functions to ORF3a proteins, significant to the new virus and related to enhanced propagation, host immune regulation and virulence.

HCV Defective Genomes Promote Persistent Infection by Modulating the Viral Life Cycle

Defective interfering (DI) RNAs have been detected in several human viruses. HCV in-frame deletions mutants (IFDMs), missing mainly the envelope proteins, have been found in patient sera and liver tissues. IFDMs replicate independently and can be trans-packaged into infectious virions in the presence of full length viral genome. So far, their biological role is unclear. In this study, we have isolated and cloned IFDMs from sera samples and liver tissues of patients infected with HCV genotypes 1b, 2a, and 3a. IFDMs were present in up to 26% of samples tested. Using the in vitro HCV cell culture system, co-expression of the wild type (wt) HCV replicon with HCV IFDMs RNA resulted in increased HCV replication. Additionally, co-transfection of the HCV full length genome RNA and a defective mutant missing the envelope region led to increased viral release, collectively suggesting an important biological role for IFDMs in the virus life cycle. Recently, exosomes, masters of intercellular communication, have been implicated in the transport of HCV viral genomes. We report for the first time that exosomal RNA isolated from HCV sera samples contains HCV defective genomes. We also demonstrate that inhibition of exosomal biogenesis and release influences HCV viral replication. Overall, we provide evidence that the presence of HCV IFDMs affects both viral replication and release. IFDMs exploit exosomes as means of transport, a way to evade the immune system, to spread more efficiently and possibly maintain persistent infection.

The unexpected function of a highly conserved YXXΦ motif in HCV core protein

Hepatitis C virus (HCV) is an RNA positive strand virus, member of the Flaviviridae family. The HCV viral particle is composed of a capsid containing the genome, surrounded by an endoplasmic reticulum (ER)-derived lipid bilayer where E1 and E2 are assembled as heterodimers. However, different forms of viral particles have been identified in the serum of HCV-infected patients, including non-enveloped particles. Previous reports have demonstrated that HCV non-enveloped capsid-like particles (HCVne) can be generated by HCV core protein sequence. This sequence possesses a highly conserved ΥΧΧΦ motif and distal di-leucine motifs that confer primary endocytosis signals, enabling HCVne to enter hepatic cells via clathrin-mediated endocytosis. Although HCV core's primary function is to encapsidate the viral genome, it also interacts with a variety of cellular proteins in order to regulate host cell functions such as gene transcription, lipid metabolism, apoptosis and several signaling pathways. In this report, we demonstrate that the YXXΦ motif of HCV core protein is crucial for the architectural integrity of the particulate form of HCVne. Moreover, we show that the YXXΦ motif in the HCV core sequence plays a pivotal role in the signaling events following HCVne clathrin-mediated endocytosis by inducing the AP-2 clathrin adaptor protein, which in turn redirect HCVne trafficking to the lipid droplets (LDs) via the endosomal-lysosomal pathway. HCVne and LDs co-localization affects the HCV life cycle by enhancing viral replication.

Detection of specific antibodies to HCV-ARF/CORE+1 protein in patients treated with pegylated interferon plus ribavirin

Hepatitis C virus (HCV) infection is a major cause for chronic liver disease and hepatocellular carcinoma. The HCV-ARF/core+1 protein is an alternative product of HCV core-encoding sequence of unknown biological function. Highly purified HCV core and ARF/core+1 recombinant proteins from HCV genotype 1a and HCV-ARF/core+1 recombinant protein from HCV genotype 3a were expressed in Escherichia coli. Using an enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay, we assessed the prevalence of anti-ARF/core+1 antibodies in 90 chronic hepatitis C patients infected with HCV genotypes 1a/1b or 3a, treated with pegylated interferon (Peg-IFN-a-2a) plus ribavirin. Samples derived from 92 healthy blood donors were used as negative controls. All HCV-RNA-positive serum samples reacted with core 1a antigen, while 15 (37.5%) of 40 and 14 (28%) of 50 patients infected with HCV-1a/1b and HCV-3a, respectively, were found to have anti-ARF/core+1 antibodies into their serum before treatment initiation. These antibodies were persistently present during treatment follow-up and linked to elevated levels of HCV-RNA at baseline.

