Investigation of the Microbiome of Industrial PDO Sfela Cheese and Its Artisanal Variants Using 16S rDNA Amplicon Sequencing and Shotgun Metagenomics

Sfela is a white brined Greek cheese of protected designation of origin (PDO) produced in the Peloponnese region from ovine, caprine milk, or a mixture of the two. Despite the PDO status of Sfela, very few studies have addressed its properties, including its microbiology. For this reason, we decided to investigate the microbiome of two PDO industrial Sfela cheese samples along with two non-PDO variants, namely Sfela touloumotiri and Xerosfeli. Matrix-assisted laser desorption/ionization-time of flight mass spectrometry (MALDI-TOF MS), 16S rDNA amplicon sequencing and shotgun metagenomics analysis were used to identify the microbiome of these traditional cheeses. Cultured-based analysis showed that the most frequent species that could be isolated from Sfela cheese were Enterococcus faecium, Lactiplantibacillus plantarum, Levilactobacillus brevis, Pediococcus pentosaceus and Streptococcus thermophilus. Shotgun analysis suggested that in industrial Sfela 1, Str. thermophilus dominated, while industrial Sfela 2 contained high levels of Lactococcus lactis. The two artisanal samples, Sfela touloumotiri and Xerosfeli, were dominated by Tetragenococcus halophilus and Str. thermophilus, respectively. Debaryomyces hansenii was the only yeast species with abundance > 1% present exclusively in the Sfela touloumotiri sample. Identifying additional yeast species in the shotgun data was challenging, possibly due to their low abundance. Sfela cheese appears to contain a rather complex microbial ecosystem and thus needs to be further studied and understood. This might be crucial for improving and standardizing both its production and safety measures.

Early microvascular coronary endothelial dysfunction precedes pembrolizumab-induced cardiotoxicity. Preventive role of high dose of atorvastatin

Immune checkpoint inhibitors (ICIs) exhibit remarkable antitumor activity and immune-related cardiotoxicity of unknown pathomechanism. The aim of the study was to investigate the ICI class-dependent cardiotoxicity in vitro and pembrolizumab's (Pem's) cardiotoxicity in vivo, seeking for translational prevention means. Cytotoxicity was investigated in primary cardiomyocytes and splenocytes, incubated with ipilimumab, Pem and avelumab. Pem's cross-reactivity was assessed by circular dichroism (CD) on biotechnologically produced human and murine PD-1 and in silico. C57BL6/J male mice received IgG4 or Pem for 2 and 5 weeks. Echocardiography, histology, and molecular analyses were performed. Coronary blood flow velocity mapping and cardiac magnetic resonance imaging were conducted at 2 weeks. Human EA.hy926 endothelial cells were incubated with Pem-conditioned media from human mononuclear cells, in presence and absence of statins and viability and molecular signaling were assessed. Atorvastatin (20 mg/kg, daily) was administered in vivo, as prophylaxis. Only Pem exerted immune-related cytotoxicity in vitro. Pem's cross-reactivity with the murine PD-1 was confirmed by CD and docking. In vivo, Pem initiated coronary endothelial and diastolic dysfunction at 2 weeks and systolic dysfunction at 5 weeks. At 2 weeks, Pem induced ICAM-1 and iNOS expression and intracardiac leukocyte infiltration. At 5 weeks, Pem exacerbated endothelial activation and triggered cardiac inflammation. Pem led to immune-related cytotoxicity in EA.hy926 cells, which was prevented by atorvastatin. Atorvastatin mitigated functional deficits, by inhibiting endothelial dysfunction in vivo. We established for the first time an in vivo model of Pem-induced cardiotoxicity. Coronary endothelial dysfunction precedes Pem-induced cardiotoxicity, whereas atorvastatin emerges as a novel prophylactic therapy.

Genomic remnants of ancestral methanogenesis and hydrogenotrophy in Archaea drive anaerobic carbon cycling

Anaerobic methane metabolism is among the hallmarks of Archaea, originating very early in their evolution. Here, we show that the ancestor of methane metabolizers was an autotrophic CO₂-reducing hydrogenotrophic methanogen that possessed the two main complexes, methyl-CoM reductase (Mcr) and tetrahydromethanopterin-CoM methyltransferase (Mtr), the anaplerotic hydrogenases Eha and Ehb, and a set of other genes collectively called "methanogenesis markers" but could not oxidize alkanes. Overturning recent inferences, we demonstrate that methyl-dependent hydrogenotrophic methanogenesis has emerged multiple times independently, either due to a loss of Mtr while Mcr is inherited vertically or from an ancient lateral acquisition of Mcr. Even if Mcr is lost, Mtr, Eha, Ehb, and the markers can persist, resulting in mixotrophic metabolisms centered around the Wood-Ljungdahl pathway. Through their methanogenesis remnants, Thorarchaeia and two newly reconstructed order-level lineages in Archaeoglobi and Bathyarchaeia act as metabolically versatile players in carbon cycling of anoxic environments across the globe.

Understanding the molecular mosaic of cardiotoxicity of light chains in plasma cell dyscrasias and cardiac light chain amyloidosis with the use of patient derived full-length light chains

Background

Cardiac light chain amyloidosis (AL-CA) is a life-threatening disease and the major determinant of prognosis in AL amyloidosis. The management of heart failure (HF) in AL is challenging and gold standard therapies for HF are poorly tolerated or ineffective. Cardiac toxicity of LCs in AL-CA is poorly understood and the comparison of cardiotoxicity of LCs derived from plasma cell dyscrasias (PCDs) such as multiple myeloma (MM) and monoclonal gammopathy of undetermined significance (MGUS), will improve our understanding of the mechanisms of cardiac damage.

Purpose

We aimed to 1) genetically identify and biotechnologically produce full-length LCs from patients with AL-CA, MM, MGUS or non-clonal LCs from healthy volunteers (HV), 2) identify LCs' cardiotoxicity and 3) investigate the underlying mechanisms of cardiotoxicity in vitro.

Methods

Bone marrow derived CD138+ cells from n=7 patients with AL-CA, n=2 patients with MM and n=2 patients with MGUS and peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMCs) from n=2 HV were isolated for RNA extraction and characterization of the LC gene family repertoire. At the protein level, LC expression was confirmed by immunoprecipitation in patients' serum followed by top-down proteomics. The overexpressed LC genes in each patient, encoding the full-length clonal LCs were cloned and produced in Shuffle E. coli cells. Two LCs were produced from HV based on the primary protein structure similarity with the patients' LCs. Primary adult ventricular murine cardiomyocytes (pAVMCs) were isolated and exposed at various LC concentrations for evaluation of cell death and investigation of the cardiotoxicity mechanisms via gene and protein expression. LCs folding, oligomerization and amyloidogenic potential were assessed via circular dichroism (CD), SDS page and electron microscopy respectively.

Results

We successfully identified the LCs responsible for the disease and isolated the respective proteins in all cases (7 AL-CA, 2 MM, 2 MGUS and 3 HV). Despite the similarity of the LCs in conformation as beta-sheet and oligomerization mainly as dimers, 5 out of 7 AL-CA derived LCs led to a different extent of cardiotoxicity in pAVMCs compared to the HV, MM and MGUS derived LCs which did not alter cell viability. Interestingly, these 5 LCs bared the highest amyloidogenic potency. LCs induced different molecular responses leading to cardiomyocyte death. AL-CA proteins κ-type induced apoptosis and overexpression of endoplasmic reticulum stress (ERS) markers while LCs λ-type increased unfolded protein response (UPR) markers and autophagy without inducing apoptosis. All LCs of κ-type including from MM and MGUS patients led to inteleukin-6 mediated inflammation indicating that this mechanism is independent of the observed toxicity.

