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Bodas DS, Maduskar A, Kaniganti T, Wakhloo D, Balasubramanian A, Subhedar N, Ghose A. Convergent Energy State-Dependent Antagonistic Signaling by Cocaine- and Amphetamine-Regulated Transcript (CART) and Neuropeptide Y (NPY) Modulates the Plasticity of Forebrain Neurons to Regulate Feeding in Zebrafish. J Neurosci 2023; 43:1089-1110. [PMID: 36599680 PMCID: PMC9962846 DOI: 10.1523/jneurosci.2426-21.2022] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/11/2021] [Revised: 11/28/2022] [Accepted: 12/22/2022] [Indexed: 01/06/2023] Open
Abstract
Dynamic reconfiguration of circuit function subserves the flexibility of innate behaviors tuned to physiological states. Internal energy stores adaptively regulate feeding-associated behaviors and integrate opposing hunger and satiety signals at the level of neural circuits. Across vertebrate lineages, the neuropeptides cocaine- and amphetamine-regulated transcript (CART) and neuropeptide Y (NPY) have potent anorexic and orexic functions, respectively, and show energy-state-dependent expression in interoceptive neurons. However, how the antagonistic activities of these peptides modulate circuit plasticity remains unclear. Using behavioral, neuroanatomical, and activity analysis in adult zebrafish of both sexes, along with pharmacological interventions, we show that CART and NPY activities converge on a population of neurons in the dorsomedial telencephalon (Dm). Although CART facilitates glutamatergic neurotransmission at the Dm, NPY dampens the response to glutamate. In energy-rich states, CART enhances NMDA receptor (NMDAR) function by protein kinase A/protein kinase C (PKA/PKC)-mediated phosphorylation of the NR1 subunit of the NMDAR complex. Conversely, starvation triggers NPY-mediated reduction in phosphorylated NR1 via calcineurin activation and inhibition of cAMP production leading to reduced responsiveness to glutamate. Our data identify convergent integration of CART and NPY inputs by the Dm neurons to generate nutritional state-dependent circuit plasticity that is correlated with the behavioral switch induced by the opposing actions of satiety and hunger signals.SIGNIFICANCE STATEMENT Internal energy needs reconfigure neuronal circuits to adaptively regulate feeding behavior. Energy-state-dependent neuropeptide release can signal energy status to feeding-associated circuits and modulate circuit function. CART and NPY are major anorexic and orexic factors, respectively, but the intracellular signaling pathways used by these peptides to alter circuit function remain uncharacterized. We show that CART and NPY-expressing neurons from energy-state interoceptive areas project to a novel telencephalic region, Dm, in adult zebrafish. CART increases the excitability of Dm neurons, whereas NPY opposes CART activity. Antagonistic signaling by CART and NPY converge onto NMDA-receptor function to modulate glutamatergic neurotransmission. Thus, opposing activities of anorexic CART and orexic NPY reconfigure circuit function to generate flexibility in feeding behavior.
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Affiliation(s)
- Devika S Bodas
- Indian Institute of Science Education and Research, Pune, Pune 411008, India
| | - Aditi Maduskar
- Indian Institute of Science Education and Research, Pune, Pune 411008, India
| | - Tarun Kaniganti
- Indian Institute of Science Education and Research, Pune, Pune 411008, India
| | - Debia Wakhloo
- Indian Institute of Science Education and Research, Pune, Pune 411008, India
| | | | - Nishikant Subhedar
- Indian Institute of Science Education and Research, Pune, Pune 411008, India
| | - Aurnab Ghose
- Indian Institute of Science Education and Research, Pune, Pune 411008, India
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2
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Khaliq F, Oberhauser J, Wakhloo D, Mahajani S. Decoding degeneration: the implementation of machine learning for clinical detection of neurodegenerative disorders. Neural Regen Res 2022; 18:1235-1242. [PMID: 36453399 PMCID: PMC9838151 DOI: 10.4103/1673-5374.355982] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/27/2022] Open
Abstract
Machine learning represents a growing subfield of artificial intelligence with much promise in the diagnosis, treatment, and tracking of complex conditions, including neurodegenerative disorders such as Alzheimer's and Parkinson's diseases. While no definitive methods of diagnosis or treatment exist for either disease, researchers have implemented machine learning algorithms with neuroimaging and motion-tracking technology to analyze pathologically relevant symptoms and biomarkers. Deep learning algorithms such as neural networks and complex combined architectures have proven capable of tracking disease-linked changes in brain structure and physiology as well as patient motor and cognitive symptoms and responses to treatment. However, such techniques require further development aimed at improving transparency, adaptability, and reproducibility. In this review, we provide an overview of existing neuroimaging technologies and supervised and unsupervised machine learning techniques with their current applications in the context of Alzheimer's and Parkinson's diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Fariha Khaliq
- Department of Biomedical Engineering and Sciences (BMES), National University of Science and Technology, Islamabad, Pakistan,Correspondence to: Fariha Khaliq, ; Sameehan Mahajani, .
