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Gill RS, Lee HM, Caldairou B, Hong SJ, Barba C, Deleo F, D'Incerti L, Mendes Coelho VC, Lenge M, Semmelroch M, Schrader DV, Bartolomei F, Guye M, Schulze-Bonhage A, Urbach H, Cho KH, Cendes F, Guerrini R, Jackson G, Hogan RE, Bernasconi N, Bernasconi A. Multicenter Validation of a Deep Learning Detection Algorithm for Focal Cortical Dysplasia. Neurology 2021; 97:e1571-e1582. [PMID: 34521691 DOI: 10.1212/wnl.0000000000012698] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/29/2020] [Accepted: 07/26/2021] [Indexed: 11/15/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND AND OBJECTIVE To test the hypothesis that a multicenter-validated computer deep learning algorithm detects MRI-negative focal cortical dysplasia (FCD). METHODS We used clinically acquired 3-dimensional (3D) T1-weighted and 3D fluid-attenuated inversion recovery MRI of 148 patients (median age 23 years [range 2-55 years]; 47% female) with histologically verified FCD at 9 centers to train a deep convolutional neural network (CNN) classifier. Images were initially deemed MRI-negative in 51% of patients, in whom intracranial EEG determined the focus. For risk stratification, the CNN incorporated bayesian uncertainty estimation as a measure of confidence. To evaluate performance, detection maps were compared to expert FCD manual labels. Sensitivity was tested in an independent cohort of 23 cases with FCD (13 ± 10 years). Applying the algorithm to 42 healthy controls and 89 controls with temporal lobe epilepsy disease tested specificity. RESULTS Overall sensitivity was 93% (137 of 148 FCD detected) using a leave-one-site-out cross-validation, with an average of 6 false positives per patient. Sensitivity in MRI-negative FCD was 85%. In 73% of patients, the FCD was among the clusters with the highest confidence; in half, it ranked the highest. Sensitivity in the independent cohort was 83% (19 of 23; average of 5 false positives per patient). Specificity was 89% in healthy and disease controls. DISCUSSION This first multicenter-validated deep learning detection algorithm yields the highest sensitivity to date in MRI-negative FCD. By pairing predictions with risk stratification, this classifier may assist clinicians in adjusting hypotheses relative to other tests, increasing diagnostic confidence. Moreover, generalizability across age and MRI hardware makes this approach ideal for presurgical evaluation of MRI-negative epilepsy. CLASSIFICATION OF EVIDENCE This study provides Class III evidence that deep learning on multimodal MRI accurately identifies FCD in patients with epilepsy initially diagnosed as MRI negative.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ravnoor Singh Gill
- From the Neuroimaging of Epilepsy Laboratory (R.S.G., H.-M.L., B.C., S.-J.H., N.B., A.B.), Montreal Neurological Institute, McGill University, Montreal, Quebec, Canada; Pediatric Neurology Unit and Laboratories (C.B., M.L., R.G.), Children's Hospital A. Meyer-University of Florence, Italy; Epilepsy Unit (F.D.) and Neuroradiology (L.D.), Fondazione IRCCS Istituto Neurologico C. Besta, Milan, Italy; Department of Neurology (V.C.M.C., F.C.), University of Campinas, Brazil; The Florey Institute of Neuroscience and Mental Health and The University of Melbourne (M.S., G.J.), Victoria, Australia; Department of Pediatrics (D.V.S.), British Columbia Children's Hospital, Vancouver, Canada; Aix Marseille University (F.B.), INSERM UMR 1106, Institut de Neurosciences des Systèmes; Aix Marseille University (M.G.), CNRS, CRMBM UMR 7339, Marseille, France; Freiburg Epilepsy Center (A.S.-B., H.U.), Universitätsklinikum Freiburg, Germany; Department of Neurology (K.H.C.), Yonsei University College of Medicine, Seoul, Korea; and Department of Neurology (R.E.H.), Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, MO