Conclusions

AL-CA derived LCs induce cardiotoxicity, which correlates to their amyloidogenic potential via ERS, UPR, autophagy and apoptosis which can be considered targets for cardioprotection.

Funding Acknowledgement

Type of funding sources: Public Institution(s). Main funding source(s): Hellenic Foundation for Research and Innovation

BRCA1-BRCT Mutations Alter the Subcellular Localization of BRCA1 In Vitro

BACKGROUND/AIM

Numerous missense mutations have been determined in the BRCT domain of the BRCA1 gene, affecting localization and interaction of BRCA1 with other proteins.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

We examined whether the M1775K and V1809F mutations in the BRCT domain affect BRCA1 cellular localization. Cells were transfected with pEGFP-C3-BRCA1 and detected by fluorescence microscopy.

RESULTS

Following induction of DNA damage, cytoplasmic mislocalization was observed for both M1775K and V1809F mutants compared to EGFP-BRCA1wt and the less common variant M1652I. These results indicate that M1775K and V1809F mutations may change the function of the protein by affecting BRCA1 localization.

CONCLUSION

There is a correlation between subcellular localization of BRCA1 and diminished DNA repair observed in breast cancer cells, which may be explained by structural variations and altered binding properties of phosphopeptides.

The Crystal Structure of a Streptomyces thermoviolaceus Thermophilic Chitinase Known for Its Refolding Efficiency

Analyzing the structure of proteins from extremophiles is a promising way to study the rules governing the protein structure, because such proteins are results of structural and functional optimization under well-defined conditions. Studying the structure of chitinases addresses an interesting aspect of enzymology, because chitin, while being the world’s second most abundant biopolymer, is also a recalcitrant substrate. The crystal structure of a thermostable chitinase from Streptomyces thermoviolaceus (StChi40) has been solved revealing a β/α-barrel (TIM-barrel) fold with an α+β insertion domain. This is the first chitinase structure of the multi-chitinase system of S. thermoviolaceus. The protein is also known to refold efficiently after thermal or chemical denaturation. StChi40 is structurally close to the catalytic domain of psychrophilic chitinase B from Arthrobacter TAD20. Differences are noted in comparison to the previously examined chitinases, particularly in the substrate-binding cleft. A comparison of the thermophilic enzyme with its psychrophilic homologue revealed structural features that could be attributed to StChi40’s thermal stability: compactness of the structure with trimmed surface loops and unique disulfide bridges, one of which is additionally stabilized by S–π interactions with aromatic rings. Uncharacteristically for thermophilic proteins, StChi40 has fewer salt bridges than its mesophilic and psychrophilic homologues.

Consensus protein engineering on the thermostable histone-like bacterial protein HUs significantly improves stability and DNA binding affinity

Consensus-based protein engineering strategy has been applied to various proteins and it can lead to the design of proteins with enhanced biological performance. Histone-like HUs comprise a protein family with sequence variety within a highly conserved 3D-fold. HU function includes compacting and regulating bacterial DNA in a wide range of biological conditions in bacteria. To explore the possible impact of consensus-based design in the thermodynamic stability of HU proteins, the approach was applied using a dataset of sequences derived from a group of 40 mesostable, thermostable, and hyperthermostable HUs. The consensus-derived HU protein was named HUBest, since it is expected to perform best. The synthetic HU gene was overexpressed in E. coli and the recombinant protein was purified. Subsequently, HUBest was characterized concerning its correct folding and thermodynamic stability, as well as its ability to interact with plasmid DNA. A substantial increase in HUBest stability at high temperatures is observed. HUBest has significantly improved biological performance at ambience temperature, presenting very low K_d values for binding plasmid DNA as indicated from the Gibbs energy profile of HUBest. This K_d may be associated to conformational changes leading to decreased thermodynamic stability and, therefore, higher flexibility at ambient temperature.

The dietary triterpenoid 18α-Glycyrrhetinic acid protects from MMC-induced genotoxicity through the ERK/Nrf2 pathway

18α-Glycyrrhetinic acid (18α-GA) is a bioactive triterpenoid that has been shown to activate the nuclear factor (erythroid-derived-2)-like 2 (Nrf2), the main transcription factor that orchestrates the cellular antioxidant response, in both cellular and organismal context. Although various beneficial properties of 18α-GA have been revealed, including its anti-oxidation and anti-aging activity, its possible protective effect against DNA damage has never been addressed. In this study, we investigated the potential beneficial properties of 18α-GA against DNA damage induced by mitomycin C (MMC) treatment. Using human primary fibroblasts exposed to MMC following pre-treatment with 18α-GA, we reveal an Nrf2-mediated protective effect against MMC-induced cell death that depends on extracellular signal-regulated kinase (ERK) signaling. In total, our results reveal an additional beneficial effect of the Nrf2 activator 18α-GA, suggesting that this important phytochemical compound is a potential candidate in preventive and/or therapeutic schemes against conditions (such as aging) or diseases that are characterized by both oxidative stress and DNA damage.

Integrative Bioinformatic Analysis of Transcriptomic Data Identifies Conserved Molecular Pathways Underlying Ionizing Radiation-Induced Bystander Effects (RIBE)

Ionizing radiation-induced bystander effects (RIBE) encompass a number of effects with potential for a plethora of damages in adjacent non-irradiated tissue. The cascade of molecular events is initiated in response to the exposure to ionizing radiation (IR), something that may occur during diagnostic or therapeutic medical applications. In order to better investigate these complex response mechanisms, we employed a unified framework integrating statistical microarray analysis, signal normalization, and translational bioinformatics functional analysis techniques. This approach was applied to several microarray datasets from Gene Expression Omnibus (GEO) related to RIBE. The analysis produced lists of differentially expressed genes, contrasting bystander and irradiated samples versus sham-irradiated controls. Furthermore, comparative molecular analysis through BioInfoMiner, which integrates advanced statistical enrichment and prioritization methodologies, revealed discrete biological processes, at the cellular level. For example, the negative regulation of growth, cellular response to Zn2+-Cd2+, and Wnt and NIK/NF-kappaB signaling, thus refining the description of the phenotypic landscape of RIBE. Our results provide a more solid understanding of RIBE cell-specific response patterns, especially in the case of high-LET radiations, like α-particles and carbon-ions.

More than 2500 years of oil exposure shape sediment microbiomes with the potential for syntrophic degradation of hydrocarbons linked to methanogenesis

BACKGROUND

Natural oil seeps offer the opportunity to study the adaptation of ecosystems and the associated microbiota to long-term oil exposure. In the current study, we investigated a land-to-sea transition ecosystem called "Keri Lake" in Zakynthos Island, Greece. This ecosystem is unique due to asphalt oil springs found at several sites, a phenomenon already reported 2500 years ago. Sediment microbiomes at Keri Lake were studied, and their structure and functional potential were compared to other ecosystems with oil exposure histories of various time periods.

RESULTS

Replicate sediment cores (up to 3-m depth) were retrieved from one site exposed to oil as well as a non-exposed control site. Samples from three different depths were subjected to chemical analysis and metagenomic shotgun sequencing. At the oil-exposed site, we observed high amounts of asphalt oil compounds and a depletion of sulfate compared to the non-exposed control site. The numbers of reads assigned to genes involved in the anaerobic degradation of hydrocarbons were similar between the two sites. The numbers of denitrifiers and sulfate reducers were clearly lower in the samples from the oil-exposed site, while a higher abundance of methanogens was detected compared to the non-exposed site. Higher abundances of the genes of methanogenesis were also observed in the metagenomes from other ecosystems with a long history of oil exposure, compared to short-term exposed environments.