| | - Jane Oberhauser
- Department of Neuropathology, School of Medicine, Stanford University, Stanford, CA, USA
| | - Debia Wakhloo
- Department of Neuropathology, School of Medicine, Stanford University, Stanford, CA, USA
| | - Sameehan Mahajani
- Department of Neuropathology, School of Medicine, Stanford University, Stanford, CA, USA,Correspondence to: Fariha Khaliq, ; Sameehan Mahajani, .
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3
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Otero-Garcia M, Mahajani SU, Wakhloo D, Tang W, Xue YQ, Morabito S, Pan J, Oberhauser J, Madira AE, Shakouri T, Deng Y, Allison T, He Z, Lowry WE, Kawaguchi R, Swarup V, Cobos I. Molecular signatures underlying neurofibrillary tangle susceptibility in Alzheimer's disease. Neuron 2022; 110:2929-2948.e8. [PMID: 35882228 PMCID: PMC9509477 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuron.2022.06.021] [Citation(s) in RCA: 46] [Impact Index Per Article: 23.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/24/2021] [Revised: 03/08/2022] [Accepted: 06/27/2022] [Indexed: 01/01/2023]
Abstract
Tau aggregation in neurofibrillary tangles (NFTs) is closely associated with neurodegeneration and cognitive decline in Alzheimer's disease (AD). However, the molecular signatures that distinguish between aggregation-prone and aggregation-resistant cell states are unknown. We developed methods for the high-throughput isolation and transcriptome profiling of single somas with NFTs from the human AD brain, quantified the susceptibility of 20 neocortical subtypes for NFT formation and death, and identified both shared and cell-type-specific signatures. NFT-bearing neurons shared a marked upregulation of synaptic transmission-related genes, including a core set of 63 genes enriched for synaptic vesicle cycling. Oxidative phosphorylation and mitochondrial dysfunction were highly cell-type dependent. Apoptosis was only modestly enriched, and the susceptibilities of NFT-bearing and NFT-free neurons for death were highly similar. Our analysis suggests that NFTs represent cell-type-specific responses to stress and synaptic dysfunction. We provide a resource for biomarker discovery and the investigation of tau-dependent and tau-independent mechanisms of neurodegeneration.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marcos Otero-Garcia
- Department of Pathology, Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford, CA 94305, USA
| | - Sameehan U Mahajani
- Department of Pathology, Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford, CA 94305, USA
| | - Debia Wakhloo
- Department of Pathology, Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford, CA 94305, USA
| | - Weijing Tang
- Department of Pathology, Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford, CA 94305, USA
| | - Yue-Qiang Xue
- Department of Pathology, Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford, CA 94305, USA
| | - Samuel Morabito
- Mathematical, Computational and Systems Biology Program, University of California, Irvine, CA 92697, USA; Institute for Memory Impairments and Neurological Disorders, University of California, Irvine, CA 92697, USA
| | - Jie Pan
- Department of Pathology, Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford, CA 94305, USA
| | - Jane Oberhauser
