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Tolani B, Celli A, Yao Y, Tan YZ, Fetter R, Liem CR, de Smith AJ, Vasanthakumar T, Bisignano P, Cotton AD, Seiple IB, Rubinstein JL, Jost M, Weissman JS. Ras-mutant cancers are sensitive to small molecule inhibition of V-type ATPases in mice. Nat Biotechnol 2022; 40:1834-1844. [PMID: 35879364 PMCID: PMC9750872 DOI: 10.1038/s41587-022-01386-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/02/2021] [Accepted: 06/03/2022] [Indexed: 01/14/2023]
Abstract
Mutations in Ras family proteins are implicated in 33% of human cancers, but direct pharmacological inhibition of Ras mutants remains challenging. As an alternative to direct inhibition, we screened for sensitivities in Ras-mutant cells and discovered 249C as a Ras-mutant selective cytotoxic agent with nanomolar potency against a spectrum of Ras-mutant cancers. 249C binds to vacuolar (V)-ATPase with nanomolar affinity and inhibits its activity, preventing lysosomal acidification and inhibiting autophagy and macropinocytosis pathways that several Ras-driven cancers rely on for survival. Unexpectedly, potency of 249C varies with the identity of the Ras driver mutation, with the highest potency for KRASG13D and G12V both in vitro and in vivo, highlighting a mutant-specific dependence on macropinocytosis and lysosomal pH. Indeed, 249C potently inhibits tumor growth without adverse side effects in mouse xenografts of KRAS-driven lung and colon cancers. A comparison of isogenic SW48 xenografts with different KRAS mutations confirmed that KRASG13D/+ (followed by G12V/+) mutations are especially sensitive to 249C treatment. These data establish proof-of-concept for targeting V-ATPase in cancers driven by specific KRAS mutations such as KRASG13D and G12V.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bhairavi Tolani
- Thoracic Oncology Program, Department of Surgery, Helen Diller Family Comprehensive Cancer Center, University of California, San Francisco, CA, USA.
| | - Anna Celli
- Laboratory for Cell Analysis Core Facility, Helen Diller Family Comprehensive Cancer Center, University of California, San Francisco, CA, USA
| | - Yanmin Yao
- Department of Pharmaceutical Chemistry and Cardiovascular Research Institute, University of California, San Francisco, CA, USA
| | - Yong Zi Tan
- Molecular Medicine Program, The Hospital for Sick Children, Toronto, ON, Canada
- Department of Biological Sciences, National University of Singapore, Singapore, Singapore
- Disease Intervention Technology Laboratory, Agency for Science, Technology and Research, Singapore, Singapore
| | - Richard Fetter
- Howard Hughes Medical Institute, Department of Biology, Stanford University, Stanford, CA, USA
| | - Christina R Liem
- Department of Cellular and Molecular Pharmacology, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, CA, USA
- Division of Biological Sciences, the Section of Cell and Developmental Biology, University of California San Diego, La Jolla, CA, USA
| | - Adam J de Smith
- Center for Genetic Epidemiology, Department of Population and Public Health Sciences, Keck School of Medicine of University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA, USA
| | - Thamiya Vasanthakumar
- Molecular Medicine Program, The Hospital for Sick Children, Toronto, ON, Canada
- Department of Biochemistry, The University of Toronto, Toronto, ON, Canada
| | - Paola Bisignano
- Department of Pharmaceutical Chemistry and Cardiovascular Research Institute, University of California, San Francisco, CA, USA
| | - Adam D Cotton
- Department of Pharmaceutical Chemistry and Cardiovascular Research Institute, University of California, San Francisco, CA, USA
| | - Ian B Seiple
- Department of Pharmaceutical Chemistry and Cardiovascular Research Institute, University of California, San Francisco, CA, USA
| | - John L Rubinstein
- Molecular Medicine Program, The Hospital for Sick Children, Toronto, ON, Canada
- Department of Biochemistry, The University of Toronto, Toronto, ON, Canada
- Department of Medical Biophysics, The University of Toronto, Toronto, ON, Canada
| | - Marco Jost
- Department of Cellular and Molecular Pharmacology, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, CA, USA.