CONCLUSIONS

The analysis of Keri Lake metagenomes revealed that microbiomes in the oil-exposed sediment have a higher potential for methanogenesis over denitrification/sulfate reduction, compared to those in the non-exposed site. Comparison with metagenomes from various oil-impacted environments suggests that syntrophic interactions of hydrocarbon degraders with methanogens are favored in the ecosystems with a long-term presence of oil.

Molecular Proteomic Characterization of a Pediatric Medulloblastoma Xenograft

BACKGROUND/AIM

Medulloblastoma (MBL), an archetypal primitive neuroectodermal tumor of the cerebellum, is the most common pediatric central nervous system malignancy representing approximately 20% of all childhood brain tumors. Herein, we report on a new xenotransplantable tumor cell line, derived from a 6-year-old female patient with cerebellar medulloblastoma, and the completele proteome molecular characterization of subsequent tumors from MBL xenotrasplanted mice.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Tumors were grown in nude mice as subcutaneous xenografts (MBLX) composed of small round cells with hyperchromatic nuclei and scant cytoplasm. Tumor specimen were extracted from animals upon their sacrifice and their molecular proteomic content was analyzed by 2-DE coupled to MALDI-TOF MS analysis.

RESULTS

Altogether 350 single-gene products were identified through the current approach, reported as the MBLX database.

CONCLUSION

This new xenotransplantable tumor model, offers the scientific community valuable insight on the validity of xenografts altogether, while providing the means for a novel experimental model towards the study of human MBL.

Pediatric Ependymoma: A Proteomics Perspective

BACKGROUND/AIM

Proteomics based on high-resolution mass spectrometry (MS) is the tool of choice for the analysis of protein presence, modifications and interactions, with increasing emphasis on the examination of tumor tissues. Application of MS-based proteomics offers a detailed picture of tumor tissue characteristics, facilitating the appreciation of different tumor entities, whilst providing reliable and fast results for therapeutic marker targeting and prognostic factor assessment. Through use of the high analytical resolution of nano-high-pressure liquid chromatography (nanoHPLC) and the high resolution of an Orbitrap Elite mass spectrometer, the present study aimed to provide knowledge on the proteome of the generally unknown entity of pediatric ependymal tumors.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Ten resected specimens of childhood ependymoma were analyzed through a one-dimensional (1D) nanoLC-MS/MS approach. Method optimization steps were undertaken for both the sample preparation/protein extraction procedure and LC parameters, aiming to achieve the highest possible identification rates.

RESULTS

Following method optimization, each nanoLC-MS/MS run resulted in identification of more than 5,000 proteins and more than 25,000 peptides for every analyzed sample, thus detailing the greater part of the ependymoma proteome. Identified proteins were found to spread throughout all known tumor categories regarding their molecular function and subcellular localization.

CONCLUSION

Through the proposed nanoLC-MS/MS method herein we report, for the firs time, the ependymoma proteome database. A large number of similarities regarding proteome content are revealed compared to other two pediatric brain tumor entities; astrocytomas and medulloblastomas. Furthermore, through our approach, the majority of currently proposed markers for ependymoma (e.g. nucleolin, nestin, Ki67 and laminin subunit A2) as well as all major key players of the phosphoinositide 3-kinase pathway (seemingly implicated in ependymoma), were definitely detected.

Engineered strains of Streptococcus macedonicus towards an osmotic stress resistant phenotype retain their ability to produce the bacteriocin macedocin under hyperosmotic conditions

Streptococcus macedonicus ACA-DC 198 produces the bacteriocin macedocin in milk only under low NaCl concentrations (<1.0%w/v). The thermosensitive plasmid pGh9:ISS1 was employed to generate osmotic stress resistant (osmr) mutants of S. macedonicus. Three osmr mutants showing integration of the vector in unique chromosomal sites were identified and the disrupted loci were characterized. Interestingly, the mutants were able to grow and to produce macedocin at considerably higher concentrations of NaCl compared to the wild-type (up to 4.0%w/v). The production of macedocin under hyperosmotic conditions solely by the osmr mutants was validated by the well diffusion assay and by mass spectrometry analysis. RT-PCR experiments demonstrated that the macedocin biosynthetic regulon was transcribed at high salt concentrations only in the mutants. Mutant osmr3, the most robust mutant, was converted in its markerless derivative (osmr3f). Co-culture of S. macedonicus with spores of Clostridium tyrobutyricum in milk demonstrated that only the osmr3f mutant and not the wild-type inhibited the growth of the spores under hyperosmotic conditions (i.e., 2.5%w/v NaCl) due to the production of macedocin. Our study shows how genetic manipulation of a strain towards a stress resistant phenotype could improve bacteriocin production under conditions of the same stress.

The stability of the TIM-barrel domain of a psychrophilic chitinase

Chitinase 60 from the psychrophilic bacterium Moritella marina (MmChi60) is a four-domain protein whose structure revealed flexible hinge regions between the domains, yielding conformations in solution that range from fully extended to compact. The catalytic domain is a shallow-grooved TIM-barrel. Heat-induced denaturation experiments of the wild-type and mutants resulting from the deletions of the two-Ig-like domains and the chitin binding domain reveal calorimetric profiles that are consistent with non-collaborative thermal unfolding of the individual domains, a property that must be associated to the “hinge-regions”. The calorimetric measurements of the (β/α)₈ catalytic domain reveal that the thermal unfolding is a slow-relaxation transition exhibiting a stable, partially structured intermediate state. Circular dichroism provides evidence that the intermediate exhibits features of a molten globule i.e., loss of tertiary structure while maintaining the secondary structural elements of the native. GdnHCl-induced denaturation studies of the TIM-barrel demonstrate an extraordinarily high resistance to the denaturant. Slow-relaxation kinetics characterize the unfolding with equilibration times exceeding six days, a property that is for the first time observed for a psychrophilic TIM barrel. On the other hand, the thermodynamic stability is ΔG=6.75±1.3 kcal/mol, considerably lower than for structural-insertions-containing barrels. The mutant E153Q used for the crystallographic studies of MmChi60 complexes with NAG ligands has a much lower stability than the wild-type.

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We use heat-induced and chemical denaturation to study MmChi60.

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The impact of “hinge” regions upon the DSC calorimetric profiles is explored.

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CD is used to characterize the thermal unfolding intermediate of the catalytic domain.

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The thermodynamic stability of the TIM-barrel is measured via chemical denaturation.

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High-resistance to denaturants is evidenced for the psychrophilic (β/α)₈ domain.

Crystal structures of substrate-bound chitinase from the psychrophilic bacterium Moritella marina and its structure in solution

The four-domain structure of chitinase 60 from Moritella marina (MmChi60) is outstanding in its complexity. Many glycoside hydrolases, such as chitinases and cellulases, have multi-domain structures, but only a few have been solved. The flexibility of the hinge regions between the domains apparently makes these proteins difficult to crystallize. The analysis of an active-site mutant of MmChi60 in an unliganded form and in complex with the substrates NAG4 and NAG5 revealed significant differences in the substrate-binding site compared with the previously determined complexes of most studied chitinases. A SAXS experiment demonstrated that in addition to the elongated state found in the crystal, the protein can adapt other conformations in solution ranging from fully extended to compact.