- Department of Pathology, Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford, CA 94305, USA
| | - Angela E Madira
- Department of Pathology, Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford, CA 94305, USA
| | - Tamara Shakouri
- Department of Pathology, University of California, Los Angeles, CA 90095, USA
| | - Yongning Deng
- Department of Pathology, University of California, Los Angeles, CA 90095, USA; Department of Neurology, First Affiliated Hospital of Xi'an Jiaotong University, Xi'an, Shaanxi, China
| | - Thomas Allison
- Department of Biological Chemistry, University of California, Los Angeles, CA 90095, USA
| | - Zihuai He
- Department Neurology and Neurological Sciences and Quantitative Sciences Unit, Department of Medicine, Stanford University, Stanford, CA 94305, USA
| | - William E Lowry
- Department of Molecular Cell and Developmental Biology, Broad Center for Regenerative Medicine and Molecular Biology Institute, University of California, Los Angeles, CA 90095, USA
| | - Riki Kawaguchi
- Department of Psychiatry and Semel Institute for Neuroscience and Human Behavior, University of California, Los Angeles, CA 90095, USA
| | - Vivek Swarup
- Institute for Memory Impairments and Neurological Disorders, University of California, Irvine, CA 92697, USA; Department of Neurobiology and Behavior, University of California, Irvine, CA 92697, USA
| | - Inma Cobos
- Department of Pathology, Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford, CA 94305, USA.
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4
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Wakhloo D, Mahajani S, Oberhauser J, Madira A. From cradle to grave: neurogenesis, neuroregeneration and neurodegeneration in Alzheimer’s and Parkinson’s diseases. Neural Regen Res 2022; 17:2606-2614. [PMID: 35662189 PMCID: PMC9165389 DOI: 10.4103/1673-5374.336138] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022] Open
Abstract
Two of the most common neurodegenerative disorders – Alzheimer’s and Parkinson’s diseases – are characterized by synaptic dysfunction and degeneration that culminate in neuronal loss due to abnormal protein accumulation. The intracellular aggregation of hyper-phosphorylated tau and the extracellular aggregation of amyloid beta plaques form the basis of Alzheimer’s disease pathology. The major hallmark of Parkinson’s disease is the loss of dopaminergic neurons in the substantia nigra pars compacta, following the formation of Lewy bodies, which consists primarily of alpha-synuclein aggregates. However, the discrete mechanisms that contribute to neurodegeneration in these disorders are still poorly understood. Both neuronal loss and impaired adult neurogenesis have been reported in animal models of these disorders. Yet these findings remain subject to frequent debate due to a lack of conclusive evidence in post mortem brain tissue from human patients. While some publications provide significant findings related to axonal regeneration in Alzheimer’s and Parkinson’s diseases, they also highlight the limitations and obstacles to the development of neuroregenerative therapies. In this review, we summarize in vitro and in vivo findings related to neurogenesis, neuroregeneration and neurodegeneration in the context of Alzheimer’s and Parkinson’s diseases.