High levels of HCV core+1 antibodies in HCV patients with hepatocellular carcinoma

The core region of the hepatitis C virus (HCV) genome possesses an overlapping ORF that has been shown to encode a protein, known as the alternate reading frame protein (ARFP), F or core+1. The biological role of this protein remains elusive, as it appears to be non-essential for virus replication. However, a number of independent studies have shown that the ARFP/F/core+1 protein elicits humoral and cellular immune responses in HCV-infected individuals and interacts with important cellular proteins. To assess the significance of the core+1 humoral response in HCV-infected patients, we examined the prevalence of anti-core+1 antibodies in sera from patients with hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) in comparison with chronically HCV-infected individuals without HCC. We produced two HCV core+1 histidine-tagged recombinant proteins for genotypes 1a (aa 11–160) and 1b (aa 11–144), as well as a non-tagged highly purified recombinant core+1/S protein (aa 85–144) of HCV-1b. Using an in-house ELISA, we tested the prevalence of core+1 antibodies in 45 patients with HCC in comparison with 47 chronically HCV-infected patients without HCC and 77 negative-control sera. More than 50 % of the serum samples from HCC patients reacted with all core+1 antigens, whereas <26 % of the sera from the non-HCC HCV-infected individuals tested positive. No core+1-specific reactivity was detected in any of the control samples. In conclusion, the high occurrence of anti-core+1 antibodies in the serum of HCC patients suggests a role for the ARFP/F/core+1 protein in the pathogenesis of HCC.

Mutational analysis of two unstructured domains of the 5' untranslated region of HCV RNA

Translation initiation of hepatitis C virus (HCV) RNA genome is mediated by an internal ribosome entry site (IRES). To further comprehend the mechanism of translation initiation of HCV RNA, we investigated the importance of two unstructured, highly conserved, single-stranded pyrimidine-rich sequences located immediately upstream of domain II (nt38-43) and between domains II and III (nt120-125) in HCV translation. A series of defined mutations was engineered and introduced into a dicistronic vector in order to assess their impact on in vitro translation. Our data indicated that nucleotide sequence 38-43 is not essential for HCV translation. In contrast, mutational analysis of the second sequence motif (nt120-125) suggested that this region was important for maintaining the proper structure within the IRES element although the primary sequence itself was not critical for IRES function. More importantly, it appeared that mutations which allowed juxtaposition of neighboring bases (nt112-119) to the pseudoknot structure, were detrimental to translation initiation.

Genital papillomavirus in Greek women with high-grade cervical intraepithelial neoplasia and cervical carcinoma

Fifty biopsies from high-grade squamous intraepithelial lesions (HG-SIL) and 14 cervical carcinoma biopsies from Greek women were screened for the presence of human papillomavirus (HPV) DNA sequences by Southern blot hybridization and by the polymerase chain reaction (PCR) for the presence of different HPV types. In high-grade SIL, HPV DNA sequences were detected in 44 of 50 biopsies with the following distribution: 36% HPV 16, 12% HPV 18, 6% HPV 31, 6% HPV 33, 4% HPV 51, and 24% unclassified HPV types. In cervical carcinoma biopsies, 13 of 14 specimens were positive for HPV DNA sequences. Six biopsies were positive for HPV 16, three were positive for HPV 18, and four contained unclassified HPV types. Overall, of the total 64 biopsies, 57 (89%) were positive for HPV DNA sequences. Of these, Southern blot hybridization alone detected HPV DNA sequences in 39 cases, whereas by PCR 18 additional specimens were found to be positive for HPV. Among the HPV 16-positive biopsies, two samples produced a Pstl banding pattern very similar but not identical to that of HPV 16 prototype and were referred to as HPV 16 isolates. One HPV 16 isolate appears to carry a mutation within the carboxy-terminal half of the L2 gene that results in the loss of a Pstl site. The other HPV 16 isolate had a similar Pstl banding pattern to that previously reported as HPV 16 "variant" found in Cape Town [Williamson et al., 1989, Journal of Medical Virology 28: 146-149, 1994, Journal of Medical Virology 43: 231-237.] and in Italy [Li Vigni et al., 1994, 2nd International Congress of Papillomavirus in Human Pathology (Abstracts), p 100.].