Structure of a complete four-domain chitinase from Moritella marina, a marine psychrophilic bacterium

X-ray crystallography reveals chitinase from the psychrophilic bacterium Moritella marina to be an elongated molecule which in addition to the catalytic β/α-barrel domain contains two Ig-like domains and a chitin-binding domain, all linked in a chain. A ligand-binding study using NAG oligomers showed the enzyme to be active in the crystal lattice and resulted in complexes of the protein with oxazolinium ion (the reaction intermediate) and with NAG2, a reaction product. The characteristic motif DXDXE, containing three acidic amino-acid residues, which is a signature of type 18 chitinases, is conserved in the enzyme. Further analysis of the unliganded enzyme with the two protein-ligand complexes and a comparison with other known chitinases elucidated the roles of other conserved residues near the active site. Several features have been identified that are probably important for the reaction mechanism, substrate binding and the efficiency of the enzyme at low temperatures. The chitin-binding domain and the tryptophan patch on the catalytic domain provide general affinity for chitin, in addition to the affinity of the binding site; the two Ig-like domains give the protein a long reach over the chitin surface, and the flexible region between the chitin-binding domain and the adjacent Ig-like domain suggests an ability of the enzyme to probe the surface of the substrate, while the open shallow substrate-binding groove allows easy access to the active site.

HU protein induces incoherent DNA persistence length

HU is a highly conserved protein that is believed to play an important role in the architecture and dynamic compaction of bacterial DNA. Its ability to control DNA bending is crucial for functions such as transcription and replication. The effects of HU on the DNA structure have been studied so far mainly by single molecule methods that require us to apply stretching forces on the DNA and therefore may perturb the DNA-protein interaction. To overcome this hurdle, we study the effect of HU on the DNA structure without applying external forces by using an improved tethered particle motion method. By combining the results with DNA curvature analysis from atomic force microscopy measurements we find that the DNA consists of two different curvature distributions and the measured persistence length is determined by their interplay. As a result, the effective persistence length adopts a bimodal property that depends primarily on the HU concentration. The results can be explained according to a recently suggested model that distinguishes single protein binding from cooperative protein binding.

Crystallographic analysis of a thermoactive nitrilase

The nitrilase superfamily is a large and diverse superfamily of enzymes that catalyse the cleavage of various types of carbon-nitrogen bonds using a Cys-Glu-Lys catalytic triad. Thermoactive nitrilase from Pyrococcus abyssi (PaNit) hydrolyses small aliphatic nitriles like fumaro- and malononitryl. Yet, the biological role of this enzyme is unknown. We have analysed several crystal structures of PaNit: without ligands, with an acetate ion bound in the active site and with a bromide ion in the active site. In addition, docking calculations have been performed for fumaro- and malononitriles. The structures provide a proof for specific binding of the carboxylate ion and a general affinity for negatively changed ligands. The role of residues in the active site is considered and an enzymatic reaction mechanism is proposed in which Cys146 acts as the nucleophile, Glu42 as the general base, Lys113/Glu42 as the general acid, WatA as the hydrolytic water and Nζ_Lys113 and N_Phe147 form the oxyanion hole.

Characterization of cancer-linked BRCA1-BRCT missense variants and their interaction with phosphoprotein targets

The breast cancer tumor suppressor protein BRCA1 is involved in DNA repair and cell cycle control. Mutations at the two C-terminal tandem (BRCT) repeats of BRCA1 detected in breast tumor patients were identified either to lower the stability of the BRCT domain and/or to disrupt the interaction of BRCT with phoshpopeptides. The aim of this study was to analyze five BRCT pathogenic mutations for their effect on structural integrity and protein stability. For this purpose, the five cancer-associated BRCT mutants: V1696L, M1775K, M1783T, V1809F, and P1812A were cloned in suitable prokaryotic protein production vectors, and the recombinant proteins were purified in soluble and stable form for further biophysical studies. The biophysical analysis of the secondary structure and the thermodynamic stability of the wild-type, wt, and the five mutants of the BRCT domain were performed by Circular Dichroism Spectroscopy (CD) and Differential Scanning Microcalorimetry (DSC), respectively. The binding capacity of the wt and mutant BRCT with (pBACH1/BRIP1) and pCtIP were measured by Isothermal Titration Calorimetry (ITC). The experimental results demonstrated that the five mutations of the BRCT domain: (i) affected the thermal unfolding temperature as well as the unfolding enthalpy of the domain, to a varying degree depending upon the induced destabilization and (ii) altered and/or abolished their affinity to synthetic pBACH1/BRIP1 and pCtIP phosphopeptides by affecting the structural integrity of the BRCT active sites. The presented experimental results are one step towards the elucidation of the effect of various missense mutations on the structure and function of BRCA1-BRCT.

RNA arbitrarily primed PCR and fourier transform infrared spectroscopy reveal plasticity in the acid tolerance response of Streptococcus macedonicus

We have previously reported that an acid tolerance response (ATR) can be induced in Streptococcus macedonicus cells at mid-log phase after autoacidification, transient exposure to acidic pH, or acid habituation, as well as at stationary phase. Here, we compared the transcriptional profiles of these epigenetic phenotypes, by RNA arbitrarily primed PCR (RAP-PCR), and their whole-cell chemical compositions, by Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FT-IR). RAP-PCR fingerprints revealed significant differences among the phenotypes, indicating that gene expression during the ATR is influenced not only by the growth phase but also by the treatments employed to induce the response. The genes coding for the mannose-specific IID component, the 1,2-diacylglycerol 3-glucosyltransferase, the 3-oxoacyl-acyl carrier protein, the large subunit of carbamoyl-phosphate synthase, and a hypothetical protein were found to be induced at least under some of the acid-adapting conditions. Furthermore, principal component analysis of the second-derivative-transformed FT-IR spectra segregated S. macedonicus phenotypes individually in all spectral regions that are characteristic for major cellular constituents like the polysaccharides of the cell wall, fatty acids of the cell membrane, proteins, and other compounds that absorb in these regions. These findings provide evidence for major changes in cellular composition due to acid adaptation that were clearly different to some extent among the phenotypes. Overall, our data demonstrate the plasticity in the ATR of S. macedonicus, which reflects the inherent ability of the bacterium to adjust the response to the distinctiveness of the imposed stress condition, probably to maximize its adaptability.

Molecular analysis of the gene encoding a new chitinase from the marine psychrophilic bacterium Moritella marina and biochemical characterization of the recombinant enzyme

The marine psychrophilic bacterium Moritella marina, isolated from a sample raised from a depth of 1,200 m in the northern Pacific Ocean, secretes several chitinases in response to chitin induction. A gene coding for an extracellular chitinolytic enzyme was cloned and its nucleotide sequence was determined. The chitinase gene consists of an open reading frame of 1,650 nucleotides and encodes a protein of 550 amino acids with a calculated molecular weight of 60.788 kDa, named MmChi60. MmChi60 has a modular structure consisting of a glycosyl-hydrolase family 18 N-terminal catalytic region as well as a C-terminal chitin-binding domain (ChBD). The new chitinase was purified to homogeneity from the intracellular fraction of Escherichia coli. The optimum pH and temperature of the recombinant MmChi60 were 5.0 and 28 degrees C, respectively. The mode of action of the new enzyme on N-acetylchitooligomers, chitin polymers, and other substrates was examined, and MmChi60 was classified as an endochitinase. Thermal unfolding of MmChi60 was studied using differential scanning microcalorimetry and revealed that the protein unfolds reversibly at 65 degrees C. On the basis of the crystal structure of the chitinase C of Streptomyces griseus, a homology-based 3-D model of the ChBD of the MmChi60 was calculated.