| | - Hyo-Min Lee
- From the Neuroimaging of Epilepsy Laboratory (R.S.G., H.-M.L., B.C., S.-J.H., N.B., A.B.), Montreal Neurological Institute, McGill University, Montreal, Quebec, Canada; Pediatric Neurology Unit and Laboratories (C.B., M.L., R.G.), Children's Hospital A. Meyer-University of Florence, Italy; Epilepsy Unit (F.D.) and Neuroradiology (L.D.), Fondazione IRCCS Istituto Neurologico C. Besta, Milan, Italy; Department of Neurology (V.C.M.C., F.C.), University of Campinas, Brazil; The Florey Institute of Neuroscience and Mental Health and The University of Melbourne (M.S., G.J.), Victoria, Australia; Department of Pediatrics (D.V.S.), British Columbia Children's Hospital, Vancouver, Canada; Aix Marseille University (F.B.), INSERM UMR 1106, Institut de Neurosciences des Systèmes; Aix Marseille University (M.G.), CNRS, CRMBM UMR 7339, Marseille, France; Freiburg Epilepsy Center (A.S.-B., H.U.), Universitätsklinikum Freiburg, Germany; Department of Neurology (K.H.C.), Yonsei University College of Medicine, Seoul, Korea; and Department of Neurology (R.E.H.), Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, MO
| | - Benoit Caldairou
- From the Neuroimaging of Epilepsy Laboratory (R.S.G., H.-M.L., B.C., S.-J.H., N.B., A.B.), Montreal Neurological Institute, McGill University, Montreal, Quebec, Canada; Pediatric Neurology Unit and Laboratories (C.B., M.L., R.G.), Children's Hospital A. Meyer-University of Florence, Italy; Epilepsy Unit (F.D.) and Neuroradiology (L.D.), Fondazione IRCCS Istituto Neurologico C. Besta, Milan, Italy; Department of Neurology (V.C.M.C., F.C.), University of Campinas, Brazil; The Florey Institute of Neuroscience and Mental Health and The University of Melbourne (M.S., G.J.), Victoria, Australia; Department of Pediatrics (D.V.S.), British Columbia Children's Hospital, Vancouver, Canada; Aix Marseille University (F.B.), INSERM UMR 1106, Institut de Neurosciences des Systèmes; Aix Marseille University (M.G.), CNRS, CRMBM UMR 7339, Marseille, France; Freiburg Epilepsy Center (A.S.-B., H.U.), Universitätsklinikum Freiburg, Germany; Department of Neurology (K.H.C.), Yonsei University College of Medicine, Seoul, Korea; and Department of Neurology (R.E.H.), Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, MO
| | - Seok-Jun Hong
- From the Neuroimaging of Epilepsy Laboratory (R.S.G., H.-M.L., B.C., S.-J.H., N.B., A.B.), Montreal Neurological Institute, McGill University, Montreal, Quebec, Canada; Pediatric Neurology Unit and Laboratories (C.B., M.L., R.G.), Children's Hospital A. Meyer-University of Florence, Italy; Epilepsy Unit (F.D.) and Neuroradiology (L.D.), Fondazione IRCCS Istituto Neurologico C. Besta, Milan, Italy; Department of Neurology (V.C.M.C., F.C.), University of Campinas, Brazil; The Florey Institute of Neuroscience and Mental Health and The University of Melbourne (M.S., G.J.), Victoria, Australia; Department of Pediatrics (D.V.S.), British Columbia Children's Hospital, Vancouver, Canada; Aix Marseille University (F.B.), INSERM UMR 1106, Institut de Neurosciences des Systèmes; Aix Marseille University (M.G.), CNRS, CRMBM UMR 7339, Marseille, France; Freiburg Epilepsy Center (A.S.-B., H.U.), Universitätsklinikum Freiburg, Germany; Department of Neurology (K.H.C.), Yonsei University College of Medicine, Seoul, Korea; and Department of Neurology (R.E.H.), Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, MO