Characterization of the US8.5 protein of herpes simplex virus

In a previous study a novel gene designated as US8.5 was identified in the unique short component of the herpes simplex virus type 1 (HSV1) genome. Epitope tagging experiments suggested the existence of a protein encoded by this gene in HSV1 infected cells. To further analyze the US8.5 gene product and function, a rabbit polyclonal antiserum was raised against a recombinant beta-galactosidase-US8.5 fusion protein expressed in E. coli. This antiserum reacted specifically with a 19 kDa protein in HSV1(F) infected cells as shown by immunoblotting and immunoprecipitation experiments. In addition, using the same antiserum a 21 kDa protein was detected in lysates from cells infected with HSV2(G), which was most likely the HSV2 homolog of US8.5. Kinetic studies indicated that US8.5 is expressed as gamma 1 gene. In addition, the US8.5 protein was immunoprecipitated with the anti-US8.5 serum from 32P-labeled lysates of Vero cells infected with HSV1, demonstrating that the protein is phosphorylated. Immunofluorescence studies localized the US8.5 protein to the nucleoli of HSV1 infected cells.

Expression of the herpes simplex virus type 1 glycoprotein E in human cells and in Escherichia coli: protection studies against lethal viral infection in mice

The objective of this study was to examine the protective efficacy of purified recombinant herpes simplex virus type 1 (HSV-1) glycoprotein E (gE-1) in the mouse lethal challenge model. A secreted form of gE-1 (hgE-1s) protein, containing amino acids 1-406, was produced in human cells by using the episomal replicating pRP-RSV expression vector. In addition, a portion of the gE-1 (bgE-1t) protein corresponding to amino acids 90-406, was expressed in Escherichia coli as a fusion protein with maltose binding protein using the pMAL-c2 expression vector. Mice vaccinated with hgE-1s developed high serum titres of HSV-1-neutralizing antibodies and were significantly protected from intraperitoneal lethal HSV-1 challenge, whereas mice vaccinated with bgE-1t exhibited only moderate levels of protective immunity. These results demonstrate that the expression of gE-1 in human cells has a strong impact on its protective efficacy and that most importantly the hgE-1s protein could be of values as a component of an HSV multi-subunit vaccine.

Escherichia coli expressed herpes simplex virus gG1 and gG2 proteins in ELISA and immunoblotting assays

The type 1 and type 2 glycoprotein G (gG1 and gG2) of herpes simplex virus (HSV) were expressed in Escherichia coli as fusion proteins with the maltose binding protein (MBP) using the pMAL-c2 expression vector. The MBP-gG1 fusion protein contains all but the four amino acids from the amino-terminus of gG1, whereas the MBP-gG2 fusion protein was missing the first 30 amino acids that comprise the signal peptide of the protein. The diagnostic value of these antigens was examined by two methods: (1) immunoblot assay based on MBP-gG1 and MBP-gG2 fusion proteins present in crude E. coli cell extracts and (2) enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) of immunoaffinity-purified recombinant MBP-gG1 and MBP-gG2 fusion proteins. Of 28 serum samples known to have antibody to HSV-1 (10 specimens positive for HSV-1 alone and 18 specimens positive for mixed antibody to HSV-1/HSV-2), 27 were reactive to the MBP-gG1 recombinant protein both in ELISA and in immunoblotting. In addition, of 20 serum samples known to have antibody to HSV-2 (2 specimens positive for HSV-2 alone and 18 samples positive for mixed antibody to HSV-1/HSV-2), 15 were found to be reactive to the MBP-gG2 recombinant protein by ELISA and 16 by immunoblotting. None of the 13 HSV-antibody-negative serum samples showed reactivity to the MBP-gG1 or MBP-gG2 antigens by either assay. Moreover, none of the serum samples known to have antibody to HSV-1 alone showed reactivity to the MBP-gG2 recombinant antigen. This study verified the potential application of the E. coli-expressed recombinant gG1 and gG2 proteins as diagnostic antigens and demonstrated the MBP fusion system to be a simple and effective method of producing adequate amounts of low-cost, easily purified gG antigens.