Protein kinases as targets for cancer treatment

In various types of malignancies, conventional forms of therapy (surgery, radiation and chemotherapy) are often ineffective, as well as harmful. In the last few years, a convergence of scientific advances has enabled the identification of molecular targets and signaling pathways specific to cancer cells, resulting in therapies with enhanced selectivity and efficacy and reduced toxicity. Compound validation has relied on target validation first, although some of the most successful drugs often have effects outside of their postulated mechanism. Protein kinases represent such molecular targets; considerable research effort has been devoted to the development of targeted drugs that inhibit the action of pathogenic kinases, and clinical studies performed so far have validated the positive effects of kinase inhibitors for cancer treatment. In this review, the specificity, mechanism of action and antitumor activity of several new small-molecule inhibitors of tyrosine and serine/threonine kinases are discussed.

Thermal unfolding of human BRCA1 BRCT-domain variants

Missense mutations at the BRCT domain of human BRCA1 protein have been associated with an elevated risk for hereditary breast/ovarian cancer. They have been shown to affect the binding site and they have also been proposed to affect domain stability, severely hampering the protein's tumor suppressor function. In order to assess the impact of various such mutations upon the stability and the function of the BRCT domain, heat-induced denaturation has been employed to study the thermal unfolding of variants M1775R and R1699W, which have been linked with the disease, as well as of V1833M, which has been reported for patients with a family history. Calorimetric and circular dichroism results reveal that in pH 9.0, 5 mM borate buffer, 200 mM NaCl, analogously to wild type BRCT, all three variants undergo partial thermal unfolding to a denatured state, which retains most of the native's structural characteristics. With respect to wild-type BRCT, the mutation M1775R induces the most severe effects especially upon the thermostability, while R1699W also has a strong impact. On the other hand, the thermal unfolding of variant V1833M is only moderately affected relative to wild-type BRCT. Moreover, isothermal titration calorimetric measurements reveal that contrary to M1775R and R1699W variants, V1833M binds to BACH1 and CtIP phosphopeptides.

Equilibrium heat-induced denaturation of chitinase 40 from Streptomyces thermoviolaceus

High-precision differential scanning calorimetry (DSC) and circular dichroism (CD) have been employed to study the thermal unfolding of chitinase 40 (Chi40) from Streptomyces thermoviolaceus. Chi40 belongs to family 18 of glycosyl hydrolase superfamily bearing a catalytic domain with a "TIM barrel"-like fold, which exhibits deviations from the (beta/alpha)8 fold. The thermal unfolding is reversible at pH = 8.0 and 9.0. The denatured state is characterized by extensive structural changes with respect to the native. The process is characterized by slow relaxation kinetics. Even slower refolding rates are recorded upon cooling. It is shown that the denaturation calorimetric data obtained at slow heating rate (0.17 K/min) are in excellent agreement with equilibrium data obtained by extrapolation of the experimental results to zero scanning rate. Analysis of the DSC results reveals that the experimental data can be successfully fitted using either a non-two-state sequential model involving one equilibrium intermediate, or an independent transitions model involving the unfolding of two Chi40 energetic domains to intermediate states. The stability of the native state with respect to the final denatured state is estimated, deltaG = 24.0 kcal/mol at 25 degrees C. The thermal results are in agreement with previous findings from chemical denaturation studies of a wide variety of (beta/alpha)8 barrel proteins, that their unfolding is a non-two-state process, always involving at least one unfolding intermediate.

Cloning, overexpression, and characterization of a thermoactive nitrilase from the hyperthermophilic archaeon Pyrococcus abyssi

Four open reading frames encoding putative nitrilases were identified in the genomes of the hyperthermophilic archaea Pyrococcus abyssi, Pyrococcus horikoshii, Pyrococcus furiosus, and Aeropyrum pernix (growth temperature 90-100 degrees C). The nitrilase encoding genes were cloned and overexpressed in Escherichia coli. Enzymatic activity could only be detected in the case of Py. abyssi. This recombinant nitrilase was purified by heat treatment of E. coli crude extract followed by anion-exchange chromatography with a yield of 88% and a specific activity of 0.14 U/mg. The recombinant enzyme, which represents the first archaeal nitrilase, is a dimer (29.8 kDa/subunit) with an isoelectric point of pI 5.3. The nitrilase is active at a broad temperature (60-90 degrees C) and neutral pH range (pH 6.0-8.0). The recombinant enzyme is highly thermostable with a half-life of 25 h at 70 degrees C, 9 h at 80 degrees C, and 6 h at 90 degrees C. Thermostability measurements by employing circular dichroism spectroscopy and differential scanning microcalorimetry, at neutral pH, have shown that the enzyme unfolds up to 90 degrees C reversibly and has a T(m) of 112.7 degrees C. An inhibition of the enzymatic activity was observed in the presence of acetone and metal ions such as Ag(2+) and Hg(2+). The nitrilase hydrolyzes preferentially aliphatic substrates and the best substrate is malononitrile with a K(m) value of 3.47 mM.

Anandamide metabolism by Tetrahymena pyriformis in vitro. Characterization and identification of a 66 kDa fatty acid amidohydrolase

Fatty acid amidohydrolase, a membrane-bound enzyme found in a variety of mammalian cells, is responsible for the catabolism of neuromodulatory fatty acid amides, including anandamide. In an earlier study we reported that Tetrahymena pyriformis was able to secrete a FAAH-like activity in starvation medium (Karava V., Fasia L., Siafaka-Kapadai A., FEBS Lett. 508 (2001) 327-331). In this study the endocannabinoid anandamide, was found to be metabolized by T. pyriformis homogenate by the action of a FAAH-like enzyme, in a time- and concentration-dependent manner. The main metabolic products of [3H]anandamide hydrolysis were [3H]arachidonic acid and ethanolamine. Amidohydrolase activity was maximal at pH 9-10, it was inhibited by phenylmethylsulfonyl fluoride and arachidonyltrifluoromethyl ketone and was Ca2+ and Mg(2+)-independent. Kinetic experiments demonstrated that the enzyme had an apparent K(m) of 2.5 microM and V(max) of 20.6 nmol/min mg. Subcellular fractionation of T. pyriformis homogenate showed that the activity was present in every subcellular fraction with highest specific activity in the microsomal as well as in non-microsomal membrane fraction. Immunoblot analysis of selected subcellular fractions, using an anti-FAAH polyclonal antibody, revealed the presence of an immunoreactive protein with a molecular mass approximately 66 kDa similar to the molecular mass of the mammalian enzyme. In conclusion, this study demonstrates that a FAAH similar to the mammalian enzyme is present in a unicellular eukaryote, indicating the importance of FAAH activity throughout evolution. It also supports the notion that Tetrahymena species may be a suitable model for metabolic studies on endocannabinoids, as well as for the study of drugs targeted towards FAAH.

Extreme environments as a resource for microorganisms and novel biocatalysts

The steady increase in the number of newly isolated extremophilic microorganisms and the discovery of their enzymes by academic and industrial institutions underlines the enormous potential of extremophiles for application in future biotechnological processes. Enzymes from extremophilic microorganisms offer versatile tools for sustainable developments in a variety of industrial application as they show important environmental benefits due to their biodegradability, specific stability under extreme conditions, improved use of raw materials and decreased amount of waste products. Although major advances have been made in the last decade, our knowledge of the physiology, metabolism, enzymology and genetics of this fascinating group of extremophilic microorganisms and their related enzymes is still limited. In-depth information on the molecular properties of the enzymes and their genes, however, has to be obtained to analyze the structure and function of proteins that are catalytically active around the boiling and freezing points of water and extremes of pH. New techniques, such as genomics, metanogenomics, DNA evolution and gene shuffling, will lead to the production of enzymes that are highly specific for countless industrial applications. Due to the unusual properties of enzymes from extremophiles, they are expected to optimize already existing processes or even develop new sustainable technologies.