- Department of Microbiology & Immunology, University of California, San Francisco, CA, USA.
- Department of Microbiology, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, USA.
| | - Jonathan S Weissman
- Department of Cellular and Molecular Pharmacology, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, CA, USA
- Howard Hughes Medical Institute, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, MA, USA
- Whitehead Institute for Biomedical Research, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, MA, USA
- David H. Koch Institute for Integrative Cancer Research, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, MA, USA
- Department of Biology, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, MA, USA
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2
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Replogle JM, Bonnar JL, Pogson AN, Liem CR, Maier NK, Ding Y, Russell BJ, Wang X, Leng K, Guna A, Norman TM, Pak RA, Ramos DM, Ward ME, Gilbert LA, Kampmann M, Weissman JS, Jost M. Maximizing CRISPRi efficacy and accessibility with dual-sgRNA libraries and optimal effectors. eLife 2022; 11:81856. [PMID: 36576240 PMCID: PMC9829409 DOI: 10.7554/elife.81856] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/13/2022] [Accepted: 12/23/2022] [Indexed: 12/29/2022] Open
Abstract
CRISPR interference (CRISPRi) enables programmable, reversible, and titratable repression of gene expression (knockdown) in mammalian cells. Initial CRISPRi-mediated genetic screens have showcased the potential to address basic questions in cell biology, genetics, and biotechnology, but wider deployment of CRISPRi screening has been constrained by the large size of single guide RNA (sgRNA) libraries and challenges in generating cell models with consistent CRISPRi-mediated knockdown. Here, we present next-generation CRISPRi sgRNA libraries and effector expression constructs that enable strong and consistent knockdown across mammalian cell models. First, we combine empirical sgRNA selection with a dual-sgRNA library design to generate an ultra-compact (1-3 elements per gene), highly active CRISPRi sgRNA library. Next, we compare CRISPRi effectors to show that the recently published Zim3-dCas9 provides an excellent balance between strong on-target knockdown and minimal non-specific effects on cell growth or the transcriptome. Finally, we engineer a suite of cell lines with stable expression of Zim3-dCas9 and robust on-target knockdown. Our results and publicly available reagents establish best practices for CRISPRi genetic screening.
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Affiliation(s)
- Joseph M Replogle
- Medical Scientist Training Program, University of California, San FranciscoSan FranciscoUnited States,Department of Cellular and Molecular Pharmacology, University of California, San FranciscoSan FranciscoUnited States,Howard Hughes Medical Institute, Massachusetts Institute of TechnologyCambridgeUnited States,Whitehead Institute for Biomedical ResearchCambridgeUnited States
| | - Jessica L Bonnar
- Department of Cellular and Molecular Pharmacology, University of California, San FranciscoSan FranciscoUnited States,Howard Hughes Medical Institute, Massachusetts Institute of TechnologyCambridgeUnited States,Whitehead Institute for Biomedical ResearchCambridgeUnited States
| | - Angela N Pogson
- Department of Cellular and Molecular Pharmacology, University of California, San FranciscoSan FranciscoUnited States,Howard Hughes Medical Institute, Massachusetts Institute of TechnologyCambridgeUnited States,Whitehead Institute for Biomedical ResearchCambridgeUnited States
| | - Christina R Liem
- Department of Cellular and Molecular Pharmacology, University of California, San FranciscoSan FranciscoUnited States
| | - Nolan K Maier
- Department of Microbiology, Harvard Medical SchoolBostonUnited States
| | - Yufang Ding
- Department of Microbiology, Harvard Medical SchoolBostonUnited States
| | - Baylee J Russell
- Department of Microbiology, Harvard Medical SchoolBostonUnited States
| | - Xingren Wang
- Department of Microbiology, Harvard Medical SchoolBostonUnited States