Immunohistochemical study of the ras oncogene expression in human bladder endoscopy specimens

We have used the monoclonal antibody Y13 259 to the ras oncogene p21 protein product in 42 endoscopy specimens from the bladder of 37 patients, in order to determine the ras oncogene expression in different conditions of the urothelium. The examined material included: 27 normal and hyperplastic or dysplastic mucosae and 13 papillomas and transitional cell carcinomas, graded according to Mostofi's classification. Our results showed the following: the normal urothelium sections tended to be negative, while the umbrella cells from the superficial layer always expressed a higher degree of positivity. The majority of the hyperplastic lesions and the papillomas were weakly positive or negative. In contrast, all the dysplastic lesions and the carcinomas of different grades were strongly positive. Our results suggest that elevated expression of ras oncogene may serve as an early marker in the pathogenesis of bladder lesions.

Ras p21 onco-protein in the sera of mice carrying an experimentally induced tumor and in human cancer patients

We have established a model system to detect the presence of ras p21 in the sera of Balb/c mice carrying tumors induced by a mouse cell line transformed with the Harvey murine sarcoma virus in the presence of a helper Friend murine leukemia virus. As determined by ELISA and immunoblot assays, ras p21 in the serum increased with increased tumor growth. Since ras genes have been found to be frequently activated in human tumours, we examined the levels of ras p21 in the sera of a variety of human cancer patients. In only 3 out of 13 cases, representing patients with adenocarcinomas of the stomach receiving chemotherapy, was ras p21 detected at elevated levels, whereas in patients with the following types of cancer no substantial change in serum ras p21 was observed; nine with breast, 5 colon, 5 lung, 5 ovarian and 5 hepatocellular carcinomas.

In vitro and in vivo onco-suppressor activity of normal cells on cells transformed with the H-ras1 oncogene

We have investigated mixed cultures of "normal" early passage Balb/c embryo cells and Balb/c 3T3 cells transformed by the human T24 H-ras1 oncogene. The presence of an excess of "Normal" cells could suppress the phenotype of transformed cells in vitro. A similar type of suppression by normal cells could be shown in vivo on tumors induced by Balb/c 3T3 transformed cells. The suppressing effect of normal cells on T24 H-ras1 transformed cells could also be demonstrated by DNA synthesis inhibition experiments. It is suggested that normal cells could either carry or induce tumor inhibitory substances.

Expression of ras and myc oncogenes in human hepatocellular carcinoma and non-neoplastic liver tissues

An immunohistochemical assay was used to assess expression of ras p21 and myc p62 oncogene products in human hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) and non-neoplastic liver tissues. The monoclonal antibodies Y13 259 and Myc1-9E10, specific for ras p21 and myc p62 oncoproteins, were employed on paraffin-embedded sections. Most HCCs showed enhanced ras p21 and myc p62 expression, as indicated by staining intensity. Cirrhotic livers revealed increased myc p62 and occasionally increased ras p21 expression. HBsAg+ hepatocytes showed intense immunostaining for ras p21. Fibrotic, cholestatic, fetal and normal adult liver did not present enhancement of oncoprotein production. We suggest that combined over-expression of ras and myc oncoproteins may be important for the malignant phenotypic alteration in human HCC.

Elevated expression of the myc gene in human benign and malignant breast lesions compared to normal tissue

Expression of the c-myc gene in human breast lesions and in adjacent normal tissue was studied by immunohistochemical analysis. The previously described monoclonal antibody Myc1-9E10 (1) which recognizes the p62 c-myc protein was used in paraffin tissue sections. A total of 101 cases of breast disease examined included 38 simple and complex cystic disease, 18 simple and hyperplastic fibroadenomas, 36 ductal and lobular carcinomas and 9 in situ carcinomas. Whereas the adjacent normal tissue was slightly positive, 25 out of 38 cystic disease, 7 out of 18 fibroadenoma, 36 out of 36 carcinoma and 9 out of 9 in situ carcinoma specimens showed moderate to high levels of p62 c-myc expression as indicated by staining intensity. These results suggest that the c-myc protein may play a role in breast neoplasia.