Thermal denaturation of the BRCT tandem repeat region of human tumour suppressor gene product BRCA1

Reduced stability of the tandem BRCT domains of human BReast CAncer 1 (BRCA1) due to missense mutations may be critical for loss of function in DNA repair and damage-induced checkpoint control. In the present thermal denaturation study of the BRCA1 BRCT region, high-precision differential scanning calorimetry (DSC) and circular dichroism (CD) spectroscopy provide evidence for the existence of a denatured state that is structurally very similar to the native. Consistency between theoretical structure-based estimates of the enthalpy (DeltaH) and heat capacity change (DeltaCp) and the calorimetric results is obtained when considering partial thermal unfolding contained in the region of the conserved hydrophobic pocket formed at the interface of the two BRCT repeats. The structural integrity of this region has been shown to be crucial for the interaction of BRCA1 with phosphorylated peptides. In addition, cancer-causing missense mutations located at the inter-BRCT-repeat interface have been linked to the destabilization of the tandem BRCT structure.

Multiple components and induction mechanism of the chitinolytic system of the hyperthermophilic archaeon Thermococcus chitonophagus

Thermococcus chitonophagus produces several, cellular and extracellular chitinolytic enzymes following induction with various types of chitin and chitin oligomers, as well as cellulose. Factors affecting the anaerobic culture of this archaeon, such as optimal temperature, agitation speed and type of chitin, were investigated. A series of chitinases, co-isolated with the major, cell membrane-associated endochitinase (Chi70), and a periplasmic chitobiase (Chi90) were subsequently isolated. In addition, a distinct chitinolytic activity was detected in the culture supernatant and partially purified. This enzyme exhibited an apparent molecular mass of 50 kDa (Chi50) and was optimally active at 80 degrees C and pH 6.0. Chi50 was classified as an exochitinase based on its ability to release chitobiose as the exclusive hydrolysis product of colloidal chitin. A multi-component enzymatic apparatus, consisting of an extracellular exochitinase (Chi50), a periplasmic chitobiase (Chi90) and at least one cell-membrane-anchored endochitinase (Chi70), seems to be sufficient for effective synergistic in vivo degradation of chitin. Induction with chitin stimulates the coordinated expression of a combination of chitinolytic enzymes exhibiting different specificities for polymeric chitin and its degradation products. Among all investigated potential inducers and nutrient substrates, colloidal chitin was the strongest inducer of chitinase synthesis, whereas the highest growth rate was obtained following the addition of yeast extract and/or peptone to the minimal, mineralic culture medium in the absence of chitin. In rich medium, chitin monomer acted as a repressor of total chitinolytic activity, indicating the presence of a negative feedback regulatory mechanism. Despite the undisputable fact that the multi-component chitinolytic system of this archaeon is strongly induced by chitin, it is clear that, even in the absence of any chitinous substrates, there is low-level, basal, constitutive production of chitinolytic enzymes, which can be attributed to the presence of traces of chito-oligosaccharides and other structurally related molecules (in the undefined, rich, non-inducing medium) that act as potential inducers of chitinolytic activity. The low, basal and constitutive levels of chitinase gene expression may be sufficient to initiate chitin degradation and to release soluble oligomers, which, in turn, induce chitinase synthesis.

Isolation, cloning, and overexpression of a chitinase gene fragment from the hyperthermophilic archaeon Thermococcus chitonophagus: semi-denaturing purification of the recombinant peptide and investigation of its relation with other chitinases

A 189-bp sequence was isolated from the hyperthermophilic archaeon Thermococcus chitonophagus and was found to present strong homology with a large number of chitinase genes from a variety of organisms and particularly with the chitinaseA gene from Pyrococcus kodakaraensis (Pk-chiA). This fragment was subcloned to an expression vector and overexpressed in Escherichia coli. The E. coli BLR21(DE3)pLysS transformant, harbouring the gene on the pET-31b plasmid vector, was found to overproduce the target protein at high levels. The 63 aminoacid-long peptide was efficiently purified to homogeneity, with a one-step, semi-denaturing affinity chromatography, on a metal chelation resin and was used for the production of a specific, polyclonal antibody from rabbits. The produced antibody was demonstrated to display strong and specific affinity for the chitinase A from Serratia marcescens (Sm-chiA), as well as the membrane-bound chitinase70 from Thermococcus chitonophagus (Tc-Chi70). The strong sequence homology, in combination with the demonstrated specific immunochemical affinity, indicates that the isolated peptide is part of a chitinolytic enzyme of T. chitonophagus. In particular, it could belong to the membrane-bound chi70, or to a distinct chitinase, coded by a different gene, or even by the same gene, following post-transcriptional or post-translational modifications.

Thermodynamic analysis of the unfolding and stability of the dimeric DNA-binding protein HU from the hyperthermophilic eubacterium Thermotoga maritima and its E34D mutant

We have studied the stability of the histone-like, DNA-binding protein HU from the hyperthermophilic eubacterium Thermotoga maritima and its E34D mutant by differential scanning microcalorimetry and CD under acidic conditions at various concentrations within the range of 2-225 micro m of monomer. The thermal unfolding of both proteins is highly reversible and clearly follows a two-state dissociation/unfolding model from the folded, dimeric state to the unfolded, monomeric one. The unfolding enthalpy is very low even when taking into account that the two disordered DNA-binding arms probably do not contribute to the cooperative unfolding, whereas the quite small value for the unfolding heat capacity change (3.7 kJ.K(-1).mol(-1)) stabilizes the protein within a broad temperature range, as shown by the stability curves (Gibbs energy functions vs. temperature), even though the Gibbs energy of unfolding is not very high either. The protein is stable at pH 4.00 and 3.75, but becomes considerably less so at pH 3.50 and below, to the point that a simple decrease in concentration will lead to unfolding of both the wild-type and the mutant protein at pH 3.50 and low temperatures. This indicates that various acid residues lose their charges leaving uncompensated positively charged clusters. The wild-type protein is more stable than its E34D mutant, particularly at pH 4.00 and 3.75 although less so at 3.50 (1.8, 1.6 and 0.6 kJ.mol(-1) at 25 degrees C for DeltaDeltaG at pH 4.00, 3.75 and 3.50, respectively), which seems to be related to the effect of a salt bridge between E34 and K13.

An alternate conformation of the hyperthermostable HU protein from Thermotoga maritima has unexpectedly high flexibility

The homodimeric HU protein from the hyperthermophile Thermotoga maritima (HUTmar) is a model system which can yield insights into the molecular determinants of thermostability in proteins. Unusually for a thermostable protein, HUTmar exists in a structurally heterogeneous state as evidenced by the assignment of two distinct and approximately equally populated forms in solution. Relaxation measurements combined with chemical shift, hydrogen exchange, and nuclear Overhauser enhancement data confirm the main structural features of both forms. In addition, these data support a two-state model for HUTmar in which the major form closely resembles the X-ray structure while the very flexible minor form is less structured. HUTmar may therefore be a new example of the small class of hyperthermostable proteins with unexpected flexibility.