| | - Carmen Barba
- From the Neuroimaging of Epilepsy Laboratory (R.S.G., H.-M.L., B.C., S.-J.H., N.B., A.B.), Montreal Neurological Institute, McGill University, Montreal, Quebec, Canada; Pediatric Neurology Unit and Laboratories (C.B., M.L., R.G.), Children's Hospital A. Meyer-University of Florence, Italy; Epilepsy Unit (F.D.) and Neuroradiology (L.D.), Fondazione IRCCS Istituto Neurologico C. Besta, Milan, Italy; Department of Neurology (V.C.M.C., F.C.), University of Campinas, Brazil; The Florey Institute of Neuroscience and Mental Health and The University of Melbourne (M.S., G.J.), Victoria, Australia; Department of Pediatrics (D.V.S.), British Columbia Children's Hospital, Vancouver, Canada; Aix Marseille University (F.B.), INSERM UMR 1106, Institut de Neurosciences des Systèmes; Aix Marseille University (M.G.), CNRS, CRMBM UMR 7339, Marseille, France; Freiburg Epilepsy Center (A.S.-B., H.U.), Universitätsklinikum Freiburg, Germany; Department of Neurology (K.H.C.), Yonsei University College of Medicine, Seoul, Korea; and Department of Neurology (R.E.H.), Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, MO
| | - Francesco Deleo
- From the Neuroimaging of Epilepsy Laboratory (R.S.G., H.-M.L., B.C., S.-J.H., N.B., A.B.), Montreal Neurological Institute, McGill University, Montreal, Quebec, Canada; Pediatric Neurology Unit and Laboratories (C.B., M.L., R.G.), Children's Hospital A. Meyer-University of Florence, Italy; Epilepsy Unit (F.D.) and Neuroradiology (L.D.), Fondazione IRCCS Istituto Neurologico C. Besta, Milan, Italy; Department of Neurology (V.C.M.C., F.C.), University of Campinas, Brazil; The Florey Institute of Neuroscience and Mental Health and The University of Melbourne (M.S., G.J.), Victoria, Australia; Department of Pediatrics (D.V.S.), British Columbia Children's Hospital, Vancouver, Canada; Aix Marseille University (F.B.), INSERM UMR 1106, Institut de Neurosciences des Systèmes; Aix Marseille University (M.G.), CNRS, CRMBM UMR 7339, Marseille, France; Freiburg Epilepsy Center (A.S.-B., H.U.), Universitätsklinikum Freiburg, Germany; Department of Neurology (K.H.C.), Yonsei University College of Medicine, Seoul, Korea; and Department of Neurology (R.E.H.), Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, MO
| | - Ludovico D'Incerti
- From the Neuroimaging of Epilepsy Laboratory (R.S.G., H.-M.L., B.C., S.-J.H., N.B., A.B.), Montreal Neurological Institute, McGill University, Montreal, Quebec, Canada; Pediatric Neurology Unit and Laboratories (C.B., M.L., R.G.), Children's Hospital A. Meyer-University of Florence, Italy; Epilepsy Unit (F.D.) and Neuroradiology (L.D.), Fondazione IRCCS Istituto Neurologico C. Besta, Milan, Italy; Department of Neurology (V.C.M.C., F.C.), University of Campinas, Brazil; The Florey Institute of Neuroscience and Mental Health and The University of Melbourne (M.S., G.J.), Victoria, Australia; Department of Pediatrics (D.V.S.), British Columbia Children's Hospital, Vancouver, Canada; Aix Marseille University (F.B.), INSERM UMR 1106, Institut de Neurosciences des Systèmes; Aix Marseille University (M.G.), CNRS, CRMBM UMR 7339, Marseille, France; Freiburg Epilepsy Center (A.S.-B., H.U.), Universitätsklinikum Freiburg, Germany; Department of Neurology (K.H.C.), Yonsei University College of Medicine, Seoul, Korea; and Department of Neurology (R.E.H.), Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, MO