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5
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Wakhloo D, Scharkowski F, Curto Y, Javed Butt U, Bansal V, Steixner-Kumar AA, Wüstefeld L, Rajput A, Arinrad S, Zillmann MR, Seelbach A, Hassouna I, Schneider K, Qadir Ibrahim A, Werner HB, Martens H, Miskowiak K, Wojcik SM, Bonn S, Nacher J, Nave KA, Ehrenreich H. Functional hypoxia drives neuroplasticity and neurogenesis via brain erythropoietin. Nat Commun 2020; 11:1313. [PMID: 32152318 PMCID: PMC7062779 DOI: 10.1038/s41467-020-15041-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 80] [Impact Index Per Article: 20.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/15/2019] [Accepted: 02/12/2020] [Indexed: 12/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Erythropoietin (EPO), named after its role in hematopoiesis, is also expressed in mammalian brain. In clinical settings, recombinant EPO treatment has revealed a remarkable improvement of cognition, but underlying mechanisms have remained obscure. Here, we show with a novel line of reporter mice that cognitive challenge induces local/endogenous hypoxia in hippocampal pyramidal neurons, hence enhancing expression of EPO and EPO receptor (EPOR). High-dose EPO administration, amplifying auto/paracrine EPO/EPOR signaling, prompts the emergence of new CA1 neurons and enhanced dendritic spine densities. Single-cell sequencing reveals rapid increase in newly differentiating neurons. Importantly, improved performance on complex running wheels after EPO is imitated by exposure to mild exogenous/inspiratory hypoxia. All these effects depend on neuronal expression of the Epor gene. This suggests a model of neuroplasticity in form of a fundamental regulatory circle, in which neuronal networks—challenged by cognitive tasks—drift into transient hypoxia, thereby triggering neuronal EPO/EPOR expression. EPO treatment improves cognition, but underlying mechanisms were unknown. Here the authors describe a regulatory loop in which brain networks challenged by cognitive tasks drift into functional hypoxia that drives—via neuronal EPO synthesis—neurodifferentiation and dendritic spine formation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Debia Wakhloo
- Clinical Neuroscience, Max Planck Institute of Experimental Medicine, Göttingen, Germany
| | - Franziska Scharkowski
- Clinical Neuroscience, Max Planck Institute of Experimental Medicine, Göttingen, Germany
| | - Yasmina Curto
- Clinical Neuroscience, Max Planck Institute of Experimental Medicine, Göttingen, Germany.,Neurobiology Unit, Program in Neurosciences and Interdisciplinary Research Structure for Biotechnology and Biomedicine (BIOTECMED), Universitat de València, Burjassot, Spain
| | - Umer Javed Butt
- Clinical Neuroscience, Max Planck Institute of Experimental Medicine, Göttingen, Germany
| | - Vikas Bansal
- Clinical Neuroscience, Max Planck Institute of Experimental Medicine, Göttingen, Germany.,Institute of Medical Systems Biology, Center for Molecular Neurobiology, University Clinic Hamburg-Eppendorf, Hamburg, Germany
| | - Agnes A Steixner-Kumar
- Clinical Neuroscience, Max Planck Institute of Experimental Medicine, Göttingen, Germany
| | - Liane Wüstefeld
- Clinical Neuroscience, Max Planck Institute of Experimental Medicine, Göttingen, Germany
| | - Ashish Rajput
- Institute of Medical Systems Biology, Center for Molecular Neurobiology, University Clinic Hamburg-Eppendorf, Hamburg, Germany
| | - Sahab Arinrad
- Clinical Neuroscience, Max Planck Institute of Experimental Medicine, Göttingen, Germany
| | - Matthias R Zillmann
- Clinical Neuroscience, Max Planck Institute of Experimental Medicine, Göttingen, Germany
| | - Anna Seelbach
- Clinical Neuroscience, Max Planck Institute of Experimental Medicine, Göttingen, Germany
| | - Imam Hassouna
- Clinical Neuroscience, Max Planck Institute of Experimental Medicine, Göttingen, Germany
| | - Katharina Schneider
- Clinical Neuroscience, Max Planck Institute of Experimental Medicine, Göttingen, Germany
| | - Abdul Qadir Ibrahim
- Institute of Medical Systems Biology, Center for Molecular Neurobiology, University Clinic Hamburg-Eppendorf, Hamburg, Germany
| | - Hauke B Werner
- Department of Neurogenetics, Max Planck Institute of Experimental Medicine, Göttingen, Germany
| | | | - Kamilla Miskowiak
- Copenhagen Affective Disorder Research Centre, Psychiatric Centre Copenhagen, Copenhagen University Hospital, Rigshospitalet, Copenhagen, Denmark
| | - Sonja M Wojcik
- Department of Molecular Neurobiology, Max Planck Institute of Experimental Medicine, Göttingen, Germany
| | - Stefan Bonn
- Institute of Medical Systems Biology, Center for Molecular Neurobiology, University Clinic Hamburg-Eppendorf, Hamburg, Germany.,DFG Research Center for Nanoscale Microscopy and Molecular Physiology of the Brain (CNMPB), Göttingen, Germany
| | - Juan Nacher
- Neurobiology Unit, Program in Neurosciences and Interdisciplinary Research Structure for Biotechnology and Biomedicine (BIOTECMED), Universitat de València, Burjassot, Spain.,CIBERSAM: Spanish National Network for Research in Mental Health, Valencia, Spain.,Fundación Investigación Hospital Clínico de Valencia, INCLIVA, Valencia, Spain
| | - Klaus-Armin Nave
- Department of Neurogenetics, Max Planck Institute of Experimental Medicine, Göttingen, Germany. .,DFG Research Center for Nanoscale Microscopy and Molecular Physiology of the Brain (CNMPB), Göttingen, Germany.