Structure and dynamics of the DNA-binding protein HU of B. stearothermophilus investigated by Raman and ultraviolet-resonance Raman spectroscopy

The histone-like protein HU of Bacillus stearothermophilus (HUBst) is a 90-residue homodimer that binds nonspecifically to B DNA. Although the structure of the HUBst:DNA complex is not known, the proposed DNA-binding surface consists of extended arms that project from an alpha-helical platform. Here, we report Raman and ultraviolet-resonance Raman (UVRR) spectra diagnostic of subunit secondary structures and indicative of key side-chains lining the proposed DNA-binding surface. Raman conformation markers show that the DNA-binding arms of the dimer contain beta-stranded structure in excess (eight +/- two residues per subunit) of that reported previously. Important among side-chain markers are Met (701 cm(-1)), Ala (908 cm(-1)), Arg (1082 cm(-1)), and Pro (1457 cm(-1)). The Ala marker undergoes a substantial shift (908 --> 893 cm(-1)) on deuteration of alanyl peptide sites, indicating a coupled side-chain/main-chain mode of diagnostic value in the identification of exchange-protected alanines. A large subset of alanines (67%) in the alpha-helical core exhibits robust resistance to exchange. A quantitative study of NH --> ND exchange exploiting newly identified amide II' markers of helical (1440 cm(-1)) and nonhelical (1472 cm(-1)) conformations of HUBst indicates unexpected flexibility at the dimer interface, which is manifested in rapid exchange of 80% of peptide sites. The results establish a basis for subsequent Raman and UVRR investigations of HUBst:DNA complexes and provide a framework for applications to other DNA-binding architectural proteins.

Purification and characterization of a new hyperthermostable, allosamidin-insensitive and denaturation-resistant chitinase from the hyperthermophilic archaeon Thermococcus chitonophagus

A new chitinase (1,4-beta-D-N-acetyl-glucosaminidase, EC 3.2.1.14) was detected and purified to homogeneity in its native form from the chitinolytic enzyme system of the extremely thermophilic archaeon Thermococcus chitonophagus. This is the first nonrecombinant chitinase purified and characterized from archaea and also constitutes the first case of a membrane-associated chitinase isolated from archaea. The enzyme is a monomer with an apparent molecular weight of 70 kDa [therefore named chitinase 70 (Chi70)] and pI of 5.9; it is hydrophobic and appears to be associated with the outer side of the cell membrane. Chi70 is optimally active at 70 degrees C and pH 7.0 and exhibits remarkable thermostability, maintaining 50% activity even after 1 h at 120 degrees C, and therefore the enzyme is the most thermostable chitinase so far isolated. The enzyme was not inhibited by allosamidin, the natural inhibitor of chitinolytic activity, and was also resistant to denaturation by urea and SDS. On the other hand, guanidine hydrochloride significantly reduced enzymatic activity, indicating that, apart from the hydrophobic interactions, ion pairs located on the surface of the protein could be playing an important role in maintaining the protein's fold and enzyme activity. Chi70 showed broad substrate specificity for several chitinous substrates and derivatives. The lowest K(m) and highest K(cat) values were found for pNP(NAG)(2) as substrate and were determined to be 0.14 mM and 23 min(-1), respectively. The hydrolysis pattern was similar for oligomers and polymers, with N, N'-diacetylchitobiose [(NAG)(2)] being the final, major hydrolysis product. Chi70 was classified as an endochitinase due to its ability to release chitobiose from colloidal chitin. Additionally, the enzyme presented considerable cellulolytic activity. Analysis of the NH(2)-terminal amino acid sequence showed no detectable homology with other known sequences, suggesting that Chi70 is a new protein.

De novo purification scheme and crystallization conditions yield high-resolution structures of chitinase A and its complex with the inhibitor allosamidin

The purification scheme of chitinase A (ChiA) from S. marcescens has been extensively revised. The pure enzyme crystallizes readily under new crystallization conditions. The ChiA crystal structure has been refined to 1.55 A resolution and the crystal structure of ChiA co-crystallized with the inhibitor allosamidin has been refined to 1.9 A resolution. Allosamidin is located in the deep active-site tunnel of ChiA and interacts with three important residues: Glu315, the proton donor of the catalysis, Asp313, which adopts two conformations in the native structure but is oriented towards Glu315 in the inhibitor complex, and Tyr390, which lies opposite Glu315 in the active-site tunnel.

The thermostability of DNA-binding protein HU from mesophilic, thermophilic, and extreme thermophilic bacteria

Based on primary structure comparison between four highly homologous DNA-binding proteins (HUs) displaying differential thermostability, we have employed in vitro site-directed mutagenesis to decipher their thermostability mechanism at the molecular level. The contribution of the 11 amino acids that differ between the thermophilic HUBst from Bacillus stearothermophilus (Tm = 61.6 degrees C) and the mesophilic HUBsu from Bacillus subtilis (Tm = 39.7 degrees C) was evaluated by replacing these amino acids in HUBst with their mesophilic counterparts. Among 11 amino acids, three residues, Gly-15, Glu-34, and Val-42, which are highly conserved in the thermophilic HUs, have been found to be responsible for the thermostability of HUBst. These amino acids in combination (HUBst-G15E/E34D/V42I) reduce the thermostability of the protein (Tm = 45.1 degrees C) at the level of its mesophilic homologue HUBsu. By replacing these amino acids in HUBsu with their thermophilic counterparts, the HUBsu-E15G/D34E/142V mutant was generated with thermostability (Tm = 57.8 degrees C) at the level of thermophilic HUBst. Employing the same strategy, we generated several mutants in the extremely thermophilic HUTmar from Thermotoga maritima (Tm = 80.5 degrees C), and obtained data consistent with the previous results. The triplet mutant HUTmar-G15E/E34D/V421 (Tm = 35.9 degrees C) converted the extremely thermophilic protein HUTmar to mesophilic. The various forms of HU proteins were overproduced in Escherichia coli, highly purified, and the thermostability of the mutants confirmed by circular dichroism spectroscopy. The results presented here were elucidated on the basis of the X-ray structure of HUBst and HUTmar (our unpublished results), and their mechanism was proposed at the molecular level. The results clearly show that three individual local interactions located at the helix-turn-helix part of the protein are responsible for the stability of HU proteins by acting cooperatively in a common mechanism for thermostability.

Joint refinement as a tool for thorough comparison between NMR and X-ray data and structures of HU protein

Joint refinement, i.e., the simultaneous refinement of a structure against both nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) spectroscopic and X-ray crystallographic data, was performed on the HU protein from Bacillus stearothermophilus (HUBst). The procedure was aimed at investigating the compatibility of the two data sets and at identifying conflicting information. Wherever important differences were found, such as peptide flips in the main-chain conformation, the data were further analyzed to find the cause. The NMR data showed some errors arising either from the manual interpretation of the spectra or from the incorrect account for spin diffusion. The most important artefact inherent to the X-ray data is the crystal packing of the molecules: the effects range from the limitation of the freedom of the flexible parts of the HUBst molecule to possibly one of the peptide flips.

Overexpression, purification, and characterization of a thermostable chitinase (Chi40) from Streptomyces thermoviolaceus OPC-520

A new procedure for the large-scale purification of the recombinant thermostable chitinase (Chi40) cloned from Streptomyces thermoviolaceus in various expression vectors in Escherichia coli is described. Chi40 was overproduced in the cytosolic and secreted forms. The cytosolic form (Chi40c) was highly overproduced and purified by metal-affinity and ion-exchange chromatography in large amounts. The protein was highly active and thermostable but not homogeneous, since a considerable proportion of the Chi40c protein was not correctly folded as determined by native polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis. The Chi40 protein secreted into the culture medium (Chi40s) was purified by hydrophobic interaction and ion-exchange chromatography and high amounts of correctly folded and active Chi40 protein could be recovered in a short time. The enzymatic activity of Chi40s on a synthetic and on its natural substrate, chitin, was studied. Thermostability measurements showed that Chi40 has a T(m) of 60.7 degrees C at neutral pH. (13)C-(15)N double-labeled recombinant Chi40s was also produced and purified from the pECHChi40-9 construct introduced into BL21trxB(DE3) cells grown in minimal medium in the presence of the paramagnetic elements [(13)C]glucose and (15)NH(4)Cl. The presented data open the possibility of an extensive structural study on Chi40s by X-ray crystallography and on enzyme-substrate interaction by NMR spectroscopy.

