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Ochomo E, Rund SSC, Mthawanji RS, Antonio-Nkondjio C, Machani M, Samake S, Wolie RZ, Nsango S, Lown LA, Matoke-Muhia D, Kamau L, Lukyamuzi E, Njeri J, Chabi J, Akrofi OO, Ntege C, Mero V, Mwalimu C, Kiware S, Bilgo E, Traoré MM, Afrane Y, Hakizimana E, Muleba M, Orefuwa E, Chaki P, Juma EO. Mosquito control by abatement programmes in the United States: perspectives and lessons for countries in sub-Saharan Africa. Malar J 2024; 23:8. [PMID: 38178145 PMCID: PMC10768238 DOI: 10.1186/s12936-023-04829-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/10/2023] [Accepted: 12/21/2023] [Indexed: 01/06/2024] Open
Abstract
Africa and the United States are both large, heterogeneous geographies with a diverse range of ecologies, climates and mosquito species diversity which contribute to disease transmission and nuisance biting. In the United States, mosquito control is nationally, and regionally coordinated and in so much as the Centers for Disease Control (CDC) provides guidance, the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) provides pesticide registration, and the states provide legal authority and oversight, the implementation is usually decentralized to the state, county, or city level. Mosquito control operations are organized, in most instances, into fully independent mosquito abatement districts, public works departments, local health departments. In some cases, municipalities engage independent private contractors to undertake mosquito control within their jurisdictions. In sub-Saharan Africa (SSA), where most vector-borne disease endemic countries lie, mosquito control is organized centrally at the national level. In this model, the disease control programmes (national malaria control programmes or national malaria elimination programmes (NMCP/NMEP)) are embedded within the central governments' ministries of health (MoHs) and drive vector control policy development and implementation. Because of the high disease burden and limited resources, the primary endpoint of mosquito control in these settings is reduction of mosquito borne diseases, primarily, malaria. In the United States, however, the endpoint is mosquito control, therefore, significant (or even greater) emphasis is laid on nuisance mosquitoes as much as disease vectors. The authors detail experiences and learnings gathered by the delegation of African vector control professionals that participated in a formal exchange programme initiated by the Pan-African Mosquito Control Association (PAMCA), the University of Notre Dame, and members of the American Mosquito Control Association (AMCA), in the United States between the year 2021 and 2022. The authors highlight the key components of mosquito control operations in the United States and compare them to mosquito control programmes in SSA countries endemic for vector-borne diseases, deriving important lessons that could be useful for vector control in SSA.
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Affiliation(s)
- Eric Ochomo
- Entomology Department, Centre for Global Health Research, Kenya Medical Research Institute, Kisumu, Kenya.
- Vector Control Products Unit, Researchworld Limited, Kisumu, Kenya.
| | | | - Rosheen S Mthawanji
- Vector Biology Group, Malawi Liverpool Wellcome Trust Clinical Research Programme, Blantyre, Malawi
| | - Christophe Antonio-Nkondjio
- Organisation de Coordination Pour la lutte contre les Endémies en Afrique centrale (OCEAC), Yaounde, Cameroon
| | - Maxwell Machani
- Entomology Department, Centre for Global Health Research, Kenya Medical Research Institute, Kisumu, Kenya
| | | | - Rosine Z Wolie
- Vector Control Product Evaluation Centre - Institut Pierre Richet (VCPEC-IPR), Institut National de Santé Publique (INSP), Bouaké, Côte d'Ivoire
- Unité de Formation et de Recherche des Sciences de la Nature, Université Nangui Abrogoua, Abdijan, Côte d'Ivoire
| | - Sandrine Nsango
- Faculty of Medicine and Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Douala, Douala, Cameroon
- Centre Pasteur in Cameroon, Yaounde, Cameroon
| | | | - Damaris Matoke-Muhia
- Pan-African Mosquito Control Association (PAMCA), KEMRI Headquarters, Nairobi, Kenya
- Centre for Biotechnology Research and Development, Kenya Medical Research Institute, Nairobi, Kenya
| | - Luna Kamau
- Centre for Biotechnology Research and Development, Kenya Medical Research Institute, Nairobi, Kenya
| | - Edward Lukyamuzi
- Pan-African Mosquito Control Association (PAMCA), KEMRI Headquarters, Nairobi, Kenya