| | - Vanessa Cristina Mendes Coelho
- From the Neuroimaging of Epilepsy Laboratory (R.S.G., H.-M.L., B.C., S.-J.H., N.B., A.B.), Montreal Neurological Institute, McGill University, Montreal, Quebec, Canada; Pediatric Neurology Unit and Laboratories (C.B., M.L., R.G.), Children's Hospital A. Meyer-University of Florence, Italy; Epilepsy Unit (F.D.) and Neuroradiology (L.D.), Fondazione IRCCS Istituto Neurologico C. Besta, Milan, Italy; Department of Neurology (V.C.M.C., F.C.), University of Campinas, Brazil; The Florey Institute of Neuroscience and Mental Health and The University of Melbourne (M.S., G.J.), Victoria, Australia; Department of Pediatrics (D.V.S.), British Columbia Children's Hospital, Vancouver, Canada; Aix Marseille University (F.B.), INSERM UMR 1106, Institut de Neurosciences des Systèmes; Aix Marseille University (M.G.), CNRS, CRMBM UMR 7339, Marseille, France; Freiburg Epilepsy Center (A.S.-B., H.U.), Universitätsklinikum Freiburg, Germany; Department of Neurology (K.H.C.), Yonsei University College of Medicine, Seoul, Korea; and Department of Neurology (R.E.H.), Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, MO
| | - Matteo Lenge
- From the Neuroimaging of Epilepsy Laboratory (R.S.G., H.-M.L., B.C., S.-J.H., N.B., A.B.), Montreal Neurological Institute, McGill University, Montreal, Quebec, Canada; Pediatric Neurology Unit and Laboratories (C.B., M.L., R.G.), Children's Hospital A. Meyer-University of Florence, Italy; Epilepsy Unit (F.D.) and Neuroradiology (L.D.), Fondazione IRCCS Istituto Neurologico C. Besta, Milan, Italy; Department of Neurology (V.C.M.C., F.C.), University of Campinas, Brazil; The Florey Institute of Neuroscience and Mental Health and The University of Melbourne (M.S., G.J.), Victoria, Australia; Department of Pediatrics (D.V.S.), British Columbia Children's Hospital, Vancouver, Canada; Aix Marseille University (F.B.), INSERM UMR 1106, Institut de Neurosciences des Systèmes; Aix Marseille University (M.G.), CNRS, CRMBM UMR 7339, Marseille, France; Freiburg Epilepsy Center (A.S.-B., H.U.), Universitätsklinikum Freiburg, Germany; Department of Neurology (K.H.C.), Yonsei University College of Medicine, Seoul, Korea; and Department of Neurology (R.E.H.), Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, MO
| | - Mira Semmelroch
- From the Neuroimaging of Epilepsy Laboratory (R.S.G., H.-M.L., B.C., S.-J.H., N.B., A.B.), Montreal Neurological Institute, McGill University, Montreal, Quebec, Canada; Pediatric Neurology Unit and Laboratories (C.B., M.L., R.G.), Children's Hospital A. Meyer-University of Florence, Italy; Epilepsy Unit (F.D.) and Neuroradiology (L.D.), Fondazione IRCCS Istituto Neurologico C. Besta, Milan, Italy; Department of Neurology (V.C.M.C., F.C.), University of Campinas, Brazil; The Florey Institute of Neuroscience and Mental Health and The University of Melbourne (M.S., G.J.), Victoria, Australia; Department of Pediatrics (D.V.S.), British Columbia Children's Hospital, Vancouver, Canada; Aix Marseille University (F.B.), INSERM UMR 1106, Institut de Neurosciences des Systèmes; Aix Marseille University (M.G.), CNRS, CRMBM UMR 7339, Marseille, France; Freiburg Epilepsy Center (A.S.-B., H.U.), Universitätsklinikum Freiburg, Germany; Department of Neurology (K.H.C.), Yonsei University College of Medicine, Seoul, Korea; and Department of Neurology (R.E.H.), Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, MO