High resolution structural analyses of mutant chitinase A complexes with substrates provide new insight into the mechanism of catalysis

Chitinase A (ChiA) from the bacterium Serratia marcescens is a hydrolytic enzyme, which cleaves beta-1,4-glycosidic bonds of the natural biopolymer chitin to generate di-N-acetyl-chitobiose. The refined structure of ChiA at 1.55 A shows that residue Asp313, which is located near the catalytic proton donor residue Glu315, is found in two alternative conformations of equal occupancy. In addition, the structures of the cocrystallized mutant proteins D313A, E315Q, Y390F, and D391A with octa- or hexa-N-acetyl-glucosamine have been refined at high resolution and the interactions with the substrate have been characterized. The obtained results clearly show that the active site is a semiclosed tunnel. Upon binding, the enzyme bends and rotates the substrate in the vicinity of the scissile bond. Furthermore, the enzyme imposes a critical "chair" to "boat" conformational change on the sugar residue bound to the -1 subsite. According to our results, we suggest that residues Asp313 and Tyr390 along with Glu315 play a central role in the catalysis. We propose that after the protonation of the substrate glycosidic bond, Asp313 that interacts with Asp311 flips to its alternative position where it interacts with Glu315 thus forcing the substrate acetamido group of -1 sugar to rotate around the C2-N2 bond. As a result of these structural changes, the water molecule that is hydrogen-bonded to Tyr390 and the NH of the acetamido group is displaced to a position that allows the completion of hydrolysis. The presented results suggest a mechanism for ChiA that modifies the earlier proposed "substrate assisted" catalysis.

Modular structure, local flexibility and cold-activity of a novel chitobiase from a psychrophilic Antarctic bacterium

The gene archb encoding for the cell-bound chitobiase from the Antarctic Gram-positive bacterium Arthrobacter sp. TAD20 was cloned and expressed in Escherichia coli in a soluble form. The mature chitobiase ArChb possesses four functionally independent domains: a catalytic domain stabilized by Ca(2+), a galactose-binding domain and an immunoglobulin-like domain followed by a cell-wall anchorage signal, typical of cell-surface proteins from Gram-positive bacteria. Binding of saccharides was analyzed by differential scanning calorimetry, allowing to distinguish unequivocally the catalytic domain from the galactose-binding domain and to study binding specificities. The results suggest that ArChb could play a role in bacterium attachment to natural hosts. Kinetic parameters of ArChb demonstrate perfect adaptation to catalysis at low temperatures, as shown by a low activation energy associated with unusually low K(m) and high k(cat) values. Thermodependence of these parameters indicates that discrete amino acid substitutions in the catalytic center have optimized the thermodynamic properties of weak interactions involved in substrate binding at low temperatures. Microcalorimetry also reveals that heat-lability, a general trait of psychrophilic enzymes, only affects the active site domain of ArChb.

Cloning, sequences, and characterization of two chitinase genes from the Antarctic Arthrobacter sp. strain TAD20: isolation and partial characterization of the enzymes

Arthrobacter sp. strain TAD20, a chitinolytic gram-positive organism, was isolated from the sea bottom along the Antarctic ice shell. Arthrobacter sp. strain TAD20 secretes two major chitinases, ChiA and ChiB (ArChiA and ArChiB), in response to chitin induction. A single chromosomal DNA fragment containing the genes coding for both chitinases was cloned in Escherichia coli. DNA sequencing analysis of this fragment revealed two contiguous open reading frames coding for the precursors of ArChiA (881 amino acids [aa]) and ArChiB (578 aa). ArChiA and ArChiB are modular enzymes consisting of a glycosyl-hydrolase family 18 catalytic domain as well as two and one chitin-binding domains, respectively. The catalytic domain of ArChiA exhibits 55% identity with a chitodextrinase from Vibrio furnissii. The ArChiB catalytic domain exhibits 33% identity with chitinase A of Bacillus circulans. The ArChiA chitin-binding domains are homologous to the chitin-binding domain of ArChiB. ArChiA and ArChiB were purified to homogeneity from the native Arthrobacter strain and partially characterized. Thermal unfolding of ArChiA, ArChiB, and chitinase A of Serratia marcescens was studied using differential scanning calorimetry. ArChiA and ArChiB, compared to their mesophilic counterpart, exhibited increased heat lability, similar to other cold-adapted enzymes.

PCR performance of the B-type DNA polymerase from the thermophilic euryarchaeon Thermococcus aggregans improved by mutations in the Y-GG/A motif

The effect of mutations in the highly conserved Y-GG/A motif of B-type DNA polymerases was studied in the DNA polymerase from the hyperthermophilic euryarchaeon Thermococcus aggregans. This motif plays a critical role in the balance between the synthesis and degradation of the DNA chain. Five different mutations of the tyrosine at position 387 (Tyr387-->Phe, Tyr387-->Trp, Tyr387-->His, Tyr387-->Asn and Tyr387-->Ser) revealed that an aromatic ring system is crucial for the synthetic activity of the enzyme. Amino acids at this position lacking the ring system (Ser and Asn) led to a significant decrease in polymerase activity and to enhanced exonuclease activity, which resulted in improved enzyme fidelity. Exchange of tyrosine to phenylalanine, tryptophan or histidine led to phenotypes with wild-type-like fidelity but enhanced PCR performance that could be related to a higher velocity of polymerisation. With the help of a modelled structure of T.aggregans DNA polymerase, the biochemical data were interpreted proposing that the conformation of the flexible loop containing the Y-GG/A motif is an important factor for the equilibrium between DNA polymerisation and exonucleolysis.

Molecular organization of the alkali-insoluble fraction of Aspergillus fumigatus cell wall

Physical and biological properties of the fungal cell wall are determined by the composition and arrangement of the structural polysaccharides. Cell wall polymers of fungi are classically divided into two groups depending on their solubility in hot alkali. We have analyzed the alkali-insoluble fraction of the Aspergillus fumigatus cell wall, which is the fraction believed to be responsible for fungal cell wall rigidity. Using enzymatic digestions with recombinant endo-beta-1,3-glucanase and chitinase, fractionation by gel filtration, affinity chromatography with immobilized lectins, and high performance liquid chromatography, several fractions that contained specific interpolysaccharide covalent linkages were isolated. Unique features of the A. fumigatus cell wall are (i) the absence of beta-1,6-glucan and (ii) the presence of a linear beta-1, 3/1,4-glucan, never previously described in fungi. Galactomannan, chitin, and beta-1,3-glucan were also found in the alkali-insoluble fraction. The beta-1,3-glucan is a branched polymer with 4% of beta-1,6 branch points. Chitin, galactomannan, and the linear beta-1, 3/1,4-glucan were covalently linked to the nonreducing end of beta-1, 3-glucan side chains. As in Saccharomyces cerevisiae, chitin was linked via a beta-1,4 linkage to beta-1,3-glucan. The data obtained suggested that the branching of beta-1,3-glucan is an early event in the construction of the cell wall, resulting in an increase of potential acceptor sites for chitin, galactomannan, and the linear beta-1,3/1,4-glucan.