| | - Jane Njeri
- Pan-African Mosquito Control Association (PAMCA), KEMRI Headquarters, Nairobi, Kenya
| | | | | | - Charles Ntege
- National Malaria Control Division Ministry of Health, Kampala, Uganda
| | - Victor Mero
- Ifakara Health Institute (IHI), Dar es Salaam, Tanzania
| | | | - Samson Kiware
- Pan-African Mosquito Control Association (PAMCA), KEMRI Headquarters, Nairobi, Kenya
- Ifakara Health Institute (IHI), Dar es Salaam, Tanzania
| | - Etienne Bilgo
- Institut de Recherche en Sciences de la Sante (IRSS) Direction regionale de l'Ouest, Bobo Dioulasso, Burkina Faso
| | - Mohamed Moumine Traoré
- Malaria Research and Training Centre, Faculty of Medicine, Pharmacy and Odonto-Stomatology, University of Sciences, Techniques and Technology of Bamako, BP 1805, Bamako, Mali
| | - Yaw Afrane
- Department of Medical Microbiology, University of Ghana Medical School, College of Health Sciences, University of Ghana, Accra, Ghana
| | - Emmanuel Hakizimana
- Malaria and Other Parasitic Diseases Division, Rwanda Biomedical Centre (RBC), Ministry of Health, Kigali, Rwanda
- Pan-African Mosquito Control Organization (PAMCO), Rwanda Chapter, Kigali, Rwanda
| | | | - Emma Orefuwa
- Pan-African Mosquito Control Association (PAMCA), KEMRI Headquarters, Nairobi, Kenya
| | - Prosper Chaki
- Pan-African Mosquito Control Association (PAMCA), KEMRI Headquarters, Nairobi, Kenya
| | - Elijah Omondi Juma
- Pan-African Mosquito Control Association (PAMCA), KEMRI Headquarters, Nairobi, Kenya
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Kamala B, Mwingizi D, Dadi D, Loll D, Gitanya P, Mwalimu C, Chacky F, Kajange S, Malima S, Khamis M, Ibrahim R, Serbantez N, Msangi L, Koenker H. Trends in retail sales of insecticide-treated nets and untreated nets in Tanzania: cross-section surveys. Malar J 2023; 22:296. [PMID: 37794466 PMCID: PMC10552209 DOI: 10.1186/s12936-023-04726-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/09/2023] [Accepted: 09/25/2023] [Indexed: 10/06/2023] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND The commercial sector plays a vital role in mosquito net ownership and access in Tanzania. The National Malaria Strategic Plan (NMSP) includes long-lasting insecticidal nets (LLIN) delivery through the commercial sector as a complementary mechanism. The NMSP aims to increase LLIN sales while decreasing untreated mosquito net sales. This survey aimed to track quantities, market share of different net categories, prices, and origins of mosquito nets in retail markets and to engage stakeholders to analyse market trends. METHODS This mixed-method mosquito net retail outlet survey was conducted in mid-2021 in six and in mid-2022 in eight regions. Field teams identified net-selling outlets in major urban and peri-urban markets and used snowball sampling to identify additional outlets. A structured questionnaire was used, and photos of available mosquito net products were taken. Key informant interviews were conducted with wholesalers and retailers. The relative market share of a product was calculated by using the mean of each sales category as frequency weights. Qualitative data analysis was undertaken by summarizing common themes and observations based on the research question. RESULTS A total of 394 and 1139 outlets were surveyed in 2021 and 2022, respectively. More than 96% of distributed brands in both years were untreated nets. The market share for untreated mosquito nets was 99.2% in 2021 and 88.3% in 2022. Bed net sales were seasonal, peaking in the rainy season and at the start of the school year. Leaked LLINs from the public sector comprised 0.3% of the market share in 2021 and 8.3% in 2022. Kigoma markets had the most significant frequency of leaked LLIN products. Legitimate LLINs were rare in 2021 (n = 2) and not found in 2022, despite the presence of a local LLIN manufacturer. A small number (n = 3) of untreated nets fabricated in China claiming to be LLINs were observed in 2022. CONCLUSIONS Despite NMCP's strategic approach to increasing retail market share for legitimate LLINs, significant challenges remain. Efforts are needed to change the current situation given the context of large-scale public sector distributions of LLINs, the higher consumer cost of LLINs, the lack of bed net varieties. Improvement of registration process is recommended.
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Affiliation(s)
- Benjamin Kamala
- USAID Tanzania Vector Control Activity, Johns Hopkins University Center for Communication Programs, Dar es Salaam, Tanzania.