| | - Dewi Victoria Schrader
- From the Neuroimaging of Epilepsy Laboratory (R.S.G., H.-M.L., B.C., S.-J.H., N.B., A.B.), Montreal Neurological Institute, McGill University, Montreal, Quebec, Canada; Pediatric Neurology Unit and Laboratories (C.B., M.L., R.G.), Children's Hospital A. Meyer-University of Florence, Italy; Epilepsy Unit (F.D.) and Neuroradiology (L.D.), Fondazione IRCCS Istituto Neurologico C. Besta, Milan, Italy; Department of Neurology (V.C.M.C., F.C.), University of Campinas, Brazil; The Florey Institute of Neuroscience and Mental Health and The University of Melbourne (M.S., G.J.), Victoria, Australia; Department of Pediatrics (D.V.S.), British Columbia Children's Hospital, Vancouver, Canada; Aix Marseille University (F.B.), INSERM UMR 1106, Institut de Neurosciences des Systèmes; Aix Marseille University (M.G.), CNRS, CRMBM UMR 7339, Marseille, France; Freiburg Epilepsy Center (A.S.-B., H.U.), Universitätsklinikum Freiburg, Germany; Department of Neurology (K.H.C.), Yonsei University College of Medicine, Seoul, Korea; and Department of Neurology (R.E.H.), Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, MO
| | - Fabrice Bartolomei
- From the Neuroimaging of Epilepsy Laboratory (R.S.G., H.-M.L., B.C., S.-J.H., N.B., A.B.), Montreal Neurological Institute, McGill University, Montreal, Quebec, Canada; Pediatric Neurology Unit and Laboratories (C.B., M.L., R.G.), Children's Hospital A. Meyer-University of Florence, Italy; Epilepsy Unit (F.D.) and Neuroradiology (L.D.), Fondazione IRCCS Istituto Neurologico C. Besta, Milan, Italy; Department of Neurology (V.C.M.C., F.C.), University of Campinas, Brazil; The Florey Institute of Neuroscience and Mental Health and The University of Melbourne (M.S., G.J.), Victoria, Australia; Department of Pediatrics (D.V.S.), British Columbia Children's Hospital, Vancouver, Canada; Aix Marseille University (F.B.), INSERM UMR 1106, Institut de Neurosciences des Systèmes; Aix Marseille University (M.G.), CNRS, CRMBM UMR 7339, Marseille, France; Freiburg Epilepsy Center (A.S.-B., H.U.), Universitätsklinikum Freiburg, Germany; Department of Neurology (K.H.C.), Yonsei University College of Medicine, Seoul, Korea; and Department of Neurology (R.E.H.), Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, MO
| | - Maxime Guye
- From the Neuroimaging of Epilepsy Laboratory (R.S.G., H.-M.L., B.C., S.-J.H., N.B., A.B.), Montreal Neurological Institute, McGill University, Montreal, Quebec, Canada; Pediatric Neurology Unit and Laboratories (C.B., M.L., R.G.), Children's Hospital A. Meyer-University of Florence, Italy; Epilepsy Unit (F.D.) and Neuroradiology (L.D.), Fondazione IRCCS Istituto Neurologico C. Besta, Milan, Italy; Department of Neurology (V.C.M.C., F.C.), University of Campinas, Brazil; The Florey Institute of Neuroscience and Mental Health and The University of Melbourne (M.S., G.J.), Victoria, Australia; Department of Pediatrics (D.V.S.), British Columbia Children's Hospital, Vancouver, Canada; Aix Marseille University (F.B.), INSERM UMR 1106, Institut de Neurosciences des Systèmes; Aix Marseille University (M.G.), CNRS, CRMBM UMR 7339, Marseille, France; Freiburg Epilepsy Center (A.S.-B., H.U.), Universitätsklinikum Freiburg, Germany; Department of Neurology (K.H.C.), Yonsei University College of Medicine, Seoul, Korea; and Department of Neurology (R.E.H.), Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, MO