| | - Hannelore Ehrenreich
- Clinical Neuroscience, Max Planck Institute of Experimental Medicine, Göttingen, Germany. .,DFG Research Center for Nanoscale Microscopy and Molecular Physiology of the Brain (CNMPB), Göttingen, Germany.
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6
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Pan H, Oliveira B, Saher G, Dere E, Tapken D, Mitjans M, Seidel J, Wesolowski J, Wakhloo D, Klein-Schmidt C, Ronnenberg A, Schwabe K, Trippe R, Mätz-Rensing K, Berghoff S, Al-Krinawe Y, Martens H, Begemann M, Stöcker W, Kaup FJ, Mischke R, Boretius S, Nave KA, Krauss JK, Hollmann M, Lühder F, Ehrenreich H. Uncoupling the widespread occurrence of anti-NMDAR1 autoantibodies from neuropsychiatric disease in a novel autoimmune model. Mol Psychiatry 2019; 24:1489-1501. [PMID: 29426955 PMCID: PMC6756099 DOI: 10.1038/s41380-017-0011-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 55] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/29/2017] [Revised: 10/20/2017] [Accepted: 10/30/2017] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
Autoantibodies of the IgG class against N-methyl-D-aspartate-receptor subunit-NR1 (NMDAR1-AB) were considered pathognomonic for anti-NMDAR encephalitis. This view has been challenged by the age-dependent seroprevalence (up to >20%) of functional NMDAR1-AB of all immunoglobulin classes found in >5000 individuals, healthy or affected by different diseases. These findings question a merely encephalitogenic role of NMDAR1-AB. Here, we show that NMDAR1-AB belong to the normal autoimmune repertoire of dogs, cats, rats, mice, baboons, and rhesus macaques, and are functional in the NMDAR1 internalization assay based on human IPSC-derived cortical neurons. The age dependence of seroprevalence is lost in nonhuman primates in captivity and in human migrants, raising the intriguing possibility that chronic life stress may be related to NMDAR1-AB formation, predominantly of the IgA class. Active immunization of ApoE-/- and ApoE+/+ mice against four peptides of the extracellular NMDAR1 domain or ovalbumin (control) leads to high circulating levels of specific AB. After 4 weeks, the endogenously formed NMDAR1-AB (IgG) induce psychosis-like symptoms upon MK-801 challenge in ApoE-/- mice, characterized by an open blood-brain barrier, but not in their ApoE+/+ littermates, which are indistinguishable from ovalbumin controls. Importantly, NMDAR1-AB do not induce any sign of inflammation in the brain. Immunohistochemical staining for microglial activation markers and T lymphocytes in the hippocampus yields comparable results in ApoE-/- and ApoE+/+ mice, irrespective of immunization against NMDAR1 or ovalbumin. These data suggest that NMDAR1-AB of the IgG class shape behavioral phenotypes upon access to the brain but do not cause brain inflammation on their own.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hong Pan
- 0000 0001 0668 6902grid.419522.9Clinical Neuroscience, Max Planck Institute of Experimental Medicine, Göttingen, Germany
| | - Bárbara Oliveira
- 0000 0001 0668 6902grid.419522.9Clinical Neuroscience, Max Planck Institute of Experimental Medicine, Göttingen, Germany
| | - Gesine Saher
- 0000 0001 0668 6902grid.419522.9Department of Neurogenetics, Max Planck Institute of Experimental Medicine, Göttingen, Germany
| | - Ekrem Dere