| | - Kun Leng
- Medical Scientist Training Program, University of California, San FranciscoSan FranciscoUnited States,Institute for Neurodegenerative Disease, University of California, San FranciscoSan FranciscoUnited States
| | - Alina Guna
- Department of Cellular and Molecular Pharmacology, University of California, San FranciscoSan FranciscoUnited States,Whitehead Institute for Biomedical ResearchCambridgeUnited States
| | - Thomas M Norman
- Department of Cellular and Molecular Pharmacology, University of California, San FranciscoSan FranciscoUnited States
| | - Ryan A Pak
- Department of Cellular and Molecular Pharmacology, University of California, San FranciscoSan FranciscoUnited States
| | - Daniel M Ramos
- Center for Alzheimer's Disease and Related Dementias, National Institutes of HealthBethesdaUnited States,National Institute on Aging, National Institutes of HealthBethesdaUnited States
| | - Michael E Ward
- National Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke, National Institutes of HealthBethesdaUnited States
| | - Luke A Gilbert
- Department of Cellular and Molecular Pharmacology, University of California, San FranciscoSan FranciscoUnited States,Department of Urology and Helen Diller Family Comprehensive Cancer Center, University of California, San FranciscoSan FranciscoUnited States,Arc InstitutePalo AltoUnited States
| | - Martin Kampmann
- Institute for Neurodegenerative Disease, University of California, San FranciscoSan FranciscoUnited States,Department of Biochemistry and Biophysics, University of California, San FranciscoSan FranciscoUnited States
| | - Jonathan S Weissman
- Department of Cellular and Molecular Pharmacology, University of California, San FranciscoSan FranciscoUnited States,Howard Hughes Medical Institute, Massachusetts Institute of TechnologyCambridgeUnited States,Whitehead Institute for Biomedical ResearchCambridgeUnited States,Department of Biology, Massachusetts Institute of TechnologyCambridgeUnited States,David H. Koch Institute for Integrative Cancer Research, Massachusetts Institute of TechnologyCambridgeUnited States
| | - Marco Jost
- Department of Cellular and Molecular Pharmacology, University of California, San FranciscoSan FranciscoUnited States,Department of Microbiology, Harvard Medical SchoolBostonUnited States
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3
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Parashar S, Chidambaram R, Chen S, Liem CR, Griffis E, Lambert GG, Shaner NC, Wortham M, Hay JC, Ferro-Novick S. Endoplasmic reticulum tubules limit the size of misfolded protein condensates. eLife 2021; 10:e71642. [PMID: 34467852 PMCID: PMC8486381 DOI: 10.7554/elife.71642] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/25/2021] [Accepted: 08/31/2021] [Indexed: 12/19/2022] Open
Abstract
The endoplasmic reticulum (ER) is composed of sheets and tubules. Here we report that the COPII coat subunit, SEC24C, works with the long form of the tubular ER-phagy receptor, RTN3, to target dominant-interfering mutant proinsulin Akita puncta to lysosomes. When the delivery of Akita puncta to lysosomes was disrupted, large puncta accumulated in the ER. Unexpectedly, photobleach analysis indicated that Akita puncta behaved as condensates and not aggregates, as previously suggested. Akita puncta enlarged when either RTN3 or SEC24C were depleted, or when ER sheets were proliferated by either knocking out Lunapark or overexpressing CLIMP63. Other ER-phagy substrates that are segregated into tubules behaved like Akita, while a substrate (type I procollagen) that is degraded by the ER-phagy sheets receptor, FAM134B, did not. Conversely, when ER tubules were augmented in Lunapark knock-out cells by overexpressing reticulons, ER-phagy increased and the number of large Akita puncta was reduced. Our findings imply that segregating cargoes into tubules has two beneficial roles. First, it localizes mutant misfolded proteins, the receptor, and SEC24C to the same ER domain. Second, physically restraining condensates within tubules, before they undergo ER-phagy, prevents them from enlarging and impacting cell health.