| | - Andreas Schulze-Bonhage
- From the Neuroimaging of Epilepsy Laboratory (R.S.G., H.-M.L., B.C., S.-J.H., N.B., A.B.), Montreal Neurological Institute, McGill University, Montreal, Quebec, Canada; Pediatric Neurology Unit and Laboratories (C.B., M.L., R.G.), Children's Hospital A. Meyer-University of Florence, Italy; Epilepsy Unit (F.D.) and Neuroradiology (L.D.), Fondazione IRCCS Istituto Neurologico C. Besta, Milan, Italy; Department of Neurology (V.C.M.C., F.C.), University of Campinas, Brazil; The Florey Institute of Neuroscience and Mental Health and The University of Melbourne (M.S., G.J.), Victoria, Australia; Department of Pediatrics (D.V.S.), British Columbia Children's Hospital, Vancouver, Canada; Aix Marseille University (F.B.), INSERM UMR 1106, Institut de Neurosciences des Systèmes; Aix Marseille University (M.G.), CNRS, CRMBM UMR 7339, Marseille, France; Freiburg Epilepsy Center (A.S.-B., H.U.), Universitätsklinikum Freiburg, Germany; Department of Neurology (K.H.C.), Yonsei University College of Medicine, Seoul, Korea; and Department of Neurology (R.E.H.), Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, MO
| | - Horst Urbach
- From the Neuroimaging of Epilepsy Laboratory (R.S.G., H.-M.L., B.C., S.-J.H., N.B., A.B.), Montreal Neurological Institute, McGill University, Montreal, Quebec, Canada; Pediatric Neurology Unit and Laboratories (C.B., M.L., R.G.), Children's Hospital A. Meyer-University of Florence, Italy; Epilepsy Unit (F.D.) and Neuroradiology (L.D.), Fondazione IRCCS Istituto Neurologico C. Besta, Milan, Italy; Department of Neurology (V.C.M.C., F.C.), University of Campinas, Brazil; The Florey Institute of Neuroscience and Mental Health and The University of Melbourne (M.S., G.J.), Victoria, Australia; Department of Pediatrics (D.V.S.), British Columbia Children's Hospital, Vancouver, Canada; Aix Marseille University (F.B.), INSERM UMR 1106, Institut de Neurosciences des Systèmes; Aix Marseille University (M.G.), CNRS, CRMBM UMR 7339, Marseille, France; Freiburg Epilepsy Center (A.S.-B., H.U.), Universitätsklinikum Freiburg, Germany; Department of Neurology (K.H.C.), Yonsei University College of Medicine, Seoul, Korea; and Department of Neurology (R.E.H.), Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, MO
| | - Kyoo Ho Cho
- From the Neuroimaging of Epilepsy Laboratory (R.S.G., H.-M.L., B.C., S.-J.H., N.B., A.B.), Montreal Neurological Institute, McGill University, Montreal, Quebec, Canada; Pediatric Neurology Unit and Laboratories (C.B., M.L., R.G.), Children's Hospital A. Meyer-University of Florence, Italy; Epilepsy Unit (F.D.) and Neuroradiology (L.D.), Fondazione IRCCS Istituto Neurologico C. Besta, Milan, Italy; Department of Neurology (V.C.M.C., F.C.), University of Campinas, Brazil; The Florey Institute of Neuroscience and Mental Health and The University of Melbourne (M.S., G.J.), Victoria, Australia; Department of Pediatrics (D.V.S.), British Columbia Children's Hospital, Vancouver, Canada; Aix Marseille University (F.B.), INSERM UMR 1106, Institut de Neurosciences des Systèmes; Aix Marseille University (M.G.), CNRS, CRMBM UMR 7339, Marseille, France; Freiburg Epilepsy Center (A.S.-B., H.U.), Universitätsklinikum Freiburg, Germany; Department of Neurology (K.H.C.), Yonsei University College of Medicine, Seoul, Korea; and Department of Neurology (R.E.H.), Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, MO