- 0000 0001 0668 6902grid.419522.9Clinical Neuroscience, Max Planck Institute of Experimental Medicine, Göttingen, Germany
| | - Daniel Tapken
- 0000 0004 0490 981Xgrid.5570.7Department of Biochemistry I—Receptor Biochemistry, Ruhr University, Bochum, Germany
| | - Marina Mitjans
- 0000 0001 0668 6902grid.419522.9Clinical Neuroscience, Max Planck Institute of Experimental Medicine, Göttingen, Germany
| | - Jan Seidel
- 0000 0001 0668 6902grid.419522.9Clinical Neuroscience, Max Planck Institute of Experimental Medicine, Göttingen, Germany
| | - Janina Wesolowski
- 0000 0001 0668 6902grid.419522.9Clinical Neuroscience, Max Planck Institute of Experimental Medicine, Göttingen, Germany
| | - Debia Wakhloo
- 0000 0001 0668 6902grid.419522.9Clinical Neuroscience, Max Planck Institute of Experimental Medicine, Göttingen, Germany
| | - Christina Klein-Schmidt
- 0000 0004 0490 981Xgrid.5570.7Department of Biochemistry I—Receptor Biochemistry, Ruhr University, Bochum, Germany
| | - Anja Ronnenberg
- 0000 0001 0668 6902grid.419522.9Clinical Neuroscience, Max Planck Institute of Experimental Medicine, Göttingen, Germany
| | - Kerstin Schwabe
- 0000 0000 9529 9877grid.10423.34Department of Neurosurgery, Hannover Medical School, Hannover, Germany
| | - Ralf Trippe
- 0000 0004 0490 981Xgrid.5570.7Department of Biochemistry I—Receptor Biochemistry, Ruhr University, Bochum, Germany
| | - Kerstin Mätz-Rensing
- Department of Pathology, Leibniz Institute for Primate Research, Göttingen, Germany
| | - Stefan Berghoff
- 0000 0001 0668 6902grid.419522.9Department of Neurogenetics, Max Planck Institute of Experimental Medicine, Göttingen, Germany
| | - Yazeed Al-Krinawe
- 0000 0000 9529 9877grid.10423.34Department of Neurosurgery, Hannover Medical School, Hannover, Germany
| | | | - Martin Begemann
- 0000 0001 0668 6902grid.419522.9Clinical Neuroscience, Max Planck Institute of Experimental Medicine, Göttingen, Germany
| | - Winfried Stöcker
- Institute for Experimental Immunology, affiliated to Euroimmun, Lübeck, Germany
| | - Franz-Josef Kaup
- Department of Pathology, Leibniz Institute for Primate Research, Göttingen, Germany
| | - Reinhard Mischke
- 0000 0001 0126 6191grid.412970.9Small Animal Clinic, University of Veterinary Medicine, Hannover, Germany
| | - Susann Boretius
- Functional Imaging Laboratory, Leibniz Institute for Primate Research, Göttingen, Germany
| | - Klaus-Armin Nave
- 0000 0001 0668 6902grid.419522.9Department of Neurogenetics, Max Planck Institute of Experimental Medicine, Göttingen, Germany ,DFG Research Center for Nanoscale Microscopy and Molecular Physiology of the Brain (CNMPB), Göttingen, Germany
| | - Joachim K. Krauss
- 0000 0000 9529 9877grid.10423.34Department of Neurosurgery, Hannover Medical School, Hannover, Germany
| | - Michael Hollmann
- 0000 0004 0490 981Xgrid.5570.7Department of Biochemistry I—Receptor Biochemistry, Ruhr University, Bochum, Germany
| | - Fred Lühder
- 0000 0001 0482 5331grid.411984.1Department of Neuroimmunology, Institute for Multiple Sclerosis Research and Hertie Foundation, University Medicine Göttingen, Göttingen, Germany
| | - Hannelore Ehrenreich
- Clinical Neuroscience, Max Planck Institute of Experimental Medicine, Göttingen, Germany. .,DFG Research Center for Nanoscale Microscopy and Molecular Physiology of the Brain (CNMPB), Göttingen, Germany.
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