- Muhimbili University of Health and Allied Sciences, Dar es Salaam, Tanzania.
| | - Deo Mwingizi
- USAID Tanzania Vector Control Activity, Johns Hopkins University Center for Communication Programs, Dar es Salaam, Tanzania
| | - David Dadi
- USAID Tanzania Vector Control Activity, Johns Hopkins University Center for Communication Programs, Dar es Salaam, Tanzania
| | - Dana Loll
- USAID Tanzania Vector Control Activity, Johns Hopkins University Center for Communication Programs, Baltimore, MD, USA
| | - Peter Gitanya
- Tanzania National Malaria Control Program, Ministry of Health, Dodoma, Tanzania
| | - Charles Mwalimu
- Tanzania National Malaria Control Program, Ministry of Health, Dodoma, Tanzania
| | - Frank Chacky
- Tanzania National Malaria Control Program, Ministry of Health, Dodoma, Tanzania
| | - Stella Kajange
- President's Office- Regional Authority and Local Government, Dodoma, Tanzania
| | - Sara Malima
- President's Office- Regional Authority and Local Government, Dodoma, Tanzania
| | - Mwinyi Khamis
- Zanzibar Malaria Elimination Program, Zanzibar, Tanzania
| | - Raya Ibrahim
- Zanzibar Malaria Elimination Program, Zanzibar, Tanzania
| | - Naomi Serbantez
- U.S. President's Malaria Initiative, USAID, Dar es Salaam, Tanzania
| | - Lulu Msangi
- U.S. President's Malaria Initiative, USAID, Dar es Salaam, Tanzania
| | - Hannah Koenker
- USAID Tanzania Vector Control Activity, Tropical Health, Baltimore, MD, USA
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Tungu P, Kabula B, Nkya T, Machafuko P, Sambu E, Batengana B, Sudi W, Derua YA, Mwingira V, Masue D, Malima R, Kitojo C, Serbantez N, Reaves EJ, Mwalimu C, Nhiga SL, Ally M, Mkali HR, Joseph JJ, Chan A, Ngondi J, Lalji S, Nyinondi S, Eckert E, Reithinger R, Magesa S, Kisinza WN. Trends of insecticide resistance monitoring in mainland Tanzania, 2004-2020. Malar J 2023; 22:100. [PMID: 36932400 PMCID: PMC10024418 DOI: 10.1186/s12936-023-04508-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/16/2022] [Accepted: 02/20/2023] [Indexed: 03/19/2023] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Insecticide resistance is a serious threat to the continued effectiveness of insecticide-based malaria vector control measures, such as long-lasting insecticidal nets (LLINs) and indoor residual spraying (IRS). This paper describes trends and dynamics of insecticide resistance and its underlying mechanisms from annual resistance monitoring surveys on Anopheles gambiae sensu lato (s.l.) populations conducted across mainland Tanzania from 2004 to 2020. METHODS The World Health Organization (WHO) standard protocols were used to assess susceptibility of the wild female An. gambiae s.l. mosquitoes to insecticides, with mosquitoes exposed to diagnostic concentrations of permethrin, deltamethrin, lambdacyhalothrin, bendiocarb, and pirimiphos-methyl. WHO test papers at 5× and 10× the diagnostic concentrations were used to assess the intensity of resistance to pyrethroids; synergist tests using piperonyl butoxide (PBO) were carried out in sites where mosquitoes were found to be resistant to pyrethroids. To estimate insecticide resistance trends from 2004 to 2020, percentage mortalities from each site and time point were aggregated and regression analysis of mortality versus the Julian dates of bioassays was performed. RESULTS Percentage of sites with pyrethroid resistance increased from 0% in 2004 to more than 80% in the 2020, suggesting resistance has been spreading geographically. Results indicate a strong negative association (p = 0.0001) between pyrethroids susceptibility status and survey year. The regression model shows that by 2020 over 40% of An. gambiae mosquitoes survived exposure to pyrethroids at their respective diagnostic doses. A decreasing trend of An. gambiae susceptibility to bendiocarb was observed over time, but this was not statistically significant (p = 0.8413). Anopheles gambiae exhibited high level of susceptibility to the pirimiphos-methyl in sampled sites. CONCLUSIONS Anopheles gambiae Tanzania's major malaria vector, is now resistant to pyrethroids across the country with resistance increasing in prevalence and intensity and has been spreading geographically. This calls for urgent action for efficient malaria vector control tools to sustain the gains obtained in malaria control. Strengthening insecticide resistance monitoring is important for its management through evidence generation for effective malaria vector control decision.