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Affiliation(s)
- Smriti Parashar
- Department of Cellular and Molecular Medicine, University of California at San DiegoLa Jolla, CaliforniaUnited States
| | - Ravi Chidambaram
- Department of Cellular and Molecular Medicine, University of California at San DiegoLa Jolla, CaliforniaUnited States
| | - Shuliang Chen
- Department of Cellular and Molecular Medicine, University of California at San DiegoLa Jolla, CaliforniaUnited States
| | - Christina R Liem
- Division of Biological Sciences, University of California at San DiegoLa Jolla, CaliforniaUnited States
| | - Eric Griffis
- Nikon Imaging Center, University of California at San DiegoLa Jolla, CaliforniaUnited States
| | - Gerard G Lambert
- Department of Neurosciences, University of California at San DiegoLa Jolla, CaliforniaUnited States
| | - Nathan C Shaner
- Department of Neurosciences, University of California at San DiegoLa Jolla, CaliforniaUnited States
| | - Matthew Wortham
- Department of Pediatrics, Pediatric Diabetes Research Center, University of California at San DiegoLa Jolla, CaliforniaUnited States
| | - Jesse C Hay
- Division of Biological Sciences and Center for Structural & Functional Neuroscience, University of MontanaMissoulaUnited States
| | - Susan Ferro-Novick
- Department of Cellular and Molecular Medicine, University of California at San DiegoLa Jolla, CaliforniaUnited States
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4
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Yan X, Stuurman N, Ribeiro SA, Tanenbaum ME, Horlbeck MA, Liem CR, Jost M, Weissman JS, Vale RD. High-content imaging-based pooled CRISPR screens in mammalian cells. J Cell Biol 2021; 220:211696. [PMID: 33465779 PMCID: PMC7821101 DOI: 10.1083/jcb.202008158] [Citation(s) in RCA: 34] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/29/2020] [Revised: 11/17/2020] [Accepted: 12/02/2020] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
CRISPR (clustered regularly interspaced short palindromic repeats)-based gene inactivation provides a powerful means for linking genes to particular cellular phenotypes. CRISPR-based screening typically uses large genomic pools of single guide RNAs (sgRNAs). However, this approach is limited to phenotypes that can be enriched by chemical selection or FACS sorting. Here, we developed a microscopy-based approach, which we name optical enrichment, to select cells displaying a particular CRISPR-induced phenotype by automated imaging-based computation, mark them by photoactivation of an expressed photoactivatable fluorescent protein, and then isolate the fluorescent cells using fluorescence-activated cell sorting (FACS). A plugin was developed for the open source software μManager to automate the phenotypic identification and photoactivation of cells, allowing ∼1.5 million individual cells to be screened in 8 h. We used this approach to screen 6,092 sgRNAs targeting 544 genes for their effects on nuclear size regulation and identified 14 bona fide hits. These results present a scalable approach to facilitate imaging-based pooled CRISPR screens.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xiaowei Yan
- Department of Cellular and Molecular Pharmacology, Howard Hughes Medical Institute, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, CA
| | - Nico Stuurman
- Department of Cellular and Molecular Pharmacology, Howard Hughes Medical Institute, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, CA
| | - Susana A. Ribeiro
- Department of Cellular and Molecular Pharmacology, Howard Hughes Medical Institute, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, CA,Cairn Biosciences, Inc., San Francisco, CA
| | - Marvin E. Tanenbaum
- Department of Cellular and Molecular Pharmacology, Howard Hughes Medical Institute, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, CA,Oncode Institute, Hubrecht Institute-KNAW and University Medical Center Utrecht, Utrecht, Netherlands
| | - Max A. Horlbeck
- Department of Cellular and Molecular Pharmacology, Howard Hughes Medical Institute, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, CA,Boston Children's Hospital, Boston, MA
| | - Christina R. Liem
- Department of Cellular and Molecular Pharmacology, Howard Hughes Medical Institute, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, CA,University of California, San Diego, San Diego, CA
| | - Marco Jost
- Department of Cellular and Molecular Pharmacology, Howard Hughes Medical Institute, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, CA
| | - Jonathan S. Weissman
- Department of Cellular and Molecular Pharmacology, Howard Hughes Medical Institute, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, CA,Whitehead Institute and Department of Biology, MIT, Cambridge, MA
| | - Ronald D. Vale
- Department of Cellular and Molecular Pharmacology, Howard Hughes Medical Institute, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, CA,Janelia Research Campus, Howard Hughes Medical Institute, Ashburn, VA,Correspondence to Ronald D. Vale:
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5