| | - Fernando Cendes
- From the Neuroimaging of Epilepsy Laboratory (R.S.G., H.-M.L., B.C., S.-J.H., N.B., A.B.), Montreal Neurological Institute, McGill University, Montreal, Quebec, Canada; Pediatric Neurology Unit and Laboratories (C.B., M.L., R.G.), Children's Hospital A. Meyer-University of Florence, Italy; Epilepsy Unit (F.D.) and Neuroradiology (L.D.), Fondazione IRCCS Istituto Neurologico C. Besta, Milan, Italy; Department of Neurology (V.C.M.C., F.C.), University of Campinas, Brazil; The Florey Institute of Neuroscience and Mental Health and The University of Melbourne (M.S., G.J.), Victoria, Australia; Department of Pediatrics (D.V.S.), British Columbia Children's Hospital, Vancouver, Canada; Aix Marseille University (F.B.), INSERM UMR 1106, Institut de Neurosciences des Systèmes; Aix Marseille University (M.G.), CNRS, CRMBM UMR 7339, Marseille, France; Freiburg Epilepsy Center (A.S.-B., H.U.), Universitätsklinikum Freiburg, Germany; Department of Neurology (K.H.C.), Yonsei University College of Medicine, Seoul, Korea; and Department of Neurology (R.E.H.), Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, MO
| | - Renzo Guerrini
- From the Neuroimaging of Epilepsy Laboratory (R.S.G., H.-M.L., B.C., S.-J.H., N.B., A.B.), Montreal Neurological Institute, McGill University, Montreal, Quebec, Canada; Pediatric Neurology Unit and Laboratories (C.B., M.L., R.G.), Children's Hospital A. Meyer-University of Florence, Italy; Epilepsy Unit (F.D.) and Neuroradiology (L.D.), Fondazione IRCCS Istituto Neurologico C. Besta, Milan, Italy; Department of Neurology (V.C.M.C., F.C.), University of Campinas, Brazil; The Florey Institute of Neuroscience and Mental Health and The University of Melbourne (M.S., G.J.), Victoria, Australia; Department of Pediatrics (D.V.S.), British Columbia Children's Hospital, Vancouver, Canada; Aix Marseille University (F.B.), INSERM UMR 1106, Institut de Neurosciences des Systèmes; Aix Marseille University (M.G.), CNRS, CRMBM UMR 7339, Marseille, France; Freiburg Epilepsy Center (A.S.-B., H.U.), Universitätsklinikum Freiburg, Germany; Department of Neurology (K.H.C.), Yonsei University College of Medicine, Seoul, Korea; and Department of Neurology (R.E.H.), Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, MO
| | - Graeme Jackson
- From the Neuroimaging of Epilepsy Laboratory (R.S.G., H.-M.L., B.C., S.-J.H., N.B., A.B.), Montreal Neurological Institute, McGill University, Montreal, Quebec, Canada; Pediatric Neurology Unit and Laboratories (C.B., M.L., R.G.), Children's Hospital A. Meyer-University of Florence, Italy; Epilepsy Unit (F.D.) and Neuroradiology (L.D.), Fondazione IRCCS Istituto Neurologico C. Besta, Milan, Italy; Department of Neurology (V.C.M.C., F.C.), University of Campinas, Brazil; The Florey Institute of Neuroscience and Mental Health and The University of Melbourne (M.S., G.J.), Victoria, Australia; Department of Pediatrics (D.V.S.), British Columbia Children's Hospital, Vancouver, Canada; Aix Marseille University (F.B.), INSERM UMR 1106, Institut de Neurosciences des Systèmes; Aix Marseille University (M.G.), CNRS, CRMBM UMR 7339, Marseille, France; Freiburg Epilepsy Center (A.S.-B., H.U.), Universitätsklinikum Freiburg, Germany; Department of Neurology (K.H.C.), Yonsei University College of Medicine, Seoul, Korea; and Department of Neurology (R.E.H.), Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, MO