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Affiliation(s)
- Patrick Tungu
- National Institute for Medical Research, Amani Medical Research Centre, Muheza, Tanzania.
| | - Bilali Kabula
- National Institute for Medical Research, Amani Medical Research Centre, Muheza, Tanzania
- USAID-Okoa Maisha Dhibiti Malaria Project, RTI International, Dar es Salaam, Tanzania
| | - Theresia Nkya
- University of Dar es Salaam, Dar es Salaam, Tanzania
| | - Pendael Machafuko
- National Institute for Medical Research, Amani Medical Research Centre, Muheza, Tanzania
| | - Edward Sambu
- National Institute for Medical Research, Amani Medical Research Centre, Muheza, Tanzania
| | - Bernard Batengana
- National Institute for Medical Research, Amani Medical Research Centre, Muheza, Tanzania
| | - Wema Sudi
- National Institute for Medical Research, Amani Medical Research Centre, Muheza, Tanzania
| | - Yahaya A Derua
- National Institute for Medical Research, Amani Medical Research Centre, Muheza, Tanzania
| | - Victor Mwingira
- National Institute for Medical Research, Amani Medical Research Centre, Muheza, Tanzania
| | - Denis Masue
- University of Dar es Salaam, Dar es Salaam, Tanzania
| | - Robert Malima
- University of Dar es Salaam, Dar es Salaam, Tanzania
| | - Chonge Kitojo
- U.S. President's Malaria Initiative, U.S. Agency for International Development, Dar es Salaam, Tanzania
| | - Naomi Serbantez
- U.S. President's Malaria Initiative, U.S. Agency for International Development, Dar es Salaam, Tanzania
| | - Erik J Reaves
- U.S. President's Malaria Initiative, U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Dar es Salaam, Tanzania
| | - Charles Mwalimu
- National Malaria Control Programme, Ministry of Health, Community Development, Gender, Elderly and Children, Dodoma, Tanzania
| | - Samwel L Nhiga
- National Malaria Control Programme, Ministry of Health, Community Development, Gender, Elderly and Children, Dodoma, Tanzania
| | - Mohamed Ally
- National Malaria Control Programme, Ministry of Health, Community Development, Gender, Elderly and Children, Dodoma, Tanzania
| | - Humphrey R Mkali
- USAID-Okoa Maisha Dhibiti Malaria Project, RTI International, Dar es Salaam, Tanzania
| | - Joseph J Joseph
- USAID-Okoa Maisha Dhibiti Malaria Project, RTI International, Dar es Salaam, Tanzania
| | - Adeline Chan
- U.S. President's Malaria Initiative, U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Atlanta, USA
| | | | - Shabbir Lalji
- USAID-Okoa Maisha Dhibiti Malaria Project, RTI International, Dar es Salaam, Tanzania
| | - Ssanyu Nyinondi
- USAID-Okoa Maisha Dhibiti Malaria Project, RTI International, Dar es Salaam, Tanzania
| | | | | | - Stephen Magesa
- National Institute for Medical Research, Amani Medical Research Centre, Muheza, Tanzania
| | - William N Kisinza
- National Institute for Medical Research, Amani Medical Research Centre, Muheza, Tanzania
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Sindato C, Malele II, Mwalimu C, Nyingilili HS, Kaboya S, Kombe E. Seasonal epidemiological variation of human African trypanosomiasis in Babati District, Tanzania. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2007. [DOI: 10.4314/thrb.v9i2.14317] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
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Sindato C, Malele II, Mwalimu C, Nyingilili HS, Kaboya S, Kombe E, Msumary C, Manoza A. Seasonal variation in human African trypanosomiasis in Tarangire National Park in Babati district, Tanzania. Tanzan Health Res Bull 2007; 9:136-9. [PMID: 17722418] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/16/2023]
Abstract
A survey was carried out to determine seasonal epidemiological variation of human African trypanosomiasis (HAT) in Tarangire National Park and villages around it in Babati District, Tanzania. Concentration and Field's stain techniques were employed to examine the presence of trypanosomes in human blood samples. Tsetse flies were collected using traps and dissected under light microscope to examine for presence of trypanosomes. Retrospective data on HAT were sought from health facilities. Blood samples were collected from a total 509 individuals (306 during the dry and 203 during wet seasons). None of the individuals was infected with trypanosomes in the area. A total of 766 tsetse flies were collected. Of these, Glossina swynnertoni accounted for 94.6% and G. pallidipes for 5.4% of the total collection. The largest proportion (63.8%) of the tsetse flies was collected during the wet season. Glossina swynnertoni was most abundant tsetse species during both wet and dry seasons. Salivary gland examination revealed the presence of Trypanosoma brucei type of infection in 3.2% of tsetse flies collected. All infective trypanosomes were found during the dry season. This study concludes that the transmission and prevalence of HAT among human population in Tarangire National Pars and its surrounding villages is low despite the recent reports on tourists acquiring the infection during their visits to the Park. However, disease surveillance needs to be strengthened to monitor any impending epidemic.
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Affiliation(s)
- C Sindato
- National Institute for Medical Research, P.O. Box 482, Tabora, Tanzania.
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