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Jost M, Santos DA, Saunders RA, Horlbeck MA, Hawkins JS, Scaria SM, Norman TM, Hussmann JA, Liem CR, Gross CA, Weissman JS. Titrating gene expression using libraries of systematically attenuated CRISPR guide RNAs. Nat Biotechnol 2020; 38:355-364. [PMID: 31932729 PMCID: PMC7065968 DOI: 10.1038/s41587-019-0387-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 84] [Impact Index Per Article: 21.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/21/2019] [Accepted: 12/05/2019] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
A lack of tools to precisely control gene expression has limited our ability to evaluate relationships between expression levels and phenotypes. Here, we describe an approach to titrate expression of human genes using CRISPR interference and series of single-guide RNAs (sgRNAs) with systematically modulated activities. We used large-scale measurements across multiple cell models to characterize activities of sgRNAs containing mismatches to their target sites and derived rules governing mismatched sgRNA activity using deep learning. These rules enabled us to synthesize a compact sgRNA library to titrate expression of ~2,400 genes essential for robust cell growth and to construct an in silico sgRNA library spanning the human genome. Staging cells along a continuum of gene expression levels combined with single-cell RNA-seq readout revealed sharp transitions in cellular behaviors at gene-specific expression thresholds. Our work provides a general tool to control gene expression, with applications ranging from tuning biochemical pathways to identifying suppressors for diseases of dysregulated gene expression.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marco Jost
- Department of Cellular and Molecular Pharmacology, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, CA, USA
- Howard Hughes Medical Institute, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, CA, USA
- California Institute for Quantitative Biosciences, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, CA, USA
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, CA, USA
| | - Daniel A Santos
- Department of Cellular and Molecular Pharmacology, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, CA, USA
- Howard Hughes Medical Institute, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, CA, USA
- California Institute for Quantitative Biosciences, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, CA, USA
| | - Reuben A Saunders
- Department of Cellular and Molecular Pharmacology, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, CA, USA
- Howard Hughes Medical Institute, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, CA, USA
- California Institute for Quantitative Biosciences, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, CA, USA
| | - Max A Horlbeck
- Department of Cellular and Molecular Pharmacology, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, CA, USA
- Howard Hughes Medical Institute, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, CA, USA
- California Institute for Quantitative Biosciences, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, CA, USA
| | - John S Hawkins
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, CA, USA
| | - Sonia M Scaria
- Department of Cellular and Molecular Pharmacology, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, CA, USA
- Howard Hughes Medical Institute, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, CA, USA
- California Institute for Quantitative Biosciences, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, CA, USA
| | - Thomas M Norman
- Department of Cellular and Molecular Pharmacology, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, CA, USA
- Howard Hughes Medical Institute, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, CA, USA
- California Institute for Quantitative Biosciences, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, CA, USA
- Computational & Systems Biology Program, Sloan Kettering Institute, Memorial Sloan Kettering Cancer Center, New York, NY, USA
| | - Jeffrey A Hussmann
- Department of Cellular and Molecular Pharmacology, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, CA, USA
- Howard Hughes Medical Institute, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, CA, USA
- California Institute for Quantitative Biosciences, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, CA, USA
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, CA, USA
| | - Christina R Liem
- Department of Cellular and Molecular Pharmacology, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, CA, USA
- Howard Hughes Medical Institute, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, CA, USA
- California Institute for Quantitative Biosciences, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, CA, USA
| | - Carol A Gross
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, CA, USA
- Department of Cell and Tissue Biology, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, CA, USA
| | - Jonathan S Weissman
- Department of Cellular and Molecular Pharmacology, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, CA, USA.