| | - R Edward Hogan
- From the Neuroimaging of Epilepsy Laboratory (R.S.G., H.-M.L., B.C., S.-J.H., N.B., A.B.), Montreal Neurological Institute, McGill University, Montreal, Quebec, Canada; Pediatric Neurology Unit and Laboratories (C.B., M.L., R.G.), Children's Hospital A. Meyer-University of Florence, Italy; Epilepsy Unit (F.D.) and Neuroradiology (L.D.), Fondazione IRCCS Istituto Neurologico C. Besta, Milan, Italy; Department of Neurology (V.C.M.C., F.C.), University of Campinas, Brazil; The Florey Institute of Neuroscience and Mental Health and The University of Melbourne (M.S., G.J.), Victoria, Australia; Department of Pediatrics (D.V.S.), British Columbia Children's Hospital, Vancouver, Canada; Aix Marseille University (F.B.), INSERM UMR 1106, Institut de Neurosciences des Systèmes; Aix Marseille University (M.G.), CNRS, CRMBM UMR 7339, Marseille, France; Freiburg Epilepsy Center (A.S.-B., H.U.), Universitätsklinikum Freiburg, Germany; Department of Neurology (K.H.C.), Yonsei University College of Medicine, Seoul, Korea; and Department of Neurology (R.E.H.), Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, MO
| | - Neda Bernasconi
- From the Neuroimaging of Epilepsy Laboratory (R.S.G., H.-M.L., B.C., S.-J.H., N.B., A.B.), Montreal Neurological Institute, McGill University, Montreal, Quebec, Canada; Pediatric Neurology Unit and Laboratories (C.B., M.L., R.G.), Children's Hospital A. Meyer-University of Florence, Italy; Epilepsy Unit (F.D.) and Neuroradiology (L.D.), Fondazione IRCCS Istituto Neurologico C. Besta, Milan, Italy; Department of Neurology (V.C.M.C., F.C.), University of Campinas, Brazil; The Florey Institute of Neuroscience and Mental Health and The University of Melbourne (M.S., G.J.), Victoria, Australia; Department of Pediatrics (D.V.S.), British Columbia Children's Hospital, Vancouver, Canada; Aix Marseille University (F.B.), INSERM UMR 1106, Institut de Neurosciences des Systèmes; Aix Marseille University (M.G.), CNRS, CRMBM UMR 7339, Marseille, France; Freiburg Epilepsy Center (A.S.-B., H.U.), Universitätsklinikum Freiburg, Germany; Department of Neurology (K.H.C.), Yonsei University College of Medicine, Seoul, Korea; and Department of Neurology (R.E.H.), Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, MO
| | - Andrea Bernasconi
- From the Neuroimaging of Epilepsy Laboratory (R.S.G., H.-M.L., B.C., S.-J.H., N.B., A.B.), Montreal Neurological Institute, McGill University, Montreal, Quebec, Canada; Pediatric Neurology Unit and Laboratories (C.B., M.L., R.G.), Children's Hospital A. Meyer-University of Florence, Italy; Epilepsy Unit (F.D.) and Neuroradiology (L.D.), Fondazione IRCCS Istituto Neurologico C. Besta, Milan, Italy; Department of Neurology (V.C.M.C., F.C.), University of Campinas, Brazil; The Florey Institute of Neuroscience and Mental Health and The University of Melbourne (M.S., G.J.), Victoria, Australia; Department of Pediatrics (D.V.S.), British Columbia Children's Hospital, Vancouver, Canada; Aix Marseille University (F.B.), INSERM UMR 1106, Institut de Neurosciences des Systèmes; Aix Marseille University (M.G.), CNRS, CRMBM UMR 7339, Marseille, France; Freiburg Epilepsy Center (A.S.-B., H.U.), Universitätsklinikum Freiburg, Germany; Department of Neurology (K.H.C.), Yonsei University College of Medicine, Seoul, Korea; and Department of Neurology (R.E.H.), Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, MO.
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