- Howard Hughes Medical Institute, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, CA, USA.
- California Institute for Quantitative Biosciences, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, CA, USA.
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6
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Torres SE, Gallagher CM, Plate L, Gupta M, Liem CR, Guo X, Tian R, Stroud RM, Kampmann M, Weissman JS, Walter P. Ceapins block the unfolded protein response sensor ATF6α by inducing a neomorphic inter-organelle tether. eLife 2019; 8:46595. [PMID: 31149896 PMCID: PMC6588346 DOI: 10.7554/elife.46595] [Citation(s) in RCA: 36] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/06/2019] [Accepted: 05/30/2019] [Indexed: 01/23/2023] Open
Abstract
The unfolded protein response (UPR) detects and restores deficits in the endoplasmic reticulum (ER) protein folding capacity. Ceapins specifically inhibit the UPR sensor ATF6α, an ER-tethered transcription factor, by retaining it at the ER through an unknown mechanism. Our genome-wide CRISPR interference (CRISPRi) screen reveals that Ceapins function is completely dependent on the ABCD3 peroxisomal transporter. Proteomics studies establish that ABCD3 physically associates with ER-resident ATF6α in cells and in vitro in a Ceapin-dependent manner. Ceapins induce the neomorphic association of ER and peroxisomes by directly tethering the cytosolic domain of ATF6α to ABCD3’s transmembrane regions without inhibiting or depending on ABCD3 transporter activity. Thus, our studies reveal that Ceapins function by chemical-induced misdirection which explains their remarkable specificity and opens up new mechanistic routes for drug development and synthetic biology.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sandra Elizabeth Torres
- Department of Cellular and Molecular Pharmacology, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, United States.,Department of Biochemistry and Biophysics, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, United States.,Howard Hughes Medical Institute, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, United States
| | - Ciara M Gallagher
- Department of Biochemistry and Biophysics, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, United States.,Howard Hughes Medical Institute, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, United States
| | - Lars Plate
- Department of Chemistry, Vanderbilt University, Nashville, United States.,Department of Biological Sciences, Vanderbilt University, Nashville, United States
| | - Meghna Gupta
- Department of Biochemistry and Biophysics, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, United States
| | - Christina R Liem
- Department of Cellular and Molecular Pharmacology, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, United States.,Howard Hughes Medical Institute, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, United States
| | - Xiaoyan Guo
- Department of Biochemistry and Biophysics, Institute for Neurodegenerative Diseases, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, United States.,Chan Zuckerberg Biohub, San Francisco, United States
| | - Ruilin Tian
- Department of Biochemistry and Biophysics, Institute for Neurodegenerative Diseases, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, United States.,Chan Zuckerberg Biohub, San Francisco, United States
| | - Robert M Stroud
- Department of Biochemistry and Biophysics, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, United States
| | - Martin Kampmann
- Department of Biochemistry and Biophysics, Institute for Neurodegenerative Diseases, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, United States.,Chan Zuckerberg Biohub, San Francisco, United States
| | - Jonathan S Weissman
- Department of Cellular and Molecular Pharmacology, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, United States.,Howard Hughes Medical Institute, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, United States
| | - Peter Walter
- Department of Biochemistry and Biophysics, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, United States.,Howard Hughes Medical Institute, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